Sueton。Domit。cap。13。Hugo。—W。]
[Footnote40:SeeGravinaOpp。p。501—512andBeaufort，RepubliqueRomaine，tom。i。p。255—274。HehasmadeaproperuseoftwodissertationsbyJohnFredericGronoviusandNoodt，bothtranslated，withvaluablenotes，byBarbeyrac，2vols。in12mo。1731。]
[Footnote41:Institut。l。i。tit。ii。No。6。Pandect。l。i。
tit。iv。leg。1。Cod。Justinian，l。i。tit。xvii。leg。1，No。7。
InhisAntiquitiesandElements，Heinecciushasamplytreateddeconstitutionibusprincipum，whichareillustratedbyGodefroyComment。adCod。Theodos。l。i。tit。i。ii。iii。andGravina，p。87—90。
Note:GaiusassertsthattheImperialedictorrescripthasandalwayshad，theforceoflaw，becausetheImperialauthorityrestsuponlaw。Constitutioprincipisest，quodimperatordecretoveledicto，velepistolaconstituit，neeunquamdubitatum，quinidlegis，vicemobtineat，cumipseimperatorperlegemimperiumaccipiat。Gaius，6Instit。i。2。—M。]
[Footnote42:Theophilus，inParaphras。Graec。Institut。p。33，34，edit。ReitzForhisperson，time，writings，seetheTheophilusofJ。H。Mylius，Excurs。iii。p。1034—1073。]
[Footnote43:ThereismoreenvythanreasoninthecomplaintofMacrinusJul。Capitolin。c。13:NefasesselegesvideriCommodietCaracallaathominumimperitorumvoluntates。CommoduswasmadeaDivusbySeverus，Dodwell，Praelect。viii。p。324，325。
YetheoccursonlytwiceinthePandects。]
[Footnote44:OfAntoninusCaracallaalone200constitutionsareextantintheCode，andwithhisfather160。ThesetwoprincesarequotedfiftytimesinthePandects，andeightintheInstitutes，Terasson，p。265。]
[Footnote45:Plin。Secund。Epistol。x。66。Sueton。inDomitian。
c。23。]
[Footnote46:ItwasamaximofConstantine，contrajusrescriptanonvaleant，Cod。Theodos。l。i。tit。ii。leg。1。Theemperorsreluctantlyallowsomescrutinyintothelawandthefact，somedelay，petition，&c。；buttheseinsufficientremediesaretoomuchinthediscretionandattheperilofthejudge。]
[Footnote47:Acompoundofvermilionandcinnabar，whichmarkstheImperialdiplomasfromLeoI。A。D。470tothefalloftheGreekempire，BibliothequeRaisonneedelaDiplomatique，tom。i。
p。504—515Lami，deEruditioneApostolorum，tom。ii。p。720—
726。]
[Footnote*:SavignystatesthefollowingastheauthoritiesfortheRomanlawatthecommencementofthefifthcentury:—
1。Thewritingsofthejurists，accordingtotheregulationsoftheConstitutionofValentinianIII。，firstpromulgatedintheWest，butbyitsadmissionintotheTheodosianCodeestablishedlikewiseintheEast。ThisConstitutionestablishedtheauthorityofthefivegreatjurists，Papinian，Paulus，Caius，Ulpian，andModestinusasinterpretersoftheancientlaw。***
Incaseofdifferenceofopinionamongthesefive，amajoritydecidedthecase；wheretheywereequal，theopinionofPapinian，wherehewassilent，thejudge；butseep。40，andHugo，vol。ii。
p。89。
2。TheGregorianandHermogenianCollectionoftheImperialRescripts。
3。TheCodeofTheodosiusII。
4。TheparticularNovellae，asadditionsandSupplementstothisCodeSavigny。vol。i。p10。—M。]
[Footnote48:Schulting，JurisprudentiaAnte—Justinianea，p。681
—718。CujaciusassignedtoGregorythereignsfromHadriantoGallienus。andthecontinuationtohisfellow—laborerHermogenes。
Thisgeneraldivisionmaybejust，buttheyoftentrespassedoneachother'sground]
ChapterXLIV:IdeaOfTheRomanJurisprudence。
PartIII。
Amongsavagenations，thewantoflettersisimperfectlysuppliedbytheuseofvisiblesigns，whichawakenattention，andperpetuatetheremembranceofanypublicorprivatetransaction。
ThejurisprudenceofthefirstRomansexhibitedthescenesofapantomime；thewordswereadaptedtothegestures，andtheslightesterrororneglectintheformsofproceedingwassufficienttoannulthesubstanceofthefairestclaim。Thecommunionofthemarriage—lifewasdenotedbythenecessaryelementsoffireandwater；^49andthedivorcedwiferesignedthebunchofkeys，bythedeliveryofwhichshehadbeeninvestedwiththegovernmentofthefamily。Themanumissionofason，oraslave，wasperformedbyturninghimroundwithagentleblowonthecheek；aworkwasprohibitedbythecastingofastone；
