，allpoetry，beingaspeciesofpainting，approachesusnearertotheobjectsthananyotherspeciesofnarration，throwsastrongerlightuponthem，anddelineatesmoredistinctlythoseminutecircumstanceswhich，thoughtothehistoriantheyseemsuperfluous，servemightilytoenliventheimageryandgratifythefancy。Ifitbenotnecessary，asinthe，toinformuseachtimetheherobuckleshisshoesandtieshisgarters，itwillberequisite，perhaps，toenterintoagreaterdetailthaninthe，wheretheeventsarerunoverwithsuchrapiditythatwescarcehaveleisuretobecomeacquaintedwiththesceneoraction。Wereapoet，therefore，tocomprehendinhissubjectanygreatcompassoftimeorseriesofevents，andtraceupthedeathofHectortoitsremotecausesintherapeofHelenorthejudgmentofParis，hemustdrawouthispoemtoanimmeasurablelengthinordertofillthislargecanvasswithjustpaintingandimagery。
　　Thereader'simagination，inflamedwithsuchaseriesofpoeticaldescriptions，andhispassions，agitatedbyacontinualsympathywiththeactors，mustflaglongbeforetheperiodofnarrationandmustsinkintolassitudeanddisgustfromtherepeatedviolenceofthesamemovements。
　　，thatanepicpoetmustnottracethecausestoanygreatdistancewillfurtherappearifweconsideranotherreason，whichisdrawnfromapropertyofthepassionsstillmoreremarkableandsingular。Itisevidentthatinajustcompositionalltheaffectionsexcitedbythedifferenteventsdescribedandrepresentedaddmutualforcetoeachother；andthat，whiletheheroesareallengagedinonecommonscene，andeachactionisstronglyconnectedwiththewhole，theconcerniscontinuallyawake，andthepassionsmakeaneasytransitionfromoneobjecttoanother。
　　Thestrongconnectionoftheevents，asitfacilitatesthepassageofthethoughtorimaginationfromonetoanother，facilitatesalsothetransfusionofthepassionsandpreservestheaffectionstillinthesamechannelanddirection。OursympathyandconcernforEvepreparesthewayforalikesympathywithAdam:Theaffectionispreservedalmostentireinthetransition，andthemindseizesimmediatelythenewobjectasstronglyrelatedtothatwhichformerlyengageditsattention。Butwerethepoettomakeatotaldigressionfromhissubjectandintroduceanewactornowayconnectedwiththepersonages，theimagination，feelingabreachinthetransition，wouldentercoldlyintothenewscene；wouldkindlebyslowdegrees；andinreturningtothemainsubjectofthepoemwouldpass，asitwere，uponforeigngroundandhaveitsconcerntoexciteanewinordertotakepartywiththeprincipalactors。Thesameinconveniencefollowsinalesserdegreewherethepoettraceshiseventstotoogreatadistanceandbindstogetheractionswhich，thoughnotaltogetherdisjoined，havenotsostrongaconnectionasisrequisitetoforwardthetransitionofthepassions。Hencearisestheartificeofobliquenarrationemployedintheand——
　　wheretheheroisintroduced，atfirst，neartheperiodofhisdesigns，andafterwardsshowsus，asitwereinperspective，themoredistanteventsandcauses。Bythismeans，thereader'scuriosityisimmediatelyexcited；theeventsfollowwithrapidity，andinaverycloseconnection；
　　andtheconcernpreservedalive，andcontinuallyincreasesbymeansofthenearrelationoftheobjects，fromthebeginningtotheendofthenarration。
　　Thesameruletakesplaceindramaticpoetry；norisiteverpermittedinaregularcompositiontointroduceanactorwhohasnoconnection，orbutasmallone，withtheprinciplepersonagesofthefable。Thespectator'sconcernmustnotbedivertedbyanyscenesdisjoinedandseparatedfromtherest。Thisbreaksthecourseofthepassions，andpreventsthatcommunicationoftheseveralemotionsbywhichonesceneaddsforcetoanother，andtransfusesthepityandterrorwhichitexcitesuponeachsucceedingsceneuntilthewholeproducesthatrapidityofmovementwhichispeculiartothetheater。Howmustitextinguishthiswarmthoraffectiontobeentertainedonasuddenwithanewactionandnewpersonagesnowayrelatedtotheformer；tofindsosensibleabreachorvacuityinthecourseofthepassions，bymeansofthisbreachintheconnectionofideas；andinsteadofcarryingthesympathyofonesceneintothefollowing，tobeobligedeverymomenttoexciteanewconcern，andtakepartyinanewsceneofaction？
　　Butthoughthisruleofunityofactionbecommontodramaticandepicpoetry，wemaystillobserveadifferencebetwixtthemwhichmay，perhaps，deserveourattention。Inboththesespeciesofcompositionitisrequisitetheactionbeoneandsimple，inordertopreservetheconcernorsympathyentireandundiverted:Butinepicornarrativepoetry，thisruleisalsoestablisheduponanotherfoundation，/VIZ\。thenecessitythatisincumbentoneverywritertoformsomeplanordesignbeforeheenteronanydiscourseornarration，andtocomprehendhissubjectinsomegeneralaspectorunitedviewwhichmaybetheconstantobjectofhisattention。Astheauthorisentirelylostindramaticcompositions，andthespectatorsupposeshimselftobereallypresentattheactionsrepresented，thisreasonhasnoplacewithregardtothestage；butanydialogueorconversationmaybeintroducedwhich，withoutimprobability，mighthavepassedinthatdeterminateportionofspacerepresentedbythetheater。Hence，inallourEnglishcomedies，eventhoseofC/ONGREVE\，theunity
　　ofactionisneverstrictlyobserved；butthepoetthinksitsufficientifhispersonagesbeanywayrelatedtoeachotherbyblood，orbylivinginthesamefamily；andheafterwardsintroducestheminparticularscenes，wheretheydisplaytheirhumorsandcharacterswithoutmuchforwardingthemainaction。ThedoubleplotsofT/ERENCE\arelicensesofthesamekind，butinalesserdegree。Andthoughthisconductbenotperfectlyregular，itisnotwhollyunsuitabletothenatureofcomedy，wherethemovementsandpassionsarenotraisedtosuchaheightasintragedy；atthesametimethatthefictionorrepresentationpalliates，incomedegree，suchlicenses。Inanarrativepoem，thefirstpropositionordesignconfinestheauthortoonesubject；andanydigressionsofthisnaturewould，atfirstview，berejectedasabsurdandmonstrous。NeitherB/OCCACE\，L/A\F/ONTAINE\，noranyauthorofthatkind，thoughpleasantrybetheirchiefobject，
　　haveeverindulgedthem。
　　Toreturntothecomparisonofhistoryandepicpoetry，wemayconcludefromtheforegoingreasoningsthatasacertainunityisrequisiteinallproductions，itcannotbewantingtohistorymorethantoanyother；thatinhistorytheconnectionamongtheseveraleventswhichunitesthemintoonebodyistherelationofcauseandeffect，thesamewhichtakesplaceinepicpoetry；andthat，inthelattercomposition，thisconnectionisonlyrequiredtobecloserandmoresensibleonaccountofthelivelyimaginationandstrongpassionswhichmustbetouchedbythepoetinhisnarration。theP/ELOPONNESIAN\warisapropersubjectforhistory，thesiegeofA/THENS\foranepicpoem，andthedeathofA/LCIBIADES\foratragedy。
　　Asthedifference，therefore，betwixthistoryandepicpoetryconsistsonlyinthedegreesofconnectionwhichbindtogetherthoseseveraleventsofwhichtheirsubjectiscomposed，itwillbedifficult，ifnotimpossible，bywordstodetermineexactlytheboundswhichseparatethemfromeachother。Thatisamatteroftastemorethanofreasoning；andperhapsthisunitymayoftenbediscoveredinasubjectwhere，atfirstview，andfromanabstractconsideration，weshouldleastexpecttofindit。
　　ItisevidentthatH/OMER\，inthecourseofhisnarration，exceedsthefirstpropositionofhissubject；andthattheangerofA/CHILLES\，whichcausedthedeathofH/ECTOR\，isnotthesamewiththatwhichproducedsomanyillstotheG/REEKS\。Butthestrongconnectionbetwixtthesetwomovements，thequicktransitionfromonetotheother，thecontrastbetwixttheeffectsofconcordanddiscordamongsttheprinces，andthenaturalcuriositywehavetoseeA/CHILLES\inactionaftersolongrepose——allthesecausescarryonthereader，andproduceasufficientunityinthesubject。
　　ItmaybeobjectedtoM/ILTON\thathehastraceduphiscausestotoogreatadistance，andthattherebellionoftheangelsproducesthefallofmanbyatrainofeventswhichisbothverylongandverycasual。Nottomentionthatthecreationoftheworld，whichhehasrelatedatlength，isnomorethecauseofthatcatastrophethanofthebattleofP/HARSALIA\，oranyothereventthathaseverharpooned。
　　Butifweconsider，ontheotherhand，thatalltheseevents，therebellionoftheangels，thecreationoftheworld，andthefallofman，eachotherinbeingmiraculous，andoutofthecommoncourseofnature；thattheyaresupposedtobeintime；andthat，beingdetachedfromallotherevents，andbeingtheonlyoriginalfactswhichrevelationdiscovers，theystriketheeyeatonce，andnaturallyrecalleachothertothethoughtorimagination——ifweconsiderallthesecircumstances，I
　　say，weshallfindthatthesepartsoftheactionhaveasufficientunitytomakethembecomprehendedinonefableornarration。Towhichwemayaddthattherebellionoftheangelsandthefallofmanhaveapeculiarresemblance，asbeingcounterpartstoeachother，andpresentingtothereaderthesamemoralofobediencetoourCreator。
　　TheseloosehintsIhavethrowntogetherinordertoexcitethecuriosityofphilosophers，andbegetasuspicionatleastifnotafullpersuasionthatthissubjectisverycopious，andthatmanyoperationsofthehumanminddependontheconnectionorassociationofideaswhichishereexplained。Particularly，thesympathybetwixtthepassionsandimaginationwill，perhaps，appearremarkable；whileweobservethattheaffections，excitedbyoneobject，passeasilytoanotherconnectedwithit，buttransfusethemselveswithdifficulty，ornotatall，alongdifferentobjectswhichhavenomannerofconnectiontogether。Byintroducingintoanycompositionpersonagesandactionsforeign
　　toeachother，aninjudiciousauthorlosesthatcommunicationofemotionsbywhichalonehecaninteresttheheartandraisethepassionstotheirproperheightandperiod。thefullexplicationofthisprincipleandallitsconsequenceswouldleadusintoreasoningstooprofoundandtoocopiousfortheseEssays。Itissufficientforus，atpresent，tohaveestablishedthisconclusion，thatthethreeconnectingprinciplesofallideasaretherelationsof，，and。
　　SECTIONIV。
　　ScepticalDoubtsConcerningtheOperationsoftheUnderstanding。
　　PARTI。
　　A/LL\theobjectsofhumanreasonorenquirymaynaturallybedividedintotwokinds，towit，，and。OfthefirstkindarethesciencesofGeometry，Algebra，andArithmetic；andinshort，everyaffirmationwhichiseitherintuitivelyordemonstrativelycertain。，isapropositionwhichexpressesarelationbetweenthesefigures。，expressesarelationbetweenthesenumbers。Propositionsofthiskindarediscoverablebythemereoperationofthought，withoutdependenceonwhatisanywhereexistentintheuniverse。
　　Thoughthereneverwereacircleortriangleinnature，thetruthsdemonstratedbyEuclidwouldforeverretaintheircertaintyandevidence。
　　Mattersoffact，whicharethesecondobjectsofhumanreason，arenotascertainedinthesamemanner；norisourevidenceoftheirtruth，howevergreat，ofalikenaturewiththeforegoing。Thecontraryofeverymatteroffactisstillpossible；becauseitcanneverimplyacontradiction，andisconceivedbythemindwiththesamefacilityanddistinctness，asifeversoconformabletoreality。isnolessintelligibleaproposition，andimpliesnomorecontradictionthantheaffirmation，。Weshouldinvain，therefore，attempttodemonstrateitsfalsehood。Wereitdemonstrativelyfalse，itwouldimplyacontradiction，andcouldneverbedistinctlyconceivedbythemind。
　　Itmay，therefore，beasubjectworthyofcuriosity，toenquirewhatisthenatureofthatevidence
　　whichassuresusofanyrealexistenceandmatteroffact，beyondthepresenttestimonyofoursenses，ortherecordsofourmemory。Thispartofphilosophy，itisobservable，hasbeenlittlecultivated，eitherbytheancientsormoderns；andthereforeourdoubtsanderrors，intheprosecutionofsoimportantanenquiry，maybethemoreexcusable；whilewemarchthroughsuchdifficultpathswithoutanyguideordirection。Theymayevenproveuseful，byexcitingcuriosity，anddestroyingthatimplicitfaithandsecurity，whichisthebaneofallreasoningandfreeenquiry。Thediscoveryofdefectsinthecommonphilosophy，ifanysuchtherebe，willnot，I
　　presume，beadiscouragement，butratheranincitement，asisusual，toattemptsomethingmorefullandsatisfactorythanhasyetbeenproposedtothepublic。
　　Allreasoningsconcerningmatteroffactseemtobefoundedontherelationof。Bymeansofthatrelationalonewecangobeyondtheevidenceofourmemoryandsenses。Ifyouweretoaskaman，whyhebelievesanymatteroffact，whichisabsent；forinstance，thathisfriendisinthecountry，orinF/RANCE\；hewouldgiveyouareason；andthisreasonwouldbesomeotherfact；asaletterreceivedfromhim，ortheknowledgeofhisformerresolutionsandpromises。Amanfindingawatchoranyothermachineinadesertisland，wouldconcludethattherehadoncebeenmeninthatisland。Allourreasoningsconcerningfactareofthesamenature。Andhereitisconstantlysupposedthatthereisaconnexionbetweenthepresentfactandthatwhichisinferredfromit。Weretherenothingtobindthemtogether，the
　　inferencewouldbeentirelyprecarious。Thehearingofanarticulatevoiceandrationaldiscourseinthedarkassuresusofthepresenceofsomeperson:Why？becausethesearetheeffectsofthehumanmakeandfabric，andcloselyconnectedwithit。Ifweanatomizealltheotherreasoningsofthisnature，weshallfindthattheyarefoundedontherelationofcauseandeffect，andthatthisrelationiseithernearorremote，directorcollateral。Heatandlightarecollateraleffectsoffire，andtheoneeffectmayjustlybeinferredfromtheother。
　　Ifwewouldsatisfyourselves，therefore，concerningthenatureofthatevidence，whichassuresusofmattersoffact，wemustenquirehowwearriveattheknowledgeofcauseandeffect。
　　Ishallventuretoaffirm，asageneralproposition，whichadmitsofnoexception，thattheknowledgeofthisrelationisnot，inanyinstance，attainedbyreasonings；butarisesentirelyfromexperience，whenwefindthatanyparticularobjectsareconstantlyconjoinedwitheachother。Letanobjectbepresentedtoamanofeversostrongnaturalreasonandabilities；ifthatobjectbeentirelynewtohim，hewillnotbeable，bythemostaccurateexaminationofitssensiblequalities，todiscoveranyofitscausesoreffects。A/DAM\，thoughhisrationalfacultiesbesupposed，attheveryfirst，entirelyperfect，couldnothaveinferredfromthefluidityandtransparencyofwaterthatitwouldsuffocatehim，orfromthelightandwarmthoffirethatitwouldconsumehim。Noobjecteverdiscovers，bythequalitieswhichappeartothesenses，eitherthecauseswhichproducedit，ortheeffectswhichwillarisefromit；norcanourreason，unassistedbyexperience，everdrawanyinferenceconcerningrealexistenceandmatteroffact。
　　Thisproposition，，willreadilybeadmittedwithregardtosuchobjects，asweremembertohaveoncebeenaltogetherunknowntous；sincewemustbeconsciousoftheutterinability，whichwethenlayunder，offoretellingwhatwouldarisefromthem。Presenttwosmoothpiecesofmarbletoamanwhohasnotinctureofnaturalphilosophy；hewillneverdiscoverthattheywilladheretogetherinsuchamannerastorequiregreatforcetoseparatetheminadirectline，whiletheymakesosmallaresistancetoalateralpressure。Suchevents，asbearlittleanalogytothecommoncourseofnature，arealsoreadilyconfessedtobeknownonlybyexperience；nordoesanymanimaginethattheexplosionofgunpowder，ortheattractionofaloadstone，couldeverbediscoveredbyarguments。Inlikemanner，whenaneffectissupposedtodependuponanintricatemachineryorsecretstructureofparts，wemakenodifficultyinattributingallourknowledgeofittoexperience。Whowillassertthathecangivetheultimatereason，whymilkorbreadispropernourishmentforaman，notforalionoratyger？
　　Butthesametruthmaynotappear，atfirstsight，tohavethesameevidencewithregardtoevents，whichhavebecomefamiliartousfromourfirstappearanceintheworld，whichbearacloseanalogytothewholecourseofnature，andwhicharesupposedtodependonthesimplequalitiesofobjects，withoutanysecretstructureofparts。
　　Weareapttoimaginethatwecoulddiscovertheseeffectsbythemereoperationofourreason，withoutexperience。Wefancy，thatwerewebroughtonasuddenintothisworld，wecouldatfirsthaveinferredthatoneBilliard-ballwouldcommunicatemotiontoanotheruponimpulse；andthatweneedednottohavewaitedfortheevent，inordertopronouncewithcertaintyconcerningit。Suchistheinfluenceofcustom，that，whereitisstrongest，itnotonlycoversournaturalignorance，butevenconcealsitself，andseemsnottotakeplace，merelybecauseitisfoundinthehighestdegree。
　　Buttoconvinceusthatallthelawsofnature，andalltheoperationsofbodieswithoutexception，areknownonlybyexperience，thefollowingreflectionsmay，perhaps，suffice。Wereanyobjectpresentedtous，andwerewerequiredtopronounceconcerningtheeffect，whichwillresultfromit，withoutconsultingpastobservation；afterwhatmanner，Ibeseechyou，mustthemindproceedinthisoperation？Itmustinventorimaginesomeevent，whichitascribestotheobjectasitseffect；anditisplainthatthisinventionmustbeentirelyarbitrary。Themindcanneverpossiblyfindtheeffectinthesupposedcause，bythemostaccuratescrutinyandexamination。Fortheeffectistotallydifferentfromthecause，andconsequentlycanneverbediscoveredinit。MotioninthesecondBilliard-ballisaquitedistincteventfrommotioninthefirst；noristhereanythingintheonetosuggestthesmallesthintoftheother。Astoneorpieceofmetalraisedintotheair，andleftwithoutanysupport，immediatelyfalls:Buttoconsiderthematter，
　　isthereanythingwediscoverinthissituationwhichcanbegettheideaofadownward，ratherthananupward，oranyothermotion，inthestoneormetal？
　　Andasthefirstimaginationorinventionofaparticulareffect，inallnaturaloperations，isarbitrary，whereweconsultnotexperience；somustwealsoesteemthesupposedtieorconnexionbetweenthecauseandeffect，whichbindsthemtogether，andrendersitimpossiblethatanyothereffectcouldresultfromtheoperationofthatcause。WhenIsee，forinstance，aBilliard-ballmovinginastraightlinetowardsanother；evensupposemotioninthesecondballshouldbyaccidentbesuggestedtome，astheresultoftheircontactorimpulse；mayInotconceive，thatahundreddifferenteventsmightaswellfollowfromthatcause？Maynotboththeseballsremainatabsoluterest？Maynotthefirstballreturninastraightline，orleapofffromthesecondinanylineordirection？Allthesesuppositionsareconsistentandconceivable。Whythenshouldwegivethepreferencetoone，whichisnomoreconsistentorconceivablethantherest？Allourreasonings
　　willneverbeabletoshowusanyfoundationforthispreference。
　　Inaword，then，everyeffectisadistincteventfromitscause。Itcouldnot，therefore，bediscoveredinthecause，andthefirstinventionorconceptionofit，，mustbeentirelyarbitrary。Andevenafteritissuggested，theconjunctionofitwiththecausemustappearequallyarbitrary；sincetherearealwaysmanyothereffects，which，toreason，mustseemfullyasconsistentandnatural。Invain，therefore，shouldwepretendtodetermineanysingleevent，orinferanycauseoreffect，withouttheassistanceofobservationandexperience。
　　Hencewemaydiscoverthereasonwhynophilosopher，whoisrationalandmodest，haseverpretendedtoassigntheultimatecauseofanynaturaloperation，ortoshowdistinctlytheactionofthatpower，whichproducesanysingleeffectintheuniverse。Itisconfessed，thattheutmosteffortofhumanreasonistoreducetheprinciples，productiveofnaturalphenomena，toagreatersimplicity，andtoresolvethemanyparticulareffectsintoafewgeneralcauses，bymeansofreasoningsfromanalogy，experience，andobservation。Butastothecausesofthesegeneralcauses，weshouldinvainattempttheirdiscovery；
　　norshallweeverbeabletosatisfyourselves，byanyparticularexplicationofthem。Theseultimatespringsandprinciplesaretotallyshutupfromhumancuriosityandenquiry。Elasticity，gravity，cohesionofparts，communicationofmotionbyimpulse；theseareprobablytheultimatecausesandprincipleswhichweshalleverdiscoverinnature；andwemayesteemourselvessufficientlyhappy，if，byaccurateenquiryandreasoning，wecantraceuptheparticularphenomenato，ornearto，thesegeneralprinciples。Themostperfectphilosophyofthenaturalkindonlystavesoffourignorancealittlelonger:Asperhapsthemostperfectphilosophyofthemoralormetaphysicalkindservesonlytodiscoverlargerportionsofit。Thustheobservationofhumanblindnessandweaknessistheresultofallphilosophy，andmeetsusateveryturn，inspiteofourendeavourstoeludeoravoidit。
　　Norisgeometry，whentakenintotheassistanceofnaturalphilosophy，everabletoremedythisdefect，orleadusintotheknowledgeofultimatecauses，byallthataccuracyofreasoningforwhichitissojustlycelebrated。
　　Everypartofmixedmathematicsproceedsuponthesuppositionthatcertainlawsareestablishedbynatureinheroperations；andabstractreasoningsareemployed，eithertoassistexperienceinthediscoveryoftheselaws，ortodeterminetheirinfluenceinparticularinstances，whereitdependsuponanyprecisedegreeofdistanceandquantity。
　　Thus，itisalawofmotion，discoveredbyexperience，thatthemomentorforceofanybodyinmotionisinthecompoundratioorproportionofitssolidcontentsanditsvelocity；
　　andconsequently，thatasmallforcemayremovethegreatestobstacleorraisethegreatestweight，if，byanycontrivanceormachinery，wecanincreasethevelocityofthatforce，soastomakeitanovermatchforitsantagonist。Geometryassistsusintheapplicationofthislaw，bygivingusthejustdimensionsofallthepartsandfigureswhichcanenterintoanyspeciesofmachine；butstillthediscoveryofthelawitselfisowingmerelytoexperience，andalltheabstractreasoningsintheworldcouldneverleadusonesteptowardstheknowledgeofit。
　　Whenwereason，andconsidermerelyanyobjectorcause，asitappearstothemind，independentofallobservation，itnevercouldsuggesttousthenotionofanydistinctobject，suchasitseffect；muchless，showustheinseparableandinviolableconnexionbetweenthem。Amanmustbeverysagaciouswhocoulddiscoverbyreasoningthatcrystalistheeffectofheat，andiceofcold，withoutbeingpreviouslyacquaintedwiththeoperationofthesequalities。
　　PARTII。
　　B/UT\wehavenotyetattainedanytolerablesatisfactionwithregardtothequestionfirstproposed。
　　Eachsolutionstillgivesrisetoanewquestionasdifficultastheforegoing，andleadsusontofartherenquiries。Whenitisasked，theproperanswerseemstobe，thattheyarefoundedontherelationofcauseandeffect。Whenagainitisasked，itmayberepliedinoneword，E/XPERIENCE\。Butifwestillcarryonoursiftinghumour，andask，thisimpliesanewquestion，whichmaybeofmoredifficultsolutionandexplication。Philosophers，thatgivethemselvesairsofsuperiorwisdomandsufficiency，haveahardtaskwhentheyencounterpersonsofinquisitivedispositions，whopushthemfromeverycornertowhichtheyretreat，andwhoaresureatlasttobringthemtosomedangerousdilemma。
　　Thebestexpedienttopreventthisconfusion，istobemodestinourpretensions；andeventodiscoverthedifficultyourselvesbeforeitisobjectedtous。Bythismeans，wemaymakeakindofmeritofourveryignorance。
　　Ishallcontentmyself，inthissection，withaneasytask，andshallpretendonlytogiveanegativeanswertothequestionhereproposed。Isaythen，that，evenafterwehaveexperienceoftheoperationsofcauseandeffect，ourconclusionsfromthatexperiencearenotfoundedonreasoning，oranyprocessoftheunderstanding。Thisanswerwemustendeavourbothtoexplainandtodefend。
　　Itmustcertainlybeallowed，thatnaturehaskeptusatagreatdistancefromallhersecrets，andhasaffordedusonlytheknowledgeofafewsuperficialqualitiesofobjects；whilesheconcealsfromusthosepowersandprinciplesonwhichtheinfluenceofthoseobjectsentirelydepends。Oursensesinformusofthecolour，weight，andconsistenceofbread；butneithersensenorreasoncaneverinformusofthosequalitieswhichfititforthenourishmentandsupportofahumanbody。Sightorfeelingconveysanideaoftheactualmotionofbodies；butastothatwonderfulforceorpower，whichwouldcarryonamovingbodyforeverinacontinuedchangeofplace，andwhichbodiesneverlosebutbycommunicatingittoothers；ofthiswecannotformthemostdistantconception。Butnotwithstandingthisignoranceofnaturalpowers[11]andprinciples，wealwayspresume，whenweseelikesensiblequalities，thattheyhavelikesecretpowers，andexpectthateffects，similartothosewhichwehaveexperienced，willfollowfromthem。Ifabodyoflikecolourandconsistencewiththatbread，whichwehaveformerlyeat，bepresentedtous，wemakenoscrupleofrepeatingtheexperiment，andforesee，
　　withcertainty，likenourishmentandsupport。Nowthisisaprocessofthemindorthought，ofwhichIwouldwillinglyknowthefoundation。Itisallowedonallhandsthatthereisnoknownconnexionbetweenthesensiblequalitiesandthesecretpowers；andconsequently，thatthemindisnotledtoformsuchaconclusionconcerningtheirconstantandregularconjunction，byanythingwhichitknowsoftheirnature。Astopast，itcanbeallowedtogiveandinformationofthosepreciseobjectsonly，andthatpreciseperiodoftime，whichfellunderitscognizance:Butwhythisexperienceshouldbeextendedtofuturetimes，andtootherobjects，whichforaughtweknow，maybeonlyinappearancesimilar；thisisthemainquestiononwhichIwouldinsist。Thebread，whichIformerlyeat，nourishedme；thatis，abodyofsuchsensiblequalitieswas，atthattime，enduedwithsuchsecretpowers:Butdoesitfollow，
　　thatotherbreadmustalsonourishmeatanothertime，andthatlikesensiblequalitiesmustalwaysbeattendedwithlikesecretpowers？Theconsequenceseemsnowisenecessary。Atleast，itmustbeacknowledgedthatthereishereaconsequencedrawnbythemind；thatthereisacertainsteptaken；aprocessofthought，andaninference，whichwantstobeexplained。Thesetwopropositionsarefarfrombeingthesame，，and。
　　Ishallallow，ifyouplease，thattheonepropositionmayjustlybeinferredfromtheother:Iknow，infact，thatitalwaysisinferred。Butifyouinsistthattheinferenceismadebyachainofreasoning，Idesireyoutoproducethatreasoning。Theconnexionbetweenthesepropositionsisnotintuitive。Thereisrequiredamedium，whichmayenablethemindtodrawsuchaninference，ifindeeditbedrawnbyreasoningandargument。Whatthatmediumis，Imustconfess，passesmycomprehension；anditisincumbentonthosetoproduceit，whoassertthatitreallyexists，andistheoriginofallourconclusionsconcerningmatteroffact。
　　Thisnegativeargumentmustcertainly，inprocessoftime，becomealtogetherconvincing，ifmanypenetratingandablephilosophersshallturntheirenquiriesthiswayandnoonebeeverabletodiscoveranyconnectingpropositionorintermediatestep，whichsupportstheunderstandinginthisconclusion。Butasthequestionisyetnew，everyreadermaynottrustsofartohisownpenetration，astoconclude，becauseanargumentescapeshisenquiry，thatthereforeitdoesnotreallyexist。Forthisreasonitmayberequisitetoventureuponamoredifficulttask；andenumeratingallthebranchesofhumanknowledge，endeavourtoshowthatnoneofthemcanaffordsuchanargument。
　　Allreasoningsmaybedividedintotwokinds，namely，demonstrativereasoning，orthatconcerningrelationsofideas，andmoralreasoning，orthatconcerningmatteroffactandexistence。Thattherearenodemonstrativeargumentsinthecaseseemsevident；sinceitimpliesnocontradictionthatthecourseofnaturemaychange，andthatanobject，seeminglylikethosewhichwehaveexperienced，maybeattendedwithdifferentorcontraryeffects。MayI
　　notclearlyanddistinctlyconceivethatabody，fallingfromtheclouds，andwhich，inallotherrespects，resemblessnow，hasyetthetasteofsaltorfeelingoffire？Isthereanymoreintelligiblepropositionthantoaffirm，thatallthetreeswillflourishinD/ECEMBER\andJ/ANUARY\，anddecayinM/AY\andJ/UNE\？Nowwhateverisintelligible，andcanbedistinctlyconceived，impliesnocontradiction，andcanneverbeprovedfalsebyanydemonstrativeargumentorabstractreasoning。
　　Ifwebe，therefore，engagedbyargumentstoputtrustinpastexperience，andmakeitthestandardofourfuturejudgment，theseargumentsmustbeprobableonly，orsuchasregardmatteroffactandrealexistenceaccordingtothedivisionabovementioned。Butthatthereisnoargumentofthiskind，mustappear，ifourexplicationofthatspeciesofreasoningbeadmittedassolidandsatisfactory。Wehavesaidthatallargumentsconcerningexistencearefoundedontherelationofcauseandeffect；thatourknowledgeofthatrelationisderivedentirelyfromexperience；andthatallourexperimentalconclusionsproceeduponthesuppositionthatthefuturewillbeconformabletothepast。Toendeavour，therefore，theproofofthislastsuppositionbyprobablearguments，orargumentsregardingexistence，mustbeevidentlygoinginacircle，andtakingthatforgranted，whichistheverypointinquestion。
　　Inreality，allargumentsfromexperiencearefoundedonthesimilaritywhichwediscoveramongnaturalobjects，andbywhichweareinducedtoexpecteffectssimilartothosewhichwehavefoundtofollowfromsuchobjects。Andthoughnonebutafoolormadmanwilleverpretendtodisputetheauthorityofexperience，ortorejectthatgreatguideofhumanlife，itmaysurelybeallowedaphilosophertohavesomuchcuriosityatleastastoexaminetheprincipleofhumannature，whichgivesthismightyauthoritytoexperience，andmakesusdrawadvantagefromthatsimilaritywhichnaturehasplacedamongdifferentobjects。
　　Fromcauseswhich，appear，weexpectsimilareffects。Thisisthesumofallourexperimentalconclusions。Nowitseemsevidentthat，ifthisconclusionwereformedbyreason，itwouldbeasperfectatfirst，andupononeinstance，asaftereversolongacourseofexperience。Butthecaseisfarotherwise。Nothingsolikeaseggs；yetnoone，onaccountofthisappearingsimilarity，expectsthesametasteandrelishinallofthem。Itisonlyafteralongcourseofuniformexperimentsinanykind，thatweattainafirmrelianceandsecuritywithregardtoaparticularevent。Nowwhereisthatprocessofreasoningwhich，fromoneinstance，drawsaconclusion，sodifferentfromthatwhichitinfersfromahundredinstancesthatarenowisedifferentfromthatsingleone？
　　ThisquestionIproposeasmuchforthesakeofinformation，aswithanintentionofraisingdifficulties。Icannotfind，Icannotimagineanysuchreasoning。ButIkeepmymindstillopentoinstruction，ifanyonewillvouchsafetobestowitonme。
　　Shoulditbesaidthat，fromanumberofuniformexperiments，weaconnexionbetweenthesensiblequalitiesandthesecretpowers；this，Imustconfess，seemsthesamedifficulty，couchedindifferentterms。Thequestionstillrecurs，onwhatprocessofargumentthisisfounded？Whereisthemedium，theinterposingideas，whichjoinpropositionssoverywideofeachother？
　　Itisconfessedthatthecolour，consistence，andothersensiblequalitiesofbreadappearnot，ofthemselves，tohaveanyconnexionwiththesecretpowersofnourishmentandsupport。Forotherwisewecouldinferthesesecretpowersfromthefirstappearanceofthesesensiblequalities，withouttheaidofexperience；contrarytothesentimentofallphilosophers，andcontrarytoplainmatteroffact。
　　Here，then，isournaturalstateofignorancewithregardtothepowersandinfluenceofallobjects。Howisthisremediedbyexperience？Itonlyshowsusanumberofuniformeffects，resultingfromcertainobjects，andteachesusthatthoseparticularobjects，atthatparticulartime，wereendowedwithsuchpowersandforces。Whenanewobject，endowedwithsimilarsensiblequalities，isproduced，weexpectsimilarpowersandforces，andlookforalikeeffect。Fromabodyoflikecolourandconsistencewithbreadweexpectlikenourishmentandsupport。Butthissurelyisasteporprogressofthemind，whichwantstobeexplained。Whenamansays，Andwhenhesays，；heisnotguiltyofatautology，norarethesepropositionsinanyrespectthesame。Yousaythattheonepropositionisaninferencefromtheother。Butyoumustconfessthattheinferenceisnotintuitive；neitherisitdemonstrative:Ofwhat
　　natureisit，then？Tosayitisexperimental，isbeggingthequestion。Forallinferencesfromexperiencesuppose，astheirfoundation，thatthefuturewillresemblethepast，andthatsimilarpowerswillbeconjoinedwithsimilarsensiblequalities。Iftherebeanysuspicionthatthecourseofnaturemaychange，andthatthepastmaybenoruleforthefuture，allexperiencebecomesuseless，andcangiverisetonoinferenceorconclusion。Itisimpossible，therefore，thatanyargumentsfromexperiencecanprovethisresemblanceofthepasttothefuture；sincealltheseargumentsarefoundedonthesuppositionofthatresemblance。Letthecourseofthingsbeallowedhithertoeversoregular；thatalone，withoutsomenewargumentorinference，provesnotthat，forthefuture，itwillcontinueso。Invaindoyoupretendtohavelearnedthenatureofbodiesfromyourpastexperience。Theirsecretnature，andconsequentlyalltheireffectsandinfluence，maychange，withoutanychangeintheirsensiblequalities。
　　Thishappenssometimes，andwithregardtosomeobjects:Whymayitnothappenalways，andwithregardtoallobjects？
　　Whatlogic，whatprocessorargumentsecuresyouagainstthissupposition？Mypractice，yousay，refutesmydoubts。
　　Butyoumistakethepurportofmyquestion。Asanagent，I
　　amquitesatisfiedinthepoint；butasaphilosopher，whohassomeshareofcuriosity，Iwillnotsayscepticism，I
　　wanttolearnthefoundationofthisinference。Noreading，noenquiryhasyetbeenabletoremovemydifficulty，orgivemesatisfactioninamatterofsuchimportance。CanI
　　dobetterthanproposethedifficultytothepublic，eventhough，perhaps，Ihavesmallhopesofobtainingasolution？
　　Weshallatleast，bythismeans，besensibleofourignorance，ifwedonotaugmentourknowledge。
　　Imustconfessthatamanisguiltyofunpardonablearrogancewhoconcludes，becauseanargumenthasescapedhisowninvestigation，thatthereforeitdoesnotreallyexist。
　　Imustalsoconfessthat，thoughallthelearned，forseveralages，shouldhaveemployedthemselvesinfruitlesssearchuponanysubject，itmaystill，perhaps，berashtoconcludepositivelythatthesubjectmust，therefore，passallhumancomprehension。Eventhoughweexamineallthesourcesofourknowledge，andconcludethemunfitforsuchasubject，theremaystillremainasuspicion，thattheenumerationisnotcomplete，ortheexaminationnotaccurate。Butwithregardtothepresentsubject，therearesomeconsiderationswhichseemtoremoveallthisaccusationofarroganceorsuspicionofmistake。
　　Itiscertainthatthemostignorantandstupidpeasants——nayinfants，nayevenbrutebeasts——improvebyexperience，andlearnthequalitiesofnaturalobjects，byobservingtheeffectswhichresultfromthem。Whenachildhasfeltthesensationofpainfromtouchingtheflameofacandle，hewillbecarefulnottoputhishandnearanycandle；
　　butwillexpectasimilareffectfromacausewhichissimilarinitssensiblequalitiesandappearance。Ifyouassert，therefore，thattheunderstandingofthechildisledintothisconclusionbyanyprocessofargumentorratiocination，Imayjustlyrequireyoutoproducethatargument；norhaveyouanypretencetorefusesoequitableademand。Youcannotsaythattheargumentisabstruse，andmaypossiblyescapeyourenquiry；sinceyouconfessthatitisobvioustothecapacityofamereinfant。Ifyouhesitate，therefore，amoment，orif，afterreflection，youproduceanyintricateorprofoundargument，you，inamanner，giveupthequestion，andconfessthatitisnotreasoningwhichengagesustosupposethepastresemblingthefuture，andtoexpectsimilareffectsfromcauseswhichare，toappearance，similar。ThisisthepropositionwhichI
　　intendedtoenforceinthepresentsection。IfIberight，I
　　pretendnottohavemadeanymightydiscovery。AndifIbewrong，Imustacknowledgemyselftobeindeedaverybackwardscholar；sinceIcannotnowdiscoveranargumentwhich，itseems，wasperfectlyfamiliartomelongbeforeI
　　wasoutofmycradle。
　　SECTIONV。
　　ScepticalSolutionoftheseDoubts。
　　PARTI。
　　T/HE\passionforphilosophy，likethatforreligion，seemsliabletothisinconvenience，that，thoughitaimsatthecorrectionofourmanners，andextirpationofourvices，itmayonlyserve，byimprudentmanagement，tofosterapredominantinclination，andpushthemind，withmoredeterminedresolution，towardsthatsidewhichalreadytoomuch，bythebiasandpropensityofthenaturaltemper。Itiscertainthat，whileweaspiretothemagnanimousfirmnessofthephilosophicsage，andendeavourtoconfineourpleasuresaltogetherwithinourownminds，wemay，atlast，renderourphilosophylikethatofE/PICTETUS\，andother，onlyamorerefinedsystemofselfishness，andreasonourselvesoutofallvirtueaswellassocialenjoyment。Whilewestudywithattentionthevanityofhumanlife，andturnallourthoughtstowardstheemptyandtransitorynatureofrichesandhonours，weare，perhaps，allthewhileflatteringournaturalindolence，which，hatingthebustleoftheworld，anddrudgeryofbusiness，seeksapretenceofreasontogiveitselfafullanduncontrolledindulgence。Thereis，however，onespeciesofphilosophywhichseemslittleliabletothisinconvenience，andthatbecauseitstrikesinwithnodisorderlypassionofthehumanmind，norcanmingleitselfwithanynaturalaffectionor
　　propensity；andthatistheA/CADEMIC\orS/CEPTICAL\philosophy。Theacademicsalwaystalkofdoubtandsuspenseofjudgment，ofdangerinhastydeterminations，ofconfiningtoverynarrowboundstheenquiriesoftheunderstanding，andofrenouncingallspeculationswhichlienotwithinthelimitsofcommonlifeandpractice。Nothing，therefore，canbemorecontrarythansuchaphilosophytothesupineindolenceofthemind，itsrasharrogance，itsloftypretensions，anditssuperstitiouscredulity。Everypassionismortifiedbyit，excepttheloveoftruth；andthatpassionneveris，norcanbe，carriedtotoohighadegree。Itissurprising，therefore，thatthisphilosophy，which，inalmosteveryinstance，mustbeharmlessandinnocent，shouldbethesubjectofsomuchgroundlessreproachandobloquy。But，perhaps，theverycircumstancewhichrendersitsoinnocentiswhatchieflyexposesittothepublichatredandresentment。Byflatteringnoirregularpassion，itgainsfewpartizans:Byopposingsomanyvicesandfollies，itraisestoitselfabundanceofenemies，whostigmatizeitaslibertine，profane，andirreligious。
　　Norneedwefearthatthisphilosophy，whileitendeavourstolimitourenquiriestocommonlife，shouldeverunderminethereasoningsofcommonlife，andcarryitsdoubtssofarastodestroyallaction，aswellasspeculation。Naturewillalwaysmaintainherrights，andprevailintheendoveranyabstractreasoningwhatsoever。
　　Thoughweshouldconclude，forinstance，asintheforegoingsection，that，inallreasoningsfromexperience，thereisasteptakenbythemindwhichisnotsupportedbyanyargumentorprocessoftheunderstanding；thereisnodangerthatthesereasonings，onwhichalmostallknowledgedepends，willeverbeaffectedbysuchadiscovery。Ifthemindbenotengagedbyargumenttomakethisstep，itmustbeinducedbysomeotherprincipleofequalweightandauthority；andthatprinciplewillpreserveitsinfluenceaslongashumannatureremainsthesame。Whatthatprincipleismaywellbeworththepainsofenquiry。
　　Supposeaperson，thoughendowedwiththestrongestfacultiesofreasonandreflection，tobebroughtonasuddenintothisworld；hewould，indeed，immediatelyobserveacontinualsuccessionofobjects，andoneeventfollowinganother；buthewouldnotbeabletodiscoveranythingfarther。Hewouldnot，atfirst，byanyreasoning，beabletoreach
　　theideaofcauseandeffect；sincetheparticularpowers，bywhichallnaturaloperationsareperformed，neverappeartothesenses；norisitreasonabletoconclude，merelybecauseoneevent，inoneinstance，precedesanother，thatthereforetheoneisthecause，theothertheeffect。Theirconjunctionmaybearbitraryandcasual。Theremaybenoreasontoinfertheexistenceofonefromtheappearanceoftheother。Andinaword，suchaperson，withoutmoreexperience，couldneveremployhisconjectureorreasoningconcerninganymatteroffact，orbeassuredofanythingbeyondwhatwasimmediatelypresenttohismemoryandsenses。