ThemostseriousofallthesestrugglesintheborderStates，however，wasthatwhichtookplaceinMissouri，where，owingtothestrengthofbothfactionsandtheirpromptnessinorganizing，realwarbeganimmediately。AUnionarmyledbyGeneralNathanielLyonattackedtheConfederateswithgreatspiritatWilson'sCreekbutwasbeatenbackinafierceandbloodybattleinwhichtheirleaderwaskilled。
EvenbeforetheseeventsFremonthadbeenappointedtochiefcommandinMissouri，andhereheatoncebeganastrangecourseofdawdlingandposing。Hismilitarycareermustbelefttothemilitaryhistorians——whohavenotrankedhimamongthegreatgenerals。Civilhistoryaccuseshim，ifnotofusinghisnewpositiontomakeillegitimateprofits，atleastofshowingrecklessfavoritismtowardthosewhodid。ItishardlyunfairtosaythatLincoln，inbearingwithFremontaslongashedid，showedatouchofamiableweakness；andyet，itmustbeacknowledgedthatthePresidentknewthatthecountrywasinadangerousmood，thatFremontwasimmenselypopular，andthatanychangemightbemisunderstood。ThoughLincolnhatedtoappearanythingbutafriendtoafallenpoliticalrival，hewasatlastforcedtoact。FraudsingovernmentcontractsatSt。Louiswereapublicscandal，andthereputationofthegovernmenthadtobesavedbytheremovalofFremontinNovember，1861。Asanimmediateconsequenceofthisactiontheoverstrainednervesofgreatnumbersofpeoplesnapped。
Fremont'spersonalfollowers，aswellastheabolitionistswhomhehadactivelysupportedwhileincommandinMissouri，andallthatvastcrowdofexcitablepeoplewhoareunabletostandsilentunderstrain，clamoredagainstLincolninthewildestandmostabsurdvein。Hewasaccusedofbeinga"dictator"；hewascalledan"imbecile"；heoughttobeimpeached，andanewparty，withFremontasitsleader，shouldbeformedtoprosecutethewar。ButthroughallthisclamorLincolnkepthispeaceandlettheheathenrage。
Towardtheendoftheyear，popularrageturnedsuddenlyonCameron，who，asSecretaryofWar，hadtakenanactivebutproperpartintheinvestigationofFremont'sconduct。Itwasoneofthosetremulousmomentswhenpeoplearedesperatelyeagertohavesomethingdoneandarereadytobelieveanything。ThoughMcClellan，nowinchiefcommandoftheUnionforces，hadanimmensearmywhichwasfastgettingproperlyequipped，monthfadedintomonthwithouthisadvancingagainsttheenemy。Againthepopularcrywasraised，"OntoRichmond!"ItwasatthismomentofmilitaryinactivityandpopularrestlessnessthatchargesofpeculationwerebroughtforwardagainstCameron。
Thesechargesbothwereandwerenotwellfounded。Himselfarichman，itisnotlikelythatCameronprofitedpersonallybygovernmentcontracts，eventhoughtheacrimoniousThadStevenssaidofhisappointmentasSecretarythatitwouldadd"anothermilliontohisfortune。"Thereseemslittledoubt，however，thatCameronshoweredlucrativecontractsuponhispoliticalretainers。AndnobosshaseverheldtheStateofPennsylvaniainafirmergrip。HistenureoftheSecretaryshipofWarwasonemeanstothatend。
TherestlessalarmofthecountryatlargeexpresseditselfinsuchextravagantwordsasthesewhichSenatorGrimeswrotetoSenatorFessenden:"Wearegoingtodestructionasfastasimbecility，corruption，andthewheelsoftimecancarryus。"Sodissatisfied，indeed，wasCongresswiththeconductofthewarthatitappointedacommitteeofinvestigation。DuringDecember，1861，andJanuary，1862，thecommitteewassummoninggeneralsbeforeit，questioningthem，listeningtoallmannerofviews，accomplishingnothing，butrenderingmoreandmorefeverishanatmospherealreadysurchargedwithanxiety。OnthefloorsofCongressdebateragedastowhowasresponsibleforthemilitaryinaction——forthecountry's"unpreparedness，"weshouldsaytoday——andastowhetherCameronwashonest。EventuallytheHouseinavoteofcensurecondemnedtheSecretaryofWar。
Longbeforethishappened，however，Lincolnhadinterferedandverycharacteristicallyremovedthecauseoftrouble，whiletakinguponhimselftheresponsibilityforthesituation，bynominatingCameronministertoRussia，andbypraisinghimforhis"ability，patriotism，andfidelitytothepublictrust。"
ThoughthePresidenthadnotsufficientholdupontheHousetopreventthevoteofcensure，hisinfluencewasstrongintheSenate，andthenewappointmentofCameronwaspromptlyconfirmed。
TherewasinWashingtonatthistimethatgrimmanwhohadservedbrieflyasAttorney-GeneralintheCabinetofBuchanan——EdwinM。
Stanton。HedespisedthePresidentandexpressedhisopinioninsuchwordsas"thepainfulimbecilityofLincoln。"Thetwohadonepersonalrecollectionincommon:longbefore，inasinglecase，atCincinnati，theawkwardLincolnhadbeencalledinasassociatecounseltoservetheconvenienceofStanton，whowasalreadyalawyerofnationalrepute。Tohisless-knownassociateStantonshowedabrutalrudenessthatwascharacteristic。Itwouldhavebeenhardin1861tofindanothermanmoredifficulttogetonwith。Headstrong，irascible，rude，hehadasharptonguewhichhedelightedinusing；buthewasknowntobeinflexiblyhonest，andwassupposedtohavegreatexecutiveability。HewasalsoafriendofMcClellan，andifanybodycouldrousethattortoise-likegeneral，Stantonmightbesupposedtobetheman。HehadbeenavaliantDemocrat，andDemocraticsupportwasneededbythegovernment。LincolnastonishedhimwithhisappointmentasSecretaryofWarinJanuary，1862。StantonjustifiedthePresident'schoice，andunderhisstrongifruthlesshandtheWarDepartmentbecamesternlyefficient。ThewholestoryofStanton'srelationstohischiefispacked，liketheArabiangeniusinthefisherman'svase，intooneremarkofLincoln's。"DidStantontellyouIwasafool?"saidLincolnononeoccasion，intheodd，smilingwayhehad。"ThenIexpectI
mustbeone，forheisalmostalwaysright，andgenerallysayswhathemeans。"
Inspiteofhisefficiencyandpersonalforce，StantonwasunabletomovehisfriendMcClellan，withwhomhesoonquarreled。EachnowsoughtinhisownwaytocontrolthePresident，thoughneitherunderstoodLincoln'scharacter。FromMcClellan，Lincolnenduredmuchcondescensionofakindperilouslynearimpertinence。ToStanton，Lincoln'spatienceseemedamystery；
toMcClellan——avainman，fullofhimself——thePresidentwhowouldmerelysmileatthisbullyraggingonthepartofoneofhissubordinatesseemedindeedaspiritlesscreature。MeanwhileLincoln，apparentlydevoidofsensibility，wasseekingduringtheanxiousmonthsof1862，inonecase，merelyhowtokeephispetulantSecretaryinharness；intheother，howtoquickenhistortoiseofageneral。
Stantonmadeatleastonegreatblunder。Thoughhehadbeenthreemonthsinoffice，andMcClellanwasstillinactive，therewerealreadyseveralsuccessestothecreditoftheUnionarms。
TheMonitorandVirginiaMerrimachadfoughttheirfamousduel，andGranthadtakenFortDonelson。ThelattersuccessbrokethroughthelonggloomoftheNorthandcaused，asHolmeswrote，"adeliriumofexcitement。"Stantonrashlyconcludedthathenowhadthegameinhishands，andthatasufficientnumberofmenhadvolunteered。ThiscivilianSecretaryofWar，whohadstillmuchtolearnofmilitarymatters，issuedanorderputtingastoptorecruiting。ShortlyafterwardsgreatdisasterbefelltheUnionarms。McClellan，beforeRichmond，wascheckedinMay。
EarlyinJuly，hispeninsulacampaignendeddisastrouslyintheterrible"SevenDays'Battle。"
AnticipatingMcClellan'sfailure，Lincolnhadalreadydeterminedtocallformoretroops。OnJuly1st，hecalledupontheGovernorsoftheStatestoprovidehimwith300，000mentoservethreeyears。Butthevolunteeringenthusiasm——explainitasyouwill——hadsufferedacheck。Thepsychologicalmomenthadpassed。
SoslowwastheresponsetothecallofJuly1st，thatanotherappealwasmadeearlyinAugust，thistimefor300，000mentoserveonlyninemonths。Butthisalsofailedtorousethecountry。Areinforcementofonly87，000menwasraisedinresponsetothisemergencycall。TheablelawyerintheWarDepartmenthadstillmuchtolearnaboutmenandnations。
Afterthischeck，terribleincidentsofwarcamethickandfast——thedefeatatSecondManassas，inlateAugust；thehorribledrawnbattleofAntietam-Sharpsburg，inSeptember；
Fredericksburg，thatcarnivalofslaughter，inDecember；thedearlyboughtvictoryofMurfreesboro，whichopened1863。Therewereotherdisastrouseventsatleastasserious。Foreignaffairs*wereattheirdarkest。WithinthepoliticalcoalitionsupportingLincoln，contentionwastheorderoftheday。TherewasgeneraldistrustofthePresident。Mostalarmingofall，thatebbofthewaveofenthusiasmwhichbeganinmidsummer，1861，reachedintheautumnof1862perhapsitslowestpoint。
ThemeasureofthereactionagainstLincolnwasgivenintheCongressionalelection，inwhich，thoughtheGovernmentstillretainedaworkingmajority，theDemocratsgainedthirty-threeseats。
*SeeChapterIX。
Iftherecouldbesuchathingasatruepsychologicalhistoryofthewar，oneofitsmostinterestingpageswoulddeterminejusthowfarStantonwasresponsible，throughhisstrangeblunderoverrecruiting，forthechecktoenthusiasmamongtheNorthernpeople。Withthisspeculationthereisconnectedastillunsolvedprobleminstatistics。Towhatextentdidtheanti-Lincolnvote，in1862，standforsympathywiththeSouth，andhowfarwasitthehopelesssurrenderofUnionistswhofeltthattheircausewaslost?Thoughcertaintyonthispointisapparentlyimpossible，therecanbenodoubtthatattheopeningof1863，theGovernmentfeltitmustapplypressuretotheflaggingspiritsofitssupporters。Inordertoreenforcethearmiesandtopushthewarthrough，therewasplainlybutonecoursetobefollowed——conscription。
ThegovernmentleadersinCongressbroughtinaConscriptionActearlyintheyear。Thehotdebatesuponthisissuedraggedthroughamonth'stime，andnowmakeinstructivereadingforthepresentgenerationthathaswatchedtheGreatWar*。TheActof1863wasnottheworkofsoldiers，butwasliterally"madeinCongress。"Stantongrimlymadethebestofit，thoughheunwaveringlycondemnedsomeofitsmostconspicuousprovisions。
Hisbusinesswastoretrievehisblunderofthepreviousyear，andhewassuccessful。Imperfectasitwas，theConscriptionAct，withlatersupplementarylegislation，enabledhimtoreplacethewastageoftheUnionarmiesandsteadilytoaugmentthem。Atthecloseofthewar，theUnionhadonfootamillionmenwithanenrolledreserveoftwomillionsandahalf，subjecttocall。
*ThebattleoverconscriptioninEnglandwasanticipatedinAmericasixty-fouryearsago。BagotsaysthattheaverageBritishpointofviewmaybeexpressedthus:"WhatIamsayin'isthishereasIwasasayin'yesterday。"TheAnglo-Saxonmindismuchthesametheworldover。InAmerica，today，theenemiesofeffectivemilitaryorganizationwoulddowelltosearchtheargumentsoftheirskillfulpredecessorsin1888，whofoughttothelastditchforamilitarysystemthatwouldmakeinescapable"peaceatanyprice。"Forthemodernbelieversinconscription，oneoftheirbestbitsofpoliticalthunderisstillthedefenseofitbyLincoln。
TheActprovidedforacompletemilitarycensus，forwhichpurposethecountrywasdividedintoenrollmentdistricts。Everyable-bodiedmalecitizen，orintendingcitizen，betweentheagesoftwentyandforty-five，unlessexemptedforcertainspecifiedreasons，wastobeenrolledasamemberofthenationalforces；
theseforcesweretobecalledtothecolors——"drafted，"thetermwas——astheGovernmentfoundneedofthem；eachsuccessivedraftwastobeapportionedamongthedistrictsintheratioofthemilitarypopulation，andthenumberrequiredwastobedrawnbylot；ifthedistrictraiseditsquotavoluntarily，nodraftwouldbemade；anydraftedmancouldofferasubstituteorcouldpurchasehisdischargeforthreehundreddollars。ThelatterprovisionespeciallywascondemnedbyStanton。Itwasseizeduponbydemagoguesasadeviceforgivingrichmenanadvantageoverpoormen。
Americanpoliticsduringthewarformawildlyconfusedstory，sointricatethatitcannotbemadeclearinabriefstatement。Butthiscentralfactmaybeinsistedupon:intheNorth，thereweretwopoliticalgroupsthatwerethepolesaroundwhichvariousothergroupsrevolvedandcombined，onlytoflyasunderandrecombine，withallthemaddeninginconstancyofakaleidoscope。
Thetwoirreconcilableelementswerethe"warparty"madeupofdeterminedmenresolvedtoseethingsthrough，andthe"copperheads"*whoforonereasonoranotherunitedinafaithfulstruggleforpeaceatanyprice。Aroundthecopperheadsgatheredthevariousandsingulargroupswhohelpedtomakeuptheeverfluctuating"peaceparty。"ItisanerrortoassumethatthispeacepartywasanimatedthroughoutbyfondnessfortheConfederacy。Thoughmanyofitsmembersweresoactuated，thecoreofthepartyseemstohavebeenthatstrangetypeofmanwhosustainedpoliticalevasionintheolddays，whothoughtthatsweetwordscanstopbullets，whoseprogrammein1863calledforacessationofhostilitiesandageneralconventionofalltheStates，andwhopromisedasthespeedyresultofadebauchoftalkacarnivalofbrighteyesglisteningwiththetearsofrevivedaffection。Withthesestrangepeoplein1863therecombinedanumberofdifferenttypes:thestillstranger，stilllesscreditablevisionary，ofwhommuchhereafter；theavowedfriendsoftheprincipleofstaterights；allthosewhodistrustedtheGovernmentbecauseofitsanti-slaverysympathies；
Quakersandotherswithmoralscruplesagainstwar；andfinally，sincerelegaliststowhomtheConscriptionActappearedunconstitutional。Inthespringof1863theissueofconscriptiondrewthelinefairlysharplybetweenthetwopoliticalcoalitions，thougheachcontinuedtofluctuate，moreorless，totheendofthewar。
*Thetermarose，ithasbeensaid，fromtheuseofthecoppercentwithitsheadofLibertyasapeacebutton。Butamoreplausibleexplanationassociatesthepeaceadvocateswiththedeadlycopperheadsnake。
Thepeacepartyof1863hasbeendenouncedhastilyratherthancarefullystudied。Itsprecisemachinationsarenotfullyknown，buttheuglyfactstandsforththataportionoftheforeignpopulationoftheNorthwasrousedin1863torebellion。Theoccasionwasthebeginningofthefirstdraftunderthenewlaw，inJuly，1863，andthesceneoftherebellionwastheCityofNewYork。TheopponentsofconscriptionhadalreadymadeinflammatoryattacksontheGovernment。ConspicuousamongthemwasHoratioSeymour，whohadbeenelectedGovernorofNewYorkinthatwaveofreactionintheautumnof1862。SeveralNewYorkpapersjoinedthecrusade。InCongress，theGovernmenthadalreadybeenthreatenedwithcivilwariftheactwasenforced。
Nevertheless，thepublicdrawingbylotbeganonthedaysannounced。InNewYorkthefirstdrawingtookplaceonSaturday，July12th，andthelistswerepublishedintheSundaypapers。Asmightbeexpected，manyofthemendrawnwereofforeignbirth，andalldaySunday，theforeignquarterofNewYorkwasacauldronboiling。
OnMonday，theresumptionofthedrawingwasthesignalforrevolt。Amobinvadedoneoftheconscriptionoffices，droveoffthemenincharge，andsetfiretothebuilding。Inashortwhile，thestreetswerefilledwithdensecrowdsofforeignbornworkmenshouting，"Downwiththerichmen，"andsinging，"We'llhangHoraceGreeleyonasourappletree。"Housesofprominentcitizenswereattackedandsetonfire，andseveraldraftingofficeswereburned。Manynegroeswhowereseizedwereeitherclubbedtodeathorhangedtolampposts。Evenanorphanasylumforcoloredchildrenwasburned。Theofficeofthe"Tribune"wasraided，gutted，andsetonfire。FinallyadispatchtoStanton，earlyinthenight，reportedthatthemobhadtakenpossessionofthecity。
Theeventsofthenextdaywerenolessshocking。Thecitywasalmoststrippedofsoldiers，asallavailablereserveshadalreadybeenhurriedsouthwhenLeewasadvancingtowardGettysburg。Butsuchmilitiaascouldbemustered，withasmallforceoffederaltroops，foughtthemobinthestreets。
Barricadeswerecarriedbystorm；bloodwasfreelyshed。Itwasnot，however，untilthefourthdaythattherebellionwasfinallyquelled，chieflybyNewYorkregiments，hurriednorthbyStanton——amongthemthefamousSeventh——whichsweptthestreetswithcannon。
TheaftermathoftheNewYorkriotswasacorrespondencebetweenLincolnandSeymour。ThelatterhaddemandedasuspensionofthedraftuntilthecourtscoulddecideontheconstitutionalityoftheConscriptionAct。Lincolnrefused。WithtenthousandtroopsnowassembledinNewYork，thedraftwasresumed，andtherewasnofurthertrouble。
TheresistancetotheGovernmentinNewYorkwasbutthemostterribleepisodeinaprotractedcontentionwhichinvolves，asAmericansarebeginningtosee，oneofthemostfundamentalandpermanentquestionsofLincoln'srule:howcantheexerciseofnecessarywarpowersbythePresidentbereconciledwiththeguaranteesoflibertyintheConstitution?ItisunfortunatethatLincolndidnotdrawupafullyroundedstatementofhisowntheoryregardingthisproblem，insteadofleavingittobeinferredfromdetachedobservationsandfromhisactions。
Apparently，hefelttherewasnothingtodobuttofollowtheRomanprecedentand，inacaseofemergency，franklypermittheuseofextraordinarypower。WemayattributetohimthatpointofviewexpressedbyadistinguishedDemocratofourownday:
"Democracyhastolearnhowtousethedictatorasanecessarywartool。"*WhetherLincolnsetagoodmodelfordemocracyinthisperilousbusinessisstilltobedetermined。Hisactionshavebeenfreelylabeledusurpation。Thefirstnotoriousinstanceoccurredin1861，duringthetroublesinMaryland，whenheauthorizedmilitaryarrestsofsuspectedpersons。Forthereleaseofoneofthese，acertainMerryman，ChiefJusticeTaneyissuedawritofhabeascorpus**。Lincolnauthorizedhismilitaryrepresentativestodisregardthewrit。In1862heissuedaproclamationsuspendingtheprivilegesofthewritofhabeascorpusincasesofpersonschargedwith"discouragingvolunteerenlistments，resistingmilitarydrafts，orguiltyofanydisloyalpractice……"Suchpersonsweretobetriedbymilitarycommissions。
*PresidentEdwinA。Alderman，oftheUniversityofVirginia。
**TheConstitutionpermitsthesuspensionoftheprivilegesofthewritofhabeascorpus"whenincasesofrebellionorinvasionthepublicsafetymayrequireit，"butfailstoprovideamethodofsuspension。TaneyheldthatthepowertosuspendlaywithCongress。Fiveyearsafterward，whenChasewasChiefJustice，theSupremeCourt，inexparteMilligan，tookthesameviewandfurtherdeclaredthatevenCongresscouldnotdepriveacitizenofhisrighttotrialbyjurysolongasthelocalcivilcourtsareinoperation。TheConfederateexperiencedifferedfromtheFederalinasmuchasCongresskeptcontrolofthepowertosuspendthewrit。Butbothgovernmentsmadeuseofsuchsuspensiontosetupmartiallawindistrictswherethelocalcourtswereopenbutwhere，fromonecauseoranother，theAdministrationhadnotconfidenceintheireffectiveness。UnderexparteMilligan，bothPresidentsandbothCongresseswereguiltyofusurpation。
Themerelaymanwaitsforthenextgreathouroftrialtolearnwhetherthisinterpretationwillstand。IntheMilligancasetheChiefJusticeandthreeothersdissented。
Therecanbelittledoubtthatthisproclamationcausedsomethinglikeapanicinmanyminds，filledthemwiththedreadofmilitarydespotism，andcontributedtothereactionagainstLincolnintheautumnof1862。Underthisproclamationmanyarrestsweremadeandmanyvictimsweresenttoprison。SoviolentwastheoppositionthatonMarch3，1863，Congresspassedanactwhichattemptedtobringthemilitaryandcivilcourtsintocooperation，thoughitdidnottakeawayfromthePresidentallthedictatorialpowerwhichhehadassumed。Theactseems；
however，tohavehadlittlegeneraleffect，anditwasdisregardedinthemostcelebratedofthecasesofmilitaryarrest，thatofClementL。Vallandigham。
ArepresentativefromOhioandoneofthemostvituperativeanti-LincolnmeninCongress，VallandighaminasensationalspeechappliedtotheexistingsituationChatham'swords，"Mylords，youcannotconquerAmerica。"Heprofessedtoseebeforehiminthefuturenothing"butuniversalpoliticalandsocialrevolution，anarchy，andbloodshed，comparedwithwhichtheReignofTerrorinFrancewasamercifulvisitation。"Toescapesuchafuture，hedemandedanarmistice，tobefollowedbyafriendlypeaceestablishedthroughforeignmediation。
ReturningtoOhioaftertheadjournmentofCongress，Vallandighamspoketoamass-meetinginawaythatwasconstruedasranktreasonbyGeneralBurnsidewhowasincommandatCincinnati。
Vallandighamwasarrested，triedbycourtmartial，andcondemnedtoimprisonment。Therewasanimmediatehueandcry，inconsequenceofwhichBurnside，whoreportedtheaffair，feltcalleduponalsotooffertoresign。Lincoln'sreplywascharacteristic:"WhenIshallwishtosupersedeyouIshallletyouknow。AlltheCabinetregrettedthenecessityforarresting，forinstance，Vallandigham，someperhapsdoubtingtherewasarealnecessityforit；butbeingdone，allwereforseeingyouthroughwithit。"Lincoln，however，commutedthesentencetobanishmentandhadVallandighamsentthroughthelinesintotheConfederacy。
ItseemsquiteplainthatthecondemnationofLincolnonthisissueofusurpationwasnotconfinedtothefriendsoftheConfederacy，norhasitbeenconfinedtohisenemiesinlaterdays。OneofLincoln'smostardentadmirers，thehistorianRhodes，condemnshiscourseunqualifiedly。"Therecanbenoquestion，"hewrites，"thatfromthelegalpointofviewthePresidentshouldhaverescindedthesentenceandreleasedVallandigham。"Lincoln，headds，"standsresponsibleforthecastingintoprisonofcitizensoftheUnitedStatesonordersasarbitraryasthelettres-de-cachetofLouisXIV。"SinceMr。
Rhodes，uncompromisingUnionist，canwriteashedoesuponthisissue，itisplainthattheoppositionpartycannotbedismissedasthroughandthroughdisunionist。
ThetrialofVallandighammadehimamartyrandbroughthimtheDemocraticnominationforGovernorofOhio*。Hisfollowerssoughttomaketheissueofthecampaigntheacceptanceorrejectionofmilitarydespotism。IndefenseofhiscourseLincolnwrotetwopubliclettersinwhichhegaveevidenceoftheskillwhichhehadacquiredasalawyerbeforeajurybythewayinwhichheplayedupontheemotionsofhisreaders。
*EdwardEverettHale'sfamousstory"TheManWithoutaCountry"，thoughitgotintoprinttoolatetoaffecttheelection，wasaimedatVallandigham。Thatquaintallegoryonthelackofpatriotismbecameatemporaryclassic。
"Longexperience[hewrote]hasshownthatarmiescannotbemaintainedunlessdesertionshallbepunishedbytheseverepenaltyofdeath。Thecaserequires，andthelawandtheConstitutionsanction，thispunishment。MustIshootasimple-mindedsoldierboywhodeserts，whileImustnottouchahairofawilyagitatorwhoinduceshimtodesert?Thisisnonethelessinjuriouswheneffectedbygettingafather，orbrother，orfriendintoapublicmeeting，andthereworkinguponhisfeelingstillheispersuadedtowritethesoldierboythatheisfightinginabadcauseforawickedadministrationandacontemptiblegovernment，tooweaktoarrestandpunishhimifheshalldesert。Ithinkthatinsuchacasetosilencetheagitatorandsavetheboyisnotonlyconstitutional，but，withal，agreatmercy。"
Hisrealargumentmaybesummedupinthesewordsofhis:
"Youask，insubstance，whetherIreallyclaimthatImayoverridealltheguaranteedrightsofindividuals，onthepleaofconservingthepublicsafety——whenImaychoosetosaythepublicsafetyrequiresit。Thisquestion，divestedofthephraseologycalculatedtorepresentmeasstrugglingforanarbitraryprerogative，iseithersimplyaquestionwhoshalldecide，oranaffirmationthatnobodyshalldecide，whatthepublicsafetydoesrequireincasesofrebellionorinvasion。
"TheConstitutioncontemplatesthequestionaslikelytooccurfordecision，butitdoesnotexpresslydeclarewhoistodecideit。Bynecessaryimplication，whenrebellionorinvasioncomes，thedecisionistobemade，fromtimetotime；andIthinktheman，whomforthetime，thepeoplehaveundertheConstitution，madethecommander-in-chiefoftheirarmyandnavy，isthemanwhoholdsthepowerandbearstheresponsibilityofmakingit。
Ifheusesthepowerjustly，thesamepeoplewillprobablyjustifyhim；ifheabusesit，heisintheirhandstobedealtwithbyallthemodestheyhavereservedtothemselvesintheConstitution。"
LincolnvirtuallyappealedtotheNorthernpeopletosecureefficiencybysettinghimmomentarilyaboveallcivilauthority。
Heaskedtheminsubstance，tointerprettheirConstitutionbyashowofhands。Nothoughtfulpersoncandoubttherisksofsuchamethod；yetinOhio，in1863，thegreatmajority——perhapseveryonewhobelievedinthewar——acceptedLincoln'sposition。
BetweentheirtraditionalsystemoflegaljuriesandthenewsystemofmilitarytribunalstheOhiovotersmadetheirchoicewithouthesitation。TheyrejectedVallandighamandsustainedtheLincolncandidatebyamajorityofoverahundredthousand。ThatsameyearinNewYorktheanti-LincolncandidateforSecretaryofStatewasdefeatedbytwenty-ninethousandvotes。
Thoughtheseelectionsin1863canhardlybecalledtheturning-pointinthehistoryoftheLincolnGovernment，yetitwasclearthatthetideofpopularitywhichhadebbedsofarawayfromLincolnintheautumnof1862wasagainintheflood。
Anotherphaseofhisstormycoursemaybethoughtofashavingended。AndinaccountingforthisturnofthetideitmustnotbeforgottenthatbetweenthenominationandthedefeatofaVallandighamthebloodyrebellioninNewYorkhadtakenplace，Gettysburghadbeenfought，andGranthadcapturedVicksburg。
Theautumnof1863formedabreathingspaceforthewarpartyoftheNorth。
CHAPTERIX。THECRUCIALMATTER
ItisthecustomofhistorianstomeasuretherelativestrengthofNorthandSouthchieflyintermsofpopulation。TheNorthnumbered23，000，000inhabitants；theSouth，about9，000，000，ofwhichtheslavepopulationamountedto3，500，000。Buttheseobviousstatisticsonlypartiallyindicatetherealsituation。
Notwhatonehas，butwhatoneiscapableofusingis，ofcourse，thetruemeasureofstrength。If，in1861，eithersidecouldhavestruckswiftlyandwithallitsforce，thestoryofthewarwouldhavebeendifferent。Thequestionofrelativestrengthwasinrealityaquestionofmunitions。Bothpowerswereglaringlyunprepared。Bothhadinstantneedofgreatsuppliesofarmsandammunition，andbothturnedtoEuropeanmanufacturersforaid。
ThoseAmericanswho，inalaterwar，wishedtomakeillegaltheneutraltradeinmunitionsforgotthattheinternationalrightofabelligerenttobuyarmsfromaneutralhadpreventedtheirowndestructionin1861。InthesupremeAmericancrisis，agentsofbothNorthandSouthhurriedtoEuropeinquestofmunitions。OntheNorthernsidetheworkwasdonechieflybythethreeministers，CharlesFrancisAdams，atLondon；WilliamL。Dayton，atParis；andHenryS。Sanford，atBrussels；byanablespecialagent，ColonelGeorgeL。Schuyler；andbythefamousbanking-houseofBaringBrothers，whichonemightalmosthavecalledtheEuropeandepartmentoftheUnitedStatesTreasury。
TheeagersolicitudeoftheWarDepartmentoverthecompetitionofthetwogroupsofagentsinEuropeinformsanumberofdispatchesthatare，today，preciousadmonitionstotheheedlessdescendantsofthatdreadfultime。AslateasOctober，1861，theActingSecretaryofWarwrotetoSchuyler，oneofwhoseshipmentshadbeendelayed:"TheDepartmentearnestlyhopestoreceive……the12，000Enfieldriflesandtheremainderofthe27，000，whichyoustateyouhavepurchased，bytheearlieststeamerfollowing。Couldyouappreciatethecircumstancesbywhichwearesurrounded，youwouldreadilyunderstandtheurgentnecessitythereisfortheimmediatedeliveryofallthearmsyouareauthorizedtopurchase。TheDepartmentexpectstohearthatyouhavebeenabletoconcludethenegotiationsforthe48，000
riflesfromtheFrenchgovernmentarsenals。"ThattheConfederateGovernmentactedevenmorepromptlythantheUnionGovernmentappearsfromaletterofSanfordtoSewardinMay:"I
havevainlyexpectedorders，"hecomplains，"forthepurchaseofarmsfortheGovernment，andamtemptedtoorderfromBelgiumalltheycansendoverimmediately……MeanwhiletheworkshopsarefillingwithordersfromtheSouth……Itdistressesmetothinkthatwhileweareinwantofthem，Southernmoneyistakingthemawaytobeusedagainstus。"
AtLondon，Adamstookituponhimselftocontractforarmsinadvanceofinstructions。HewrotetoSeward:"AwareofthedegreetowhichIexceedmyauthorityintakingsuchastep，nothingbutaconvictionoftheneedinwhichthecountrystandsofsuchassistanceandthejointopinionofallthediplomaticagentsoftheUnitedStates……inParis，hasinducedmetoovercomemyscruples。"Howrealwasthenecessityofwhichthisablediplomatwassoearlyconscious，isdemonstratedateveryturninthepapersoftheWarDepartment。WitnessthisbriefdispatchfromHarrisburg:"Allreadytoleavebutnoarms。
GovernornotwillingtoletusleaveStatewithoutthem，asactofAssemblyforbids。Canarmsbesenthere?"Whenthisappealwasmade，inDecember，1861，armswerepouringintothecountryfromEurope，andthecrisishadpassed。Butifthisappealhadbeenmadeearlierintheyear，theinevitableanswermaybeguessedfromadispatchwhichtheOrdnanceOfficesent，aslateasSeptember，totheauthoritiesofWestVirginia，refusingtosupplythemwitharmsbecausethesupplieswereexhausted，andadding，"Everypossibleexertionisbeingmadetoobtainadditionalsuppliesbycontract，bymanufacture，andbypurchase，andassoonastheycanbeprocuredbyanymeans，inanyway，theywillbesupplied。"
Curiouslyenough，notonlytheConfederacybutvariousStatesoftheNorthweremoreexpeditiousinthisall-importantmatterthanCameronandtheWarDepartment。Schuyler'sfirstdispatchfromLondongivesthissingularinformation:"AllprivateestablishmentsinBirminghamandLondonarenowworkingfortheStatesofOhio，Connecticut，andMassachusetts，excepttheLondonArmory，whosemanufactureissupposedtogototheRebels，butofthislastfactIamnotpositivelyinformed。IammakingarrangementstosecuretheseestablishmentsforourGovernment，ifdesirableafterthepresentStatecontractsexpire。OntheContinent，Messrs，DaytonandSanford……havebeenmakingcontractsandagreementsofvariouskinds，ofwhichyouarebythistimeinformed。"Soonafterward，fromParis，hemadealongreportdetailingthedifficultiesofhistask，thelimitationsoftheexistingmunitionsplantsinEurope，andpromisingamongotherthingsthose"48，000riflesfromtheFrenchgovernmentarsenals"forwhich，intheletteralreadyquoted，theWarDepartmentyearned。Itwasanenormouslabor；and，striveashewould，SchuylerfoundAmericanmailcontinuingtobringhimsuchlettersasthisfromtheAssistantSecretaryofWarinOctober:
"Inoticewithmuchregretthat[inthelatestconsignment]therewerenogunssent，asitwasconfidentlyexpectedthat20，000
wouldarrivebythe[steamship]Fulton，andaccordinglyarrangementshadbeenmadetodistributethemthroughthedifferentStates。Promptandearlyshipmentsofgunsaredesirable。Wehopetohearbynextsteamerthatyouhaveshippedfrom80，000to100，000stand。"
Thelastwordontheproblemofmunitions，whichwassosignificantafactorinthelargerproblem，isthereportoftheUnitedStatesOrdnanceOfficeforthefirstyearofthewar。ItshowsthatbetweenApril，1861，andJune，1862，theGovernmentpurchasedfromAmericanmanufacturerssomewhatover30，000
rifles，andthatfromEuropeanmakersitpurchased726，000。
FromtheseillustrationsitisthereforeobviousthatthetruemeasureoftheimmediatestrengthoftheAmericancontestantsin1861wastheextentoftheirabilitytosupplythemselvesfromEurope；andthis，statedmoreconcretely，becamethequestionastowhichwasthebetterabletokeepitsportsopenandreceivetheabsolutelyessentialEuropeanaid。Lincolnshowedhisclearrealizationofthesituationwhenheissued，immediatelyafterthefirstcallforvolunteers，aproclamationblockadingtheSoutherncoasts。WhethertheNorthernpeopleatthetimeappreciatedthesignificanceofthisorderisaquestion。Amidthewildandvainclamorofthemultitudein1861，withitsconventionalandold-fashionednotionofwarasathingoftrumpetsandglitteringarmies，theNorthseemswhollytohaveignoreditsfleet；andyetinthebeginningthisresourcewasitsonlystrength。
Thefleetwassmall，tobesure，butitstaskwasatfirstalsosmall。TherewerefewSouthernportswhichweredoingaregularbusinesswithEurope，andtoclosethesewasnotdifficult。Asotherportsopenedandthetaskofblockadegrew，theNorthernnavyalsoincreased。Withinafewmonths，tothefewobserverswhodidnotlosetheirheads，itwasplainthattheNorthhadwonthefirstgreatcontestofthewar。IthadsohamperedSoutherntradethatLincoln'sadvantageinarmingtheNorthfromEuropewastentoone。AttheverytimewhendetractorsofLincolnwerehystericalovertheremovalofFremont，whenGrimeswrotetoFessendenthatthecountrywasgoingtothedogsasfastasimbecilitycouldcarryit，thisgreatachievementhadquietlytakenplace。AnexpeditionsailinginAugustfromFortressMonroeseizedthefortswhichcommandedHatterasInletoffthecoastofNorthCarolina。InNovember，CommanderDupont，U。S。
N。，seizedPortRoyal，oneofthebestharborsonthecoastofSouthCarolina，andestablishedthereanavalbase。Thenceforth，whiletheopenNorthernportsreceivedEuropeanmunitionswithouthindrance，itwasariskybusinessgettingmunitionsintotheportsoftheSouth。Onlytheboldesttraderswouldattemptto"runtheblockade，"toevadetheFederalpatrolshipsbynightandrunintoaSouthernport。
However，foronemomentintheautumnof1861，itseemedasifallthemasterfulworkoftheNorthernnavywouldbeundonebytheNorthernpeoplethemselvesinbackinguptherashnessofCaptainCharlesWilkes，ofthewar-shipSanJacinto。OnthehighseasheoverhauledtheBritishmailsteamer，Trent。AboardherweretwoConfederatediplomaticagents，JamesM。MasonandJohnSlidell，whohadruntheblockadefromCharlestontoHavanaandwerenowontheirwaytoEngland。WilkestookoffthetwoConfederatesasprisonersofwar。ThecrowdintheNorthwentwild。"Wedonotbelieve，"saidtheNewYorkTimes，"thattheAmericanhearteverthrilledwithmoresinceredelight。"
TheintemperatejoyofthecrowdovertherashnessofWilkeswasdueinparttoafeelingofbitternessagainsttheBritishGovernment。InMay，1861，theQueenhadissuedaproclamationofneutrality，whosejustificationininternationallawwashotlydebatedatthetimeandwasgenerallydeniedbyNortherners。
Englandwasthegreatcottonmarketoftheworld。TotheexcitedNorthernmind，in1861，therecouldbebutoneexplanationofEngland'saction:apartisandesiretoservetheSouth，tobreakuptheblockade，andtosecurecotton。Whethersuchwastherealpurposeoftheministrytheninpowerisnowdoubted；butatthattimeitwasthebeginningofasharpcontentionbetweenthetwoGovernments。TheTrentaffairnaturallyincreasedthetension。
SokeenwastheindignationofallclassesofEnglishmenthatitseemed，foramoment，asifthenextstepwouldbewar。
InAmerica，thepromptdemandforthereleaseofMasonandSlidellwasmet，atfirst，inaspiritequallybellicose。
FortunatelytherewerecoolandclearheadsthatatoncecondemnedWilkes'sactionasagrossbreachofinternationallaw。
ProminentamongthesewasSumner。TheAmericanGovernment，however，admittedthejusticeoftheBritishdemandandtheenvoyswerereleased。
RelationswiththeUnitedStatesnowbecameaburningissueinEnglishpolitics。TherewerethreedistinctgroupsinParliament。Therepresentativesofthearistocracy，whetherLiberalsorConservatives，inthemainsympathizedwiththeSouth。Sodidmostofthelargemanufacturerswhosebusinessinterestswereaffectedbycotton。GreatbitternessgrewupamongtheNorthernersagainstboththesegroups，partlybecauseinthepastmanyoftheirmembershadcondemnedslaveryandhadsaidscornfulthingsaboutAmericafortoleratingit。TotheseNorthernerstheEnglishmenrepliedthatLincolnhimselfhaddeclaredthewarwasnotoverslavery；thatitwasanordinarycivilwarnotinvolvingmoralissues。Nevertheless，thethirdParliamentarygroupinsistedthattheAmericanwar，nomatterwhatthemotivesoftheparticipants，would，intheeventofaNorthernvictory，bringabouttheabolitionofslavery，whereas，iftheSouthwon，theresultwouldbetheperpetuationofslavery。Thisthirdgroup，therefore，threwallitsweightonthesideoftheNorth。InthisgroupLincolnrecognizedhisallies，andtheircauseheidentifiedwithhisowninhislettertoEnglishworkmenwhichwasquotedinthepreviouschapter。
TheirleadersinParliamentwereRichardCobden，W。E。Forster，andJohnBright。AllthesegroupswererepresentedintheLiberalparty，which，forthemoment，wasinpower。
IntheCabinetitselftherewasa"Northern"anda"Southern"
faction。Then，too，thereweresomewhosympathizedwiththeNorthbutwhofeltthatitscausewashopeless——solittledidtheyunderstandtherelativestrengthofthetwosections——andwhofeltthatthewarwasaterribleproofoftheuselessnessofmeresuffering。Gladstone，inlaterdays，wishedtobethoughtofashavingbeenoneofthese，thoughatthetime，afamousutteranceofhiswasconstruedintheNorthasadeclarationofhostility。ToagreataudienceatNewcastlehesaidinOctober，1862:"Wemayhaveourownopinionsaboutslavery；wemaybefororagainsttheSouth；butthereisnodoubtthatJeffersonDavisandotherleadersoftheSouthhavemadeanarmy；theyaremaking，itappears，anavy；andtheyhavemade，whatismorethaneither——theyhavemadeanation。"
ThePrimeMinister，LordPalmerston，wishedtointerveneintheAmericanwarandbringaboutanamicableseparationintotwocountries，andso，apparently，didtheForeignSecretary，LordJohnRussell。Recently，theAmericanministerhadvainlyprotestedagainstthesailingofashipknownas290whichwasbeingequippedatLiverpoolpresumablyfortheserviceoftheConfederacy，andwhichbecamethefamousAlabama。FortwoyearsitrovedtheoceandestroyingNortherncommerce，andnotuntilitwassunkatlastinabattlewiththeU。S。S。KearsargedidallthemaritimeinterestsoftheNorthbreatheagainfreely。Intimeandasaresultofarbitration，EnglandpaidfortheshipssunkbytheAlabama。Butin1862，theprotestsoftheAmericanministerfellondeafears。
ItmustbeaddedthatthesailingoftheAlabamafromLiverpoolwasdueprobablytothecarelessnessofBritishofficialsratherthantodeliberatepurpose。AndyetthefactisclearthataboutthefirstofOctober，1862，theBritishministrywasonthevergeofinterveningtosecurerecognitionoftheindependenceoftheSouthernconfederacy。ThechiefmotivepressingthemforwardwasthedistressinEnglandcausedbythelackofcottonwhichresultedfromtheAmericanblockade。In1860，theSouthhadexported615，000bales；in1861，only10，127bales。In1862halfthespindlesofManchesterwereidle；theworkmenwereoutofemployment；theownerswerewithoutdividends。Itwaschieflybythesemanufacturingcapitaliststhatpressurewasputupontheministry，anditwasinthemanufacturingdistrictthatGladstone，thinkingtheGovernmentwaslikelytointervene，madehisallusiontotheSouthasanation。
MeanwhiletheEmperoroftheFrenchwasconsideringaproposaltoEnglandandRussiatojoinwithhiminmediationbetweentheAmericanbelligerents。OnOctober28，1862，NapoleonIIIgaveaudiencetotheConfederateenvoyatParis，discussedtheSoutherncauseinthemostfriendlymanner，questionedhimupontheMarylandcampaign，plainlyindicatedhispurposetoattemptintervention，andatpartingcordiallyshookhandswithhim。
WithinafewdaystheEmperormadegoodhisimpliedpromise。
ThemonthofNovember，1862，isoneoftheturningpointsinAmericanforeignrelations。BothRussiaandEnglandrejectedFrance'sproposal。ThemotiveusuallyassignedtotheEmperorAlexanderishishatredofeverythingassociatedwithslavery。
HisownmostfamousactionwastheliberationoftheRussianserfs。ThemotivesoftheBritishministry，however，appearmoreproblematical。
Mr。RhodesthinkshecandiscernevidencethatAdamscommunicatedindirectlytoPalmerstonthecontentsofadispatchfromSewardwhichindicatedthattheUnitedStateswouldacceptwarratherthanmediation。PalmerstonhadkepthiseyesupontheMarylandcampaign，andLee'swithdrawaldidnotincreasehisconfidenceinthestrengthoftheSouth。LordRussell，twomonthsprevious，hadflatlytoldtheConfederateenvoyatLondonthattheSouthneednothopeforrecognitionunlessitcouldestablishitselfwithoutaid，andthat"thefluctuatingeventsofthewar，thealternationofdefeatandvictory，"composedsuchacontradictorysituationthat"HerMajesty'sGovernmentarestilldeterminedtowait。"
PerhapstheveiledAmericanwarning——assumingitwasconveyedtoPalmerston，whichseemshighlyprobable——wasnottheonlydiplomaticinnuendooftheautumnof1862thathasescapedthepagesofhistory。SlidellatParis，puttingtogetherthestatementsoftheBritishAmbassadorandthoseoftheFrenchMinisterofForeignAffairs，foundinthemcontradictionsastowhatwasgoingonbetweenthetwogovernmentsinrelationtoAmerica。HetookahandbyattemptingtoinspireM。DrouyndeL'huyswithdistrustofEngland，tellinghimhe"HADSEEN……aletterfromaleadingmemberoftheBritishCabinet……inwhichheveryplainlyinsinuatedthatFrancewasplayinganunfairgame，"
tryingtouseEnglandasNapoleon'scatspaw。AmongthemanymotivesthatmaywellhaveanimatedthePalmerstonGovernmentinitswaitingpolicy，adistrustofNapoleondeservestobeconsidered。
Itisscarcelyrash，however，tofindthechiefmotiveinhomepolitics。TheimpetuousGladstoneatNewcastlelosthisheadandspoketoosoon。Themostseriouseffectofhisprematureutterancewasthepromptreactionofthe"Northernparty"intheCabinetandinthecountry。WhateverPalmerston'ssecretdesireswere，hewasnotpreparedtotakethehighhand，andhethereforepermittedothermembersoftheCabinettostateinpublicthatGladstonehadbeenmisunderstood。InaninterviewwithAdams，LordRussell，"whilstendeavoringtoexcuseMr。Gladstone，"
assuredhimthat"thepolicyoftheGovernmentwastoadheretoastrictneutralityandleavethestruggletosettleitself。"Inthelastanalysis，theNorthernpartyinEnglandwasgainingground。ThenewsfromAmerica，possibly，andGladstone'srashness，certainly，rousedittoincreasedactivity。
Palmerston，whosetenureofpowerwasnonetoosecure，darednotriskabreakthatmightcarrythedisaffectedintotheranksoftheOpposition。
FromthistimeforwardtheNorthrapidlygrewinfavorinBritishpublicopinion，anditsinfluenceupontheGovernmentspeedilyincreased。
SaysLordCharnwoodinhisrecentlifeofLincoln:"ThebattleofAntietamwasfollowedwithinfivedaysbyaneventwhichmadeitimpossibleforanygovernmentofthiscountrytotakeactionunfriendlytotheNorth。"HerefersofcoursetotheEmancipationProclamation，whichwasissuedonSeptember23，1862。LordCharnwood'sremarkmaybetoodramatic。ButtherecanbenodoubtthattheEmancipationProclamationwastheturning-pointinLincoln'sforeignpolicy；andbecauseofit，hisfriendsinEnglandeventuallyforcedtheGovernmenttoplayintohishands，andsofrustratedNapoleon'sschemeforintervention。
ConsequentlyLincolnwasabletomaintaintheblockadebymeansofwhichtheSouthwasstrangled。Thus，atbottom，thecrucialmatterwasEmancipation。
Lincoln'spolicywithregardtoslaverypassedthroughthreedistinctstages。Aswehaveseen，heproposed，atfirst，topledgetheGovernmentnottointerferewithslaveryintheStateswhereitthenexisted。Thiswashismaximumofcompromise。Hewouldnotagreetopermittingitsextensionintonewterritory。
Hemaintainedthispositionthrough1861，whenitwasmadeanaccusationagainsthimbytheAbolitionistsandcontributedtotheebbofhispopularity。ItalsoplayedagreatpartintheepisodeofFremont。AtacrucialmomentinFremont'scareer，whenhisholduponpopularityseemedprecarious，hesetatnaughtthepolicyofthePresidentandissuedanorderAugust30，1861，whichconfiscatedallpropertyandslavesofthosewhowereinarmsagainsttheUnitedStatesoractivelyaidingtheenemy，andwhichcreateda"bureauofabolition。"WhetherFremontwasactingfromconvictionor"playingpolitics"maybelefttohisbiographers。InamosttactfulletterLincolnaskedhimtomodifytheordersoastoconformtotheConfiscationActofCongress；andwhenFremontprovedobdurate，Lincolnorderedhimtodoso。IntheoutcryagainstLincolnwhenFremontwasatlastremoved，theAbolitionistsrangthechangesonthisreversalofhispolicyofmilitaryabolition。