prescriptionwasinterruptedbythebreakingofabranch；theclinchedfistwasthesymbolofapledgeordeposit；therighthandwasthegiftoffaithandconfidence。Theindentureofcovenantswasabrokenstraw；weightsandscaleswereintroducedintoeverypayment，andtheheirwhoacceptedatestamentwassometimesobligedtosnaphisfingers，tocastawayhisgarments，andtoleapordancewithrealoraffectedtransport。^50Ifacitizenpursuedanystolengoodsintoaneighbor'shouse，heconcealedhisnakednesswithalinentowel，andhidhisfacewithamaskorbasin，lestheshouldencountertheeyesofavirginoramatron。^51Inacivilactiontheplaintifftouchedtheearofhiswitness，seizedhisreluctantadversarybytheneck，andimplored，insolemnlamentation，theaidofhisfellow—citizens。
Thetwocompetitorsgraspedeachother'shandasiftheystoodpreparedforcombatbeforethetribunalofthepraetor；hecommandedthemtoproducetheobjectofthedispute；theywent，theyreturnedwithmeasuredsteps，andaclodofearthwascastathisfeettorepresentthefieldforwhichtheycontended。
Thisoccultscienceofthewordsandactionsoflawwastheinheritanceofthepontiffsandpatricians。LiketheChaldeanastrologers，theyannouncedtotheirclientsthedaysofbusinessandrepose；theseimportanttrifleswereinterwovenwiththereligionofNuma；andafterthepublicationoftheTwelveTables，theRomanpeoplewasstillenslavedbytheignoranceofjudicialproceedings。Thetreacheryofsomeplebeianofficersatlengthrevealedtheprofitablemystery:inamoreenlightenedage，thelegalactionswerederidedandobserved；andthesameantiquitywhichsanctifiedthepractice，obliteratedtheuseandmeaningofthisprimitivelanguage。^52
[Footnote49:Scaevola，mostprobablyQ。CervidiusScaevola；themasterofPapinianconsidersthisacceptanceoffireandwaterastheessenceofmarriage，Pandect。l。xxiv。tit。1，leg。66。
SeeHeineccius，Hist。J。R。No。317。]
[Footnote50:CicerodeOfficiis，iii。19maystateanidealcase，butSt。AmbrosedeOfficiis，iii。2，appealstothepracticeofhisowntimes，whichheunderstoodasalawyerandamagistrate，SchultingadUlpian，Fragment。tit。xxii。No。28，p。
643，644。
Note:Inthispassagetheauthorhasendeavoredtocollectalltheexamplesofjudicialformularieswhichhecouldfind。
Thatwhichheadducesastheformofcretiohaereditatisisabsolutelyfalse。ItissufficienttoglanceatthepassageinCicerowhichhecites，toseethatithasnorelationtoit。TheauthorappealstotheopinionofSchulting，who，inthepassagequoted，himselfprotestsagainsttheridiculousandabsurdinterpretationofthepassageinCicero，andobservesthatGraeviushadalreadywellexplainedtherealsense。SeeinGaiustheformofcretiohaereditatisInst。l。ii。p。166。—W。]
[Footnote51:ThefurtumlancelicioqueconceptumwasnolongerunderstoodinthetimeoftheAntonines，AulusGellius，xvi。
10。TheAtticderivationofHeineccius，Antiquitat。Rom。l。iv。
tit。i。No。13—21issupportedbytheevidenceofAristophanes，hisscholiast，andPollux。
Note:Nothingmoreisknownofthisceremony；neverthelesswefindthatalreadyinhisowndaysGaiusturneditintoridicule。Hesays，lib。iii。etp。192，Sections293，
prohibitiactioquadrupliexedictopraetorisintroductaest；lexautemeonominenullampoenamconstituit。Hocsolumpraecepit，utquiquaererevelit，nudusquaerat，linteocinctus，lancemhabens；quisiquidinvenerit。jubetidlexfurtummanifestumesse。Quidsitautemlinteum?quaesitumest。Sedveriusestconsutigenusesse，quonecessariaepartestegerentur。Quarelextotaridiculaest。Namquivestitumquaerereprohibet，isetnudumquaerereprohibiturusest；eomagis，quodinveneritibiimponat，neutrumeorumprocedit，siidquodquaeratur，ejusmagnitudinisautnaturaesitutnequesubjici，nequeibiimponipossit。Certenondubitatur，cujuscunquemateriaesitealanx，satislegifieri。Weseemoreover，fromthispassage，thatthebasin，asmostauthors，restingontheauthorityofFestus，havesupposed，wasnotusedtocoverthefigure。—W。Gibbonsaystheface，thoughequallyinaccurately。ThispassageofGaius，Imustobserve，aswellasothersinM。Warnkonig'swork，isveryinaccