[Footnote141:SeealearneddissertationofBaier，demuroCaucaseo，inComment。Acad。Petropol。ann。1726，tom。i。p。425—
463；butitisdestituteofamaporplan。WhentheczarPeterI。becamemasterofDerbendintheyear1722，themeasureofthewallwasfoundtobe3285Russianorgyioe，orfathom，eachofsevenfeetEnglish；inthewholesomewhatmorethanfourmilesinlength。]
[Footnote142:SeethefortificationsandtreatiesofChosroes，orNushirwan，inProcopiusPersic。l。i。c。16，22，l。ii。andD'Herbelot，p。682。]
VII。JustiniansuppressedtheschoolsofAthensandtheconsulshipofRome，whichhadgivensomanysagesandheroestomankind。Boththeseinstitutionshadlongsincedegeneratedfromtheirprimitiveglory；yetsomereproachmaybejustlyinflictedontheavariceandjealousyofaprince，bywhosehandsuchvenerableruinsweredestroyed。
Athens，afterherPersiantriumphs，adoptedthephilosophyofIoniaandtherhetoricofSicily；andthesestudiesbecamethepatrimonyofacity，whoseinhabitants，aboutthirtythousandmales，condensed，withintheperiodofasinglelife，thegeniusofagesandmillions。Oursenseofthedignityofhumannatureisexaltedbythesimplerecollection，thatIsocrates^143wasthecompanionofPlatoandXenophon；thatheassisted，perhapswiththehistorianThucydides，atthefirstrepresentationoftheOedipusofSophoclesandtheIphigeniaofEuripides；andthathispupilsAeschinesandDemosthenescontendedforthecrownofpatriotisminthepresenceofAristotle，themasterofTheophrastus，whotaughtatAthenswiththefoundersoftheStoicandEpicureansects。^144TheingenuousyouthofAtticaenjoyedthebenefitsoftheirdomesticeducation，whichwascommunicatedwithoutenvytotherivalcities。TwothousanddisciplesheardthelessonsofTheophrastus；^145theschoolsofrhetoricmusthavebeenstillmorepopulousthanthoseofphilosophy；andarapidsuccessionofstudentsdiffusedthefameoftheirteachersasfarastheutmostlimitsoftheGrecianlanguageandname。
ThoselimitswereenlargedbythevictoriesofAlexander；theartsofAthenssurvivedherfreedomanddominion；andtheGreekcolonieswhichtheMacedoniansplantedinEgypt，andscatteredoverAsia，undertooklongandfrequentpilgrimagestoworshiptheMusesintheirfavoritetempleonthebanksoftheIlissus。TheLatinconquerorsrespectfullylistenedtotheinstructionsoftheirsubjectsandcaptives；thenamesofCiceroandHoracewereenrolledintheschoolsofAthens；andaftertheperfectsettlementoftheRomanempire，thenativesofItaly，ofAfrica，andofBritain，conversedinthegrovesoftheacademywiththeirfellow—studentsoftheEast。Thestudiesofphilosophyandeloquencearecongenialtoapopularstate，whichencouragesthefreedomofinquiry，andsubmitsonlytotheforceofpersuasion。
IntherepublicsofGreeceandRome，theartofspeakingwasthepowerfulengineofpatriotismorambition；andtheschoolsofrhetoricpouredforthacolonyofstatesmenandlegislators。
Whenthelibertyofpublicdebatewassuppressed，theorator，inthehonorableprofessionofanadvocate，mightpleadthecauseofinnocenceandjustice；hemightabusehistalentsinthemoreprofitabletradeofpanegyric；andthesamepreceptscontinuedtodictatethefancifuldeclamationsofthesophist，andthechasterbeautiesofhistoricalcomposition。ThesystemswhichprofessedtounfoldthenatureofGod，ofman，andoftheuniverse，entertainedthecuriosityofthephilosophicstudent；andaccordingtothetemperofhismind，hemightdoubtwiththeSceptics，ordecidewiththeStoics，sublimelyspeculatewithPlato，orseverelyarguewithAristotle。Theprideoftheadversesectshadfixedanunattainabletermofmoralhappinessandperfection；buttheracewasgloriousandsalutary；thedisciplesofZeno，andeventhoseofEpicurus，weretaughtbothtoactandtosuffer；andthedeathofPetroniuswasnotlesseffectualthanthatofSeneca，tohumbleatyrantbythediscoveryofhisimpotence。ThelightofsciencecouldnotindeedbeconfinedwithinthewallsofAthens。Herincomparablewritersaddressthemselvestothehumanrace；thelivingmastersemigratedtoItalyandAsia；Berytus，inlatertimes，wasdevotedtothestudyofthelaw；astronomyandphysicwerecultivatedinthemusaeumofAlexandria；buttheAtticschoolsofrhetoricandphilosophymaintainedtheirsuperiorreputationfromthePeloponnesianwartothereignofJustinian。Athens，thoughsituateinabarrensoil，possessedapureair，afreenavigation，andthemonumentsofancientart。Thatsacredretirementwasseldomdisturbedbythebusinessoftradeorgovernment；andthelastoftheAtheniansweredistinguishedbytheirlivelywit，thepurityoftheirtasteandlanguage，theirsocialmanners，andsometraces，atleastindiscourse，ofthemagnanimityoftheirfathers。Inthesuburbsofthecity，theacademyofthePlatonists，thelycaeumofthePeripatetics，theporticooftheStoics，andthegardenoftheEpicureans，wereplantedwithtreesanddecoratedwithstatues；andthephilosophers，insteadofbeingimmuredinacloister，deliveredtheirinstructionsinspaciousandpleasantwalks，which，atdifferenthours，wereconsecratedtotheexercisesofthemindandbody。Thegeniusofthefoundersstilllivedinthosevenerableseats；theambitionofsucceedingtothemastersofhumanreasonexcitedagenerousemulation；andthemeritofthecandidateswasdetermined，oneachvacancy，bythefreevoicesofanenlightenedpeople。TheAthenianprofessorswerepaidbytheirdisciples:accordingtotheirmutualwantsandabilities，thepriceappearstohavevaried；andIsocrateshimself，whoderidestheavariceofthesophists，required，inhisschoolofrhetoric，aboutthirtypoundsfromeachofhishundredpupils。
Thewagesofindustryarejustandhonorable，yetthesameIsocratesshedtearsatthefirstreceiptofastipend:theStoicmightblushwhenhewashiredtopreachthecontemptofmoney；
andIshouldbesorrytodiscoverthatAristotleorPlatosofardegeneratedfromtheexampleofSocrates，astoexchangeknowledgeforgold。Butsomepropertyoflandsandhouseswassettledbythepermissionofthelaws，andthelegaciesofdeceasedfriends，onthephilosophicchairsofAthens。Epicurusbequeathedtohisdisciplesthegardenswhichhehadpurchasedforeightyminaeortwohundredandfiftypounds，withafundsufficientfortheirfrugalsubsistenceandmonthlyfestivals；
^146andthepatrimonyofPlatoaffordedanannualrent，which，ineightcenturies，wasgraduallyincreasedfromthreetoonethousandpiecesofgold。^147TheschoolsofAthenswereprotectedbythewisestandmostvirtuousoftheRomanprinces。
Thelibrary，whichHadrianfounded，wasplacedinaporticoadornedwithpictures，statues，andaroofofalabaster，andsupportedbyonehundredcolumnsofPhrygianmarble。ThepublicsalarieswereassignedbythegenerousspiritoftheAntonines；
andeachprofessorofpolitics，ofrhetoric，ofthePlatonic，thePeripatetic，theStoic，andtheEpicureanphilosophy，receivedanannualstipendoftenthousanddrachmae，ormorethanthreehundredpoundssterling。^148AfterthedeathofMarcus，theseliberaldonations，andtheprivilegesattachedtothethronesofscience，wereabolishedandrevived，diminishedandenlarged；butsomevestigeofroyalbountymaybefoundunderthesuccessorsofConstantine；andtheirarbitrarychoiceofanunworthycandidatemighttemptthephilosophersofAthenstoregretthedaysofindependenceandpoverty。^149Itisremarkable，thattheimpartialfavoroftheAntonineswasbestowedonthefouradversesectsofphilosophy，whichtheyconsideredasequallyuseful，oratleast，asequallyinnocent。Socrateshadformerlybeenthegloryandthereproachofhiscountry；andthefirstlessonsofEpicurussostrangelyscandalizedthepiousearsoftheAthenians，thatbyhisexile，andthatofhisantagonists，theysilencedallvaindisputesconcerningthenatureofthegods。
Butintheensuingyeartheyrecalledthehastydecree，restoredthelibertyoftheschools，andwereconvincedbytheexperienceofages，thatthemoralcharacterofphilosophersisnotaffectedbythediversityoftheirtheologicalspeculations。^150
[Footnote143:ThelifeofIsocratesextendsfromOlymp。lxxxvi。
1。tocx。3，anteChrist。436—438。SeeDionys。Halicarn。tom。
ii。p。149，150，edit。Hudson。PlutarchsiveanonymusinVit。
X。Oratorum，p。1538—1543，edit。H。Steph。Phot。cod。cclix。
p。1453。]
[Footnote144:TheschoolsofAthensarecopiouslythoughconciselyrepresentedintheFortunaAtticaofMeursius，c。
viii。p。59—73，intom。i。Opp。Forthestateandartsofthecity，seethefirstbookofPausanias，andasmalltractofDicaearchus，inthesecondvolumeofHudson'sGeographers，whowroteaboutOlymp。cxvii。Dodwell'sDissertiasect。4。]
[Footnote145:DiogenLaert。deVit。Philosoph。l。v。segm。37，p。289。]
[Footnote146:SeetheTestamentofEpicurusinDiogen。Laert。
l。x。segm。16—20，p。611，612。AsingleepistleadFamiliares，xiii。l。displaystheinjusticeoftheAreopagus，thefidelityoftheEpicureans，thedexterouspolitenessofCicero，andthemixtureofcontemptandesteemwithwhichtheRomansenatorsconsideredthephilosophyandphilosophersofGreece。]
[Footnote147:Damascius，inVit。Isidor。apudPhotium，cod。
ccxlii。p。1054。]
[Footnote148:SeeLucianinEunuch。tom。ii。p。350—359，edit。Reitz，PhilostratusinVit。Sophist。l。ii。c。2，andDionCassius，orXiphilin，lxxi。p。1195，withtheireditorsDuSoul，Olearius，andReimar，and，aboveall，Salmasius，adHist。
August。p。72。AjudiciousphilosopherSmith'sWealthofNations，vol。ii。p。340—374prefersthefreecontributionsofthestudentstoafixedstipendfortheprofessor。]
[Footnote149:Brucker，Hist。Crit。Philosoph。tom。ii。p。310，&c。]
[Footnote150:ThebirthofEpicurusisfixedtotheyear342
beforeChrist，Bayle，Olympiadcix。3；andheopenedhisschoolatAthens，Olmp。cxviii。3，306yearsbeforethesameaera。ThisintolerantlawAthenaeus，l。xiii。p。610。Diogen。Laertius，l。
v。s。38。p。290。JuliusPollux，ix。5wasenactedinthesameorthesucceedingyear，Sigonius，Opp。tom。v。p。62。MenagiusadDiogen。Laert。p。204。Corsini，FastiAttici，tom。iv。p。
67，68。TheophrastuschiefofthePeripatetics，anddiscipleofAristotle，wasinvolvedinthesameexile。]
TheGothicarmswerelessfataltotheschoolsofAthensthantheestablishmentofanewreligion，whoseministerssupersededtheexerciseofreason，resolvedeveryquestionbyanarticleoffaith，andcondemnedtheinfidelorsceptictoeternalflames。Inmanyavolumeoflaboriouscontroversy，theyexposedtheweaknessoftheunderstandingandthecorruptionoftheheart，insultedhumannatureinthesagesofantiquity，andproscribedthespiritofphilosophicalinquiry，sorepugnanttothedoctrine，oratleasttothetemper，ofanhumblebeliever。
ThesurvivingsectsofthePlatonists，whomPlatowouldhaveblushedtoacknowledge，extravagantlymingledasublimetheorywiththepracticeofsuperstitionandmagic；andastheyremainedaloneinthemidstofaChristianworld，theyindulgedasecretrancoragainstthegovernmentofthechurchandstate，whoseseveritywasstillsuspendedovertheirheads。AboutacenturyafterthereignofJulian，^151Proclus^152waspermittedtoteachinthephilosophicchairoftheacademy；andsuchwashisindustry，thathefrequently，inthesameday，pronouncedfivelessons，andcomposedsevenhundredlines。Hissagaciousmindexploredthedeepestquestionsofmoralsandmetaphysics，andheventuredtourgeeighteenargumentsagainsttheChristiandoctrineofthecreationoftheworld。Butintheintervalsofstudy，hepersonallyconversedwithPan，Aesculapius，andMinerva，inwhosemysterieshewassecretlyinitiated，andwhoseprostratestatuesheadored；inthedevoutpersuasionthatthephilosopher，whoisacitizenoftheuniverse，shouldbethepriestofitsvariousdeities。Aneclipseofthesunannouncedhisapproachingend；andhislife，withthatofhisscholarIsidore，^153compiledbytwooftheirmostlearneddisciples，exhibitsadeplorablepictureofthesecondchildhoodofhumanreason。Yetthegoldenchain，asitwasfondlystyled，ofthePlatonicsuccession，continuedforty—fouryearsfromthedeathofProclustotheedictofJustinian，^154whichimposedaperpetualsilenceontheschoolsofAthens，andexcitedthegriefandindignationofthefewremainingvotariesofGrecianscienceandsuperstition。Sevenfriendsandphilosophers，DiogenesandHermias，EulaliusandPriscian，Damascius，Isidore，andSimplicius，whodissentedfromthereligionoftheirsovereign，embracedtheresolutionofseekinginaforeignlandthefreedomwhichwasdeniedintheirnativecountry。Theyhadheard，andtheycredulouslybelieved，thattherepublicofPlatowasrealizedinthedespoticgovernmentofPersia，andthatapatriotkingreignedeverthehappiestandmostvirtuousofnations。
Theyweresoonastonishedbythenaturaldiscovery，thatPersiaresembledtheothercountriesoftheglobe；thatChosroes，whoaffectedthenameofaphilosopher，wasvain，cruel，andambitious；thatbigotry，andaspiritofintolerance，prevailedamongtheMagi；thatthenobleswerehaughty，thecourtiersservile，andthemagistratesunjust；thattheguiltysometimesescaped，andthattheinnocentwereoftenoppressed。ThedisappointmentofthephilosophersprovokedthemtooverlooktherealvirtuesofthePersians；andtheywerescandalized，moredeeplyperhapsthanbecametheirprofession，withthepluralityofwivesandconcubines，theincestuousmarriages，andthecustomofexposingdeadbodiestothedogsandvultures，insteadofhidingthemintheearth，orconsumingthemwithfire。Theirrepentancewasexpressedbyaprecipitatereturn，andtheyloudlydeclaredthattheyhadratherdieonthebordersoftheempire，thanenjoythewealthandfavoroftheBarbarian。Fromthisjourney，however，theyderivedabenefitwhichreflectsthepurestlustreonthecharacterofChosroes。Herequired，thatthesevensageswhohadvisitedthecourtofPersiashouldbeexemptedfromthepenallawswhichJustinianenactedagainsthisPagansubjects；andthisprivilege，expresslystipulatedinatreatyofpeace，wasguardedbythevigilanceofapowerfulmediator。^155Simpliciusandhiscompanionsendedtheirlivesinpeaceandobscurity；andastheyleftnodisciples，theyterminatethelonglistofGrecianphilosophers，whomaybejustlypraised，notwithstandingtheirdefects，asthewisestandmostvirtuousoftheircontemporaries。ThewritingsofSimpliciusarenowextant。HisphysicalandmetaphysicalcommentariesonAristotlehavepassedawaywiththefashionofthetimes；buthismoralinterpretationofEpictetusispreservedinthelibraryofnations，asaclassicbook，mostexcellentlyadaptedtodirectthewill，topurifytheheart，andtoconfirmtheunderstanding，byajustconfidenceinthenaturebothofGodandman。
[Footnote151:Thisisnofancifulaera:thePagansreckonedtheircalamitiesfromthereignoftheirhero。Proclus，whosenativityismarkedbyhishoroscope，A。D。412，February8，atC。
P。，died124years，A。D。485，Marin。inVitaProcli，c。36。]
[Footnote152:ThelifeofProclus，byMarinus，waspublishedbyFabriciusHamburg，1700，etadcalcemBibliot。Latin。Lond。
1703。SeeSaidas，tom。iii。p。185，186，Fabricius，Bibliot。
Graec。l。v。c。26p。449—552，andBrucker，Hist。Crit。
Philosoph。tom。ii。p。319—326]
[Footnote153:ThelifeofIsidorewascomposedbyDamascius，apudPhotium，sod。ccxlii。p。1028—1076。SeethelastageofthePaganphilosophers，inBrucker，tom。ii。p。341—351。]
[Footnote154:ThesuppressionoftheschoolsofAthensisrecordedbyJohnMalala，tom。ii。p。187，subDecioCos。Sol。，
andananonymousChronicleintheVaticanlibrary，apudAleman。
p。106。]
[Footnote155:Agathiasl。ii。p。69，70，71relatesthiscuriousstoryChosroesascendedthethroneintheyear531，andmadehisfirstpeacewiththeRomansinthebeginningof533—adatemostcompatiblewithhisyoungfameandtheoldageofIsidore，Asseman。Bibliot。Orient。tom。iii。p。404。Pagi，tom。
ii。p。543，550。]
AboutthesametimethatPythagorasfirstinventedtheappellationofphilosopher，libertyandtheconsulshipwerefoundedatRomebytheelderBrutus。Therevolutionsoftheconsularoffice，whichmaybeviewedinthesuccessivelightsofasubstance，ashadow，andaname，havebeenoccasionallymentionedinthepresentHistory。Thefirstmagistratesoftherepublichadbeenchosenbythepeople，toexercise，inthesenateandinthecamp，thepowersofpeaceandwar，whichwereafterwardstranslatedtotheemperors。ButthetraditionofancientdignitywaslongreveredbytheRomansandBarbarians。A
GothichistorianapplaudstheconsulshipofTheodoricastheheightofalltemporalgloryandgreatness；^156thekingofItalyhimselfcongratulatedthoseannualfavoritesoffortunewho，withoutthecares，enjoyedthesplendorofthethrone；andattheendofathousandyears，twoconsulswerecreatedbythesovereignsofRomeandConstantinople，forthesolepurposeofgivingadatetotheyear，andafestivaltothepeople。Buttheexpensesofthisfestival，inwhichthewealthyandthevainaspiredtosurpasstheirpredecessors，insensiblyarosetotheenormoussumoffourscorethousandpounds；thewisestsenatorsdeclinedauselesshonor，whichinvolvedthecertainruinoftheirfamilies，andtothisreluctanceIshouldimputethefrequentchasmsinthelastageoftheconsularFasti。ThepredecessorsofJustinianhadassistedfromthepublictreasuresthedignityofthelessopulentcandidates；theavariceofthatprincepreferredthecheaperandmoreconvenientmethodofadviceandregulation。^157Sevenprocessionsorspectacleswerethenumbertowhichhisedictconfinedthehorseandchariotraces，theathleticsports，themusic，andpantomimesofthetheatre，andthehuntingofwildbeasts；andsmallpiecesofsilverwerediscreetlysubstitutedtothegoldmedals，whichhadalwaysexcitedtumultanddrunkenness，whentheywerescatteredwithaprofusehandamongthepopulace。Notwithstandingtheseprecautions，andhisownexample，thesuccessionofconsulsfinallyceasedinthethirteenthyearofJustinian，whosedespotictempermightbegratifiedbythesilentextinctionofatitlewhichadmonishedtheRomansoftheirancientfreedom。^158
Yettheannualconsulshipstilllivedinthemindsofthepeople；
theyfondlyexpecteditsspeedyrestoration；theyapplaudedthegraciouscondescensionofsuccessiveprinces，bywhomitwasassumedinthefirstyearoftheirreign；andthreecenturieselapsed，afterthedeathofJustinian，beforethatobsoletedignity，whichhadbeensuppressedbycustom，couldbeabolishedbylaw。^159Theimperfectmodeofdistinguishingeachyearbythenameofamagistrate，wasusefullysuppliedbythedateofapermanentaera:thecreationoftheworld，accordingtotheSeptuagintversion，wasadoptedbytheGreeks；^160andtheLatins，sincetheageofCharlemagne，havecomputedtheirtimefromthebirthofChrist。^161
[Footnote156:Cassiodor。VariarumEpist。vi。1。Jornandes，c。
57，p。696，dit。Grot。Quodsummumbonumprimumqueinmundodecusdicitur。]
[Footnote157:SeetheregulationsofJustinian，Novell。cv。，
datedatConstantinople，July5，andaddressedtoStrategius，treasureroftheempire。]
[Footnote158:Procopius，inAnecdot。c。26。Aleman。p。106。InthexviiithyearaftertheconsulshipofBasilius，accordingtothereckoningofMarcellinus，Victor，Marius，&c。，thesecrethistorywascomposed，and，intheeyesofProcopius，theconsulshipwasfinallyabolished。]
[Footnote159:ByLeo，thephilosopher，Novell。xciv。A。D。886—
911。SeePagiDissertat。Hypatica，p。325—362andDucange，Gloss，Graecp。1635，1636。Eventhetitlewasvilified:
consulatuscodicilli……vilescunt，saystheemperorhimself。]