CUSTOMUPONMORALSENTIMENTS。
　　IntheestimationofDugaldStewart，themostvaluablecontributionof'AdamSmithtotheimprovementofmoralscienceishisattempttoaccountfortheirregularityofourmoralsentiments，andfortheirliabilitytobemodifiedbyotherconsiderations，verydifferentfromtheproprietyorimproprietyoftheaffectionsoftheagent，orfromtheirbeneficialorhurtfultendency。AdamSmithwas，hethinks，thefirstphilosophertoappreciatethoroughlytheimportanceofthedifficulty，whichisequallygreatineverytheoryoftheoriginofourmoralsentiments；namely，thatouractualmoralsentimentsofapprobation，orthecontrary，aregreatlymodifiedbymattersextraneoustotheintentionoftheagent；as，forexample，bytheinfluenceontheactitselfofquitefortuitousoraccidentalcircumstances。
　　Thereare，firstofall，theeffectsofprosperityandadversityonthemoraljudgmentsofmenwithregardtotheproprietyofaction，wherebyitiseasiertoobtainapprobationintheoneconditionthanitisintheother。
　　Inequaldegreesofmeritthereisscarcelyanyonewhodoesnotmorerespecttherichandgreatthanthepoorandhumble；and，ontheotherhand，anequalamountofviceandfollyisregardedwithlessaversionandcontemptintheformerthanitisinthelatter。Howisthistobeexplained？andwhatistheoriginofthisperversionofmoralsentiment？
　　Therealexplanationofitistobesoughtinthefactofoursympatheticemotions，which，astheyentermorevividlyintothejoysthanintothesorrowsofothers，feelmorepleasureintheconditionofthewealthythaninthatofthepoor。Itisagreeabletosympathizewithjoy，andpainfultoenterintogrief；sothat，wherethereisnoenvyinthecase，ourpropensitytosympathizewithjoyismuchstrongerthanourpropensitytosympathizewithsorrow；andourfellow-feelingfortheagreeableemotionapproachesnearertoitsoriginalintensitythanourfellow-feelingforthepainfulemotionofanotherperson。Itisforthisreasonthatwearemoreashamedtoweepthantolaughbeforecompany，thoughwemayoftenhaveasrealoccasiontodotheoneastheother:wealwaysfeelthatthespectatorsaremorelikelytogoalongwithusintheagreeablethaninthepainfulemotion。Henceourdispositiontoadmiretherichandpowerful，andtodespiseorneglectthepoorandlowly，arisesfromourassociationofjoyandpleasurewiththeconditionoftheformer，andofpainanddistresswiththatofthelatter。
　　Theconditionoftheformer，inthedelusivecoloursofourimagination，seemstobealmosttheabstractideaofaperfectandhappystate。Hencewefeelapeculiarsatisfactionwiththesatisfactionweattributetothem。
　　Wefavouralltheirinclinations，andforwardalltheirwishes。Weareeagertoassistthemincompletingasystemofhappinessthatapproachessoneartoperfection。
　　Itisfromthecommandwhichwealththushasoverthesympatheticandagreeablesentimentsofmankindthatleadstosoeagerapursuitandparadeofit，andtosostronganaversionto，andconcealmentof，poverty。Towhatpurposeisallthetoiloftheworldforwealth，power，andpre-eminence？
　　Theonlyadvantagereallylookedtofromitis"tobeobserved，tobeattendedto，tobetakennoticeofwithsympathy，complacency，andapprobation；"
　　andtherichmangloriesmoreinhisriches，becausetheynaturallydrawuponhimtheattentionoftheworld，thanforanyoftheotheradvantagesconnectedwiththem。Andforthesamereasonthepoormanisashamedofhispoverty，forthoughhemaybeaswellsuppliedastherichmanwiththenecessitiesoflife，heismortifiedatbeingplacedoutofthesightofmankind，atbeingtreatedwithneglect，andatbeinganobjectoftheantipathyratherthanofthesympathyofhisfellows。
　　Rankanddistinctionarethereforecoveted，assettingusinasituationmostinviewofgeneralsympathyandattention。"Andthus，placethatgreatobjectwhichdividesthewivesofaldermenistheendofhalfthelaboursofhumanlife，andisthecauseofallthetumultandbustle，alltherapineandinjustice，whichavariceandambitionhaveintroducedintotheworld。"
　　Andthus，fromournaturaldispositiontoadmiretherichandpowerful，adifferentstandardofjudgmentarisesabouttheproprietyoftheirconductthanthatemployedaboutthebehaviourofothermen。Asingletransgressionoftherulesoftemperanceandproprietybyacommonmanisgenerallymoreresentedthantheirconstantandavowedneglectbyamanoffashion。Inthesuperiorstationsoflife，theroadtovirtueandthattofortunearenotalwaysthesame，astheyaregenerallyinthemiddlingandinferiorstations。Inthelatterstationsoflifesuccessnearlyalwaysdependsonthefavourandgoodopinionofequalsandneighbours，andthesecanseldombeobtainedwithoutatolerablyregularconduct。Inthem，therefore，"wemaygenerallyexpectaconsiderabledegreeofvirtue；andfortunatelyforthegoodmoralsofsociety，thesearethesituationsofbyfarthegreaterpartofmankind。"
　　Notonlyhoweverhasprosperityoradversitygreatinfluenceonourmoralsentiments，leadingustoseeaproprietyinacertaincourseofbehaviourintheoneconditionwhichweareapttocondemnasimproperintheother，butthepraiseorblameweattachtoanyactiondependstoagreatextentontheeffectuponitoffortuneoraccident。Althougheverybodyallowsthatthemeritordemeritofactionsisstillthesame，whatevertheirunforeseenconsequencesmaybe，yet，whenwecometoparticularcases，itisclearthatoursentimentsofmeritordemeritareverymuchaffectedbytheactualconsequenceswhichhappentoproceedfromanyaction，andthatoursenseofeitherofthemistherebyenhancedordiminished。
　　Everyactionconsistsofthreeparts，someoneofwhichmustconstitutethebasisofwhateverpraiseorblameweattributetoit。Thesethreepartsare:theintentionoraffectionoftheheart，fromwhichtheactionproceeds；
　　theexternalmovementofthebodywhichthisaffectioncauses；andthegoodorbadconsequenceswhichactuallyflowfromit。Itisevidentthatthemovementofthebody，beingoftenthesameinthemostinnocentasinthemostblameableactionsasinthecaseofshootingatabirdandshootingatamancannotbethesourceofpraiseorblame。Neithercantheaccidentalconsequencesofanaction，whichdependonfortune，notontheagent。Theonlyconsequencesforwhichthelatterisresponsiblearethoseinsomewayconnectedwithhisintention；sothatitistotheintentionoraffectionoftheheart，totheproprietyorimpropriety，tothebeneficenceorhurt-fulnessofthedesign，thatallpraiseorblame，allapprobationordisapprobationofanykind，mustultimatelybelong。
　　Theproblemthentobeexplainedisthefactthatoursenseofaman'smeritordemeritisatallinfluencedbyre-suitswhichliebeyondhiscontrol，andthatwemoderateourpraiseorblameofhisconductaccordingashisgoodorbadintentionfailsornotofitsintendedbenefitorinjury。
　　Theexplanationisasfollows。
　　Thepassionsofgratitudeandresentment，onwhichdependourfeelingofthemeritordemeritofactions，areultimatelybasedonthebodilysensationofpleasureandpain。Theyareexcitedprimarilybywhateverproducespleasureorpain，evenbyinanimateobjects。"Weareangryforamomentevenwiththestonethathurtsus。Achildbeatsit，adogbarksatit，acholericmanisapttocurseit。"Weshouldfeelguiltyofasortofinhumanity，ifweneglectedtoavengeourfriendbythedestructionoftheinstrumentthathadaccidentlycausedhisdeath。Soitiswithgratitude。
　　Asailorwhomendedhisfirewiththeplankthathadsavedhimfromshipwreckwouldseemguiltyofanunnaturalact，forweshouldexpecthimtopreserveitwithcareandaffection。Soweconceivesomethinglikearealloveandaffectionforasnuff-box，orpen-knife，orastick，towhichwehavelongbeenaccustomed。"Thehousewhichwehavelonglivedin，thetreewhoseverdureandshadewehavelongenjoyed，arebothlookeduponwithasortofrespectwhichseemsduetosuchbenefactors。Thedecayoftheone，ortheruinoftheother，affectsuswithakindofmelancholy，thoughweshouldsustainnolossbyit。"
　　Neverthelesstobetheproperobjectofgratitudeandresentment，athingmustnotonlybethecauseofpleasureandpain，butitselfcapableoffeelingtheminreturn。Animalsthereforearelessimproperobjectsofgratitudeandresentmentthaninanimatethings。"Thedogthatbites，theoxthatgores，arebothofthempunished。Iftheyhavebeenthecausesofthedeathofanyperson，neitherthepublic，northerelationsoftheslain，canbesatisfied，unlesstheyareputtodeathintheirturn。"Andontheotherhand，animalsthathavedoneagreatservice，areregardedwithmuchgratitude；andweareshockedwiththeingratitudeoftheofficer，intheTurkishSpy，whostabbedthehorsewhichhadcarriedhimacrossanarmofthesea，lestitshouldeverdistinguishsomeotherpersonbyasimilarfeat。
　　Butsomethingmoreisstillnecessarytothecompletegratificationofgratitudeandresentmentthanthemerecapabilityforfeelingpleasureorpaininreturnforpainorpleasurecaused。Thelattermusthavebeencausedbydesign，andtheremustbeaconsciousnessofdesigninthereturn。
　　Theobjectofresentmentischieflynotsomuchtomakeourenemyfeelpaininhisturn，astomakehimconsciousthathefeelsituponaccountofhispastconduct，andtomakehimrepentofthatconduct。Andthechiefobjectofgratitudeisnotonlytomakeourbenefactorfeelpleasureinhisturn，buttomakehimconsciousthathemeetswiththatrewardonaccountofhispastconduct，andtomakehimpleasedwiththatconduct。
　　Hencethreedifferentqualificationsarenecessarytorenderanythingthecompleteandproperobjectofgratitudeorresentment。Itmustfirstofallbethecauseofpleasureorpain；itmustsecondlybecapableoffeelingpleasureorpain；anditmustthirdlyproducepleasureorpainfromadesign，approvedofintheonecaseordisapprovedofintheother。
　　Sincethentheproductivenessofpleasureorpainistheprimaryexcitingcauseofgratitudeorresentment，thoughtheintentionsofanypersonshouldbeeversoproperandbeneficent，oreversoimproperandmalevolent，yet，ifhehasfailedinproducingthegoodorevilheintended，lessgratitudeorresentmentseemsduetohim，orinotherwords，lessmeritordemeritseemstoattachtohim，becausethepleasureorpain，theexcitingcausesofgratitudeorresentment，areineithercasewanting。Andso，whereinaman'sintentionstherehasbeennolaudablebenevolenceorblameablemalice，buthisactionshaveneverthelessdonegreatgoodorgreatevil，thensomegratitudeorresentmentwillattachtohim，becausetheirexcitingcauseshavebeenpresentineithercase。Butsincetheconsequencesofaman'sactionsrestaltogetherwithfortune，oursentimentsofmeritordemeritdependtoagreatextentuponherinfluenceonevents，uponhercontrolofthegoodorbad，thepleasurableorpainfulresults，whichflowfromouractions。
　　Thustheirregularityofourmoralsentimentsconcerningthemeritordemeritofactionsdependsultimatelyontheaccidentalamountofpleasureorpaintheyproduce，sincethesearetheprimaryexcitingcausesofourgratitudeorresentment。Havingexplainedthecauseofthephenomenon，itremainstoillustratetheeffects。
　　Eventheimpartialspectatorfeelsin。somemeasureadifferenceofmeritinaman'sconductaccordingashisgoodintentionshaveproducedornottheresultsintendedbyhim，althoughtheymayonlyhavebeendefeatedbyaccident。Itisindeedcommontosay，thatweareequallyobligedtothemanwhohasendeavouredtoserveus，astothemanwhoreallyhasservedus；butthissaying，"likeallotherfinespeeches，mustbeunderstoodwithagrainofallowance。"Whenallothercircumstancesareequal，therewillalwaysbe，eveninthebestandnoblestmind，somedifferenceofaffectioninfavourofthefriendwhocarriesouthisgoodintention，asagainstthefriendwhofailstodoso。
　　Andasthemeritofanunsuccessfulattempttodogoodisdiminishedbyitsmiscarriage，soisthedemeritofanun-successfulattempttodoevil。Exceptinthecaseoftreason，theconceptionofwhichisinmanycountriespunishedasseverelyasitscommission，themeredesigntocommitacrimeisscarcelyeverpunishedasheavilyasitsactualperpetration。
　　Inhardlyanycountryistheman，whofiresapistolathisenemybutmisseshim，punishedwithdeath，thoughthereisthesamedegreeofdepravityinthecriminaldesignasinthecriminalaction。"Theresentmentofmankind，however，runssohighagainstthiscrime，theirterrorforthemanwhoshowshimselfcapableofcommittingitissogreat，thatthemereattempttocommititoughtinallcountriestobecapital。Theattempttocommitsmallercrimesisalmostalwayspunishedverylightly，andsometimesisnotpunishedatall。Thethief，whosehandhasbeencaughtinhisneighbour'spocketbeforehehadtakenanythingoutofit，ispunishedwithignominyonly。Ifhehadgottimetotakeawayahandkerchief，hewouldhavebeenputtodeath。"6Thestateofthelawonlyreflectsthenaturalfeelingsofindividuals，whofeellessresentmentwhenamanhasfailedinexecutingthemischiefheintendedthanwhenhehasactuallydonethemaninjury。
　　Forthesamereason，aman，whohasbeensavedpurelybyaccidentfromthecommissionofacrimeheintended，thoughheisconsciousthathisrealguilt，thatofhisheart，remainsthesame，considershimselfaslessdeservingofresentmentandpunishment；andthusallthesenseofhisguiltiseitherdiminishedordestroyedbythemerefactoffortunehavingfavouredhim。
　　Again，asFortuneinfluencesourmoralsentimentsbylesseningthegoodorevil，thepleasureorpain，intendedbyouractions，sodoessheincreaseoursenseoftheirmeritordemerit，beyondwhattheirmereintentionwouldjustify，whentheyhappentogiverisetoextraordinarypleasureorpain。
　　Evenwhenanintentiondeservesneitherpraisenorblame，weareconsciousofashadeofmeritordemerit，accordingtoitsagreeableordisagreeableeffectsonus。Wefeelatransitorygratitudetothebearerofgoodtidings，andatransitoryresentmenttotheinnocentauthorofoursorrow。AndthoughwethinkitbarbarousinTigranes，kingofArmenia，tohavestruckofftheheadofamanforbeingthefirsttoannouncetheapproachofanenemy，yetwethinkitreasonablethat，bythecustomofallcourts，。theofficerwhofirstbringsthenewsofavictoryshouldbeentitledtoconsiderablepreferments。
　　Whenthenegligenceofonemancausesdamagetoanother，eventhoughhisnegligenceshouldbenomorethanawantofextremecircumspection，thelawofteninsistsoncompensation。InRometherewasalawwhichcompelledanyonewho，byreasonofhishorsetakingfrightandbecomingunmanageable，rodeoveranotherman'sslave，tocompensatetheloss。Themanhimselfwhothusunintentionallyhurtsanothershowssomesenseofhisowndemeritbyatleastofferinganapology。Yetwhyshouldhemakeanapologymorethananyoneelse？Itisbecauseheisawarethattheimpartialspectatorwillfeelsomesympathywiththenatural，butunjust，resentmentofthepersonhehasaccidentallyinjured。
　　Butthenegligencedisplayedinanyactionmaybesogreatastocallnotmerelyforblameandcensure，butforactualpunishment。Forwemaysofarenterintotheresentmentfeltbyonemanonaccountofanunintendedinjurydonetohimbyanother，astoapproveofhisinflictingapunishmentontheoffenderwhichwouldhaveseemedinexcessofthedemeritofhisoffencehadnounluckyconsequencesensued。Forinstance，thoughnothingwouldappearmoreshockingtoournaturalsenseofequitythantoexecuteamanmerelyforhavingcarelesslythrownastoneintothestreetwithouthurtinganybody，yet，ifthestonehappenedtokillanybody，sogreatwouldbetheeffectofthisaccidentonourmoralsentimentsthat，thoughtheman'sfollyandinhumanitywouldnotbegreaterinonecasethanintheother，weshouldnotconsidertheseverestpunishmenttoohardforhim。
　　Grossnegligenceis，therefore，inlawalmostthesameasmaliciousdesign。Lataculpapropedolumest。
　　Butourmoralsentimentsarcconsiderablyaffected，notonlybythefactoftheprosperityoradversityofthepersonwhoseconductwejudge，andbytheinfluenceoffortuneoraccidentontheresultofhisintentions，buttheyarealsogreatlymodifiedbythosetwogreatprinciplesofCustomandFashion，whichhavecausedsowideadifferenceofopinionaboutwhatisblameableorpraiseworthytoprevailindifferentagesandnations。
　　Forthevirtuesofthesavagestatearedifferentfromthoseofthecivilizedstate，thevirtuesofoneprofessionaredifferentfromthoseofanother，andthoseagainwhichweadmireinyoutharedifferentfromthosewelookforinoldage。
　　Thisfactisduetotheinfluenceofcustom，oroffashion，whichisaspeciesofcustom，asthecustomofpersonsofhighrankorcharacter。
　　Forboththeseaffectourmoralsentiments，albeitinalessdegree，yetinexactlythesamewaythattheyaffectourideasandfeelingsaboutbeautyinallobjectssubmittedtoourobservation。
　　Theinfluenceofcustomonourideasofbeautyisverygreat。Forwhenevertwoobjectshavebeenseeninfrequentconjunctiontogether，theimaginationacquiresahabitofpassingeasilyfromtheonetotheother；andthus，fromthemerehabitofexpectingtoseeonewhenweseetheother，thoughthereshouldbenorealbeautyintheirunion，weareconsciousofanimproprietywhentheychancetobeseparated。Ifevenasuitofclothesiswithoutsomeinsignificantbutusualornament，suchasabutton，weareinsomemeasuredispleasedbyitsabsence。
　　Thefashionofthingschangeswitharapidityproportionedtothedurablenessoftheirmaterial。Themodesoffurniturechangelessrapidlythanthoseofdress，becausefurnitureisgenerallymoredurable；butinfiveorsixyearsitgenerallyundergoesacompleterevolution，andeverymanseesitsfashionchangeinmanydifferentwayseveninhisownlifetime。Buttheproductionsofsuchartsasmusic，poetry，orarchitecture，beingmuchmorelasting，thefashionorcustom，whichprevailsnolessoverthemthanoverwhateverelseistheobjectoftaste，maycontinueunchangedforamuchlongertime。Abuildingmayendureforages，abeautifulairmaybehandeddownthroughgenerations，apoemmaylastaslongastheworld，andthustheymayallsetthefashionoftheirparticularstyleortastemuchlongerthanthedesignofaparticularmodeofdressorfurniture。
　　Itisonlybecauseofthegreaterpermanenceoftheirfashion，whichpreventsourhavingmuchexperienceofanychangeinthem，thatmakesitlesseasyforustorecognizethattheruleswethinkoughttobeobservedineachofthefineartsarenomorefoundedonreasonandthenatureofthingsthantheyareinthematterofourfurnitureanddress。
　　Inarchitecture，forinstance，noreasoncanbeassignedbeyondhabitandcustomfortheproprietyofattachingtoeachofthefiveorderstheirpeculiarornaments。Theeye，havingbeenusedtoassociateacertainornamentationwithacertainorder，wouldbeoffendedatmissingtheirconjunction；butitisinconceivablethat，priortoestablishedcustom，fivehundredotherformsshouldnothavesuitedthoseproportionsequallywell。
　　Itisthesameinpoetry。Theancientsthoughtthatacertainspeciesofversewasbynatureappropriatedtoaparticularspeciesofwriting，accordingtothesentimentorcharacterintendedtobedescribed。Onekindofversewasfitforgraveandanotherforgaythemes，norcouldeitherbeinterchangedwithoutthegreatestimpropriety。YetthatwhichistheverseofburlesqueinEnglishistheheroicverseinFrench，simplybecause"customhasmadetheonenationassociatetheideasofgravity，sublimity，andseriousnesswiththatmeasurewhichtheotherhasconnectedwithwhateverisgay，flippant，andludicrous。"
　　Custominfluencesourjudgmentnolesswithregardtothebeautyofnaturalobjects；andtheproportionswhichweadmireinonekindofanimalarequitedifferentfromthoseweadmireinanother。Everyclassofthingshasabeautyofitsown，distinctfromthatofeveryotherspecies。
　　AdamSmithstopsshort，however，ofadoptingthetheory，soablyadvocatedinthelastcenturybytheJesuitBuffier，andfollowedbySirJoshuaReynolds，thatcustomisthesoleprincipleofbeauty，andthatthebeautyofeveryobjectconsistssimplyinthatformandcolourwhichismostmoralineveryparticularclassofthings。AccordingtoBuffier，ineachspeciesofcreatures，thatformwasmostbeautifulwhichborethestrongestcharacterofthegeneralfabricofitsspecies，andhadthestrongestresemblancetothegreaternumberoftheindividualswithwhichitwasclassed。Hencethemostcustomaryformwasthemostbeautiful，andmuchpracticewasneededtojudgeofthebeautyofdistinctspeciesofthings，ortoknowwhereinthemiddleormostusualformconsisted。Hence，too，differentideasofbeautyexistedindifferentcountries，wheredifferenceofclimateproduceddifferenceoftype。AdamSmithsofaragreeswiththisdoctrineastoacknowledgethatthereisscarcelyanyexternalformsobeautifulastoplease，ifquitecontrarytocustom，noranysodeformedasnottobeagreeable，ifuniformlysupportedbyit；buthealsoarguesthat，independentlyofcustom，wearepleasedbytheappearanceoftheutilityofanyformbyitsfitnessforthepurposesforwhichitwasintended。Certaincolours，moreover，aremoreagreeablethanothers，eventhefirsttimetheyarebeheldbyus；andthoughhedoesnotlaythesamestressonsmoothnessasBurkedid，whoheldthatnothingwasbeautifulthatwasnotsmooth，healsoadmitsthatasmoothsurfaceisnaturallymoreagreeablethanaroughone。
　　Theinfluenceofcustomandfashionuponourideasofbeautygenerallybeingsogreatashasbeenexplained，whatistheirinfluenceuponourideasofbeautyofconduct？Tothistheansweris，thattheirinfluenceisperfectlysimilarinkind，thoughnotsogreat，orratherlesspotent，overmoralsthanitisoveranythingelse。Althoughthereisnoformofexternalobjectstowhichcustomwillnotreconcileus，norfashionrenderagreeabletous，thecharactersortheconductofaNerooraClaudiusarewhatnocustomcanevermakeagreeable，orotherthantheobjectsofourhatredorderision；forthesentimentsofmoralapprobationanddisapprobationarefoundedonthestrongestpassionsofhumannature，and，thoughtheycanbewarpt，theycanneverbeperverted。
　　Justascustomdiminishesoursenseoftheimproprietyof'thingswhichweareaccustomedtoseetogether，asinthecaseofabsurdityofdress，sofamiliarityfromyouthupwardswithviolence，falsehood，andinjusticetakesawayallsenseoftheenormityofsuchconduct；and，ontheotherhand，whencustomandfashioncoincidewiththeprinciplesofrightandwrong，theyenhanceourmoralideasandincreaseourabhorrenceforeverythingevil。"Thosewhohavebeeneducatedinwhatisreallygoodcompanynotinwhatiscommonlycalledsuchwhohavebeenaccustomedtoseenothinginthepersonswhomtheyesteemedandlivedwithbutjustice，modesty，humanityandgoodorder，aremoreshockedwithwhateverseemstobeinconsistentwiththeruleswhichthosevirtuesprescribe。"
　　Customaffordsanexplanationofthedifferentideasofgoodconductprevalentindifferentdegreesofcivilization。Foreveryageandcountrylookuponthatdegreeofeachqualitywhichismostusualinthoseamongthemselveswhoaremostesteemedasthegoldenmeanofthatparticulartalentorvirtue。Theirsentimentsconcerningthedegreeofeachqualitythatdeservespraiseorblamevaryaccordingtothedegreewhichismostcommonintheirowncountryandtimes；thus，thatdegreeofpolitenesswhichmightbethoughteffeminateadulationinRussiamightberegardedasbarbarousrudenessinFrance。
　　Ingeneral，thestyleofmannersprevalentinanynationisthatwhichismostsuitabletoitssituation。Thatwhichismostsuitablebeing，then，thatwhichisnaturallymostcom-mon，differentstandardsarisewithregardtothegeneralproprietyofbehaviour。Asavage，incontinualdanger，orexposedtofrequentwant，acquiresahardinessofcharacter，aninsensibilitytothesufferingsofhimselforothers，whichismostsuitabletothecircumstancesofhissituation，andwhichaffordsaverydifferentstandardofself-commandthanthatwhichiseitherusualornecessaryincivilizedlife。Thegeneralsecurityandhappinesswhichprevailinagesofculture，byaffordinglittleexercisetocontemptofdanger，ortotheenduranceofpainorhunger，enablethevirtueswhicharefoundedonhumanitytobemorecultivatedthanthosewhicharefoundedonself-denial；sothattocomplainwheninpain，togrieveindistress，tobeovercomebyloveoranger，arenotregardedasweaknesses，astheywouldbeinsavagelife，norasaffectingtheessentialpartsofaman'scharacter。
　　Inthedifferentprofessionsandagesoflifethesameinfluenceofcustommaybetraced。Ineachrankandprofessionweexpectadegreeofthosemannerswhichexperiencehastaughtustolookforinthem。Asineachspeciesofnaturalobjectswearepleasedwiththeconformitytothegeneraltype，soineachspeciesofmenwearepleased，"iftheyhaveneithertoomuchnortoolittleofthecharacterwhichusuallyaccompaniestheirparticularconditionandsituation。"Ourapprobationofacertainkindofmilitarycharacterisfoundedentirelyonhabit；forwearetaughtbycustomtoannextothemilitaryprofession"thecharacterofgaiety，levity，andsprightlyfreedom，aswellasofsomedegreeofdissipation。"Whateverbehaviourwehavebeenaccustomedtoseeinanyorderofmen，comestobesoassociatedwiththatorder，thatwheneverweseetheoneweexpecttoseetheother，andarepleasedordisappointedaccordingasweseeitornot。Nevertheless，theremayexistaproprietyofprofessionalbehaviour，independentofthecustomwhichleadsustoexpectit；andwefeelthat，apartfromallcustom，thereisaproprietyinthegravityofmannerswhichcustomhasallottedtotheprofessionofaclergyman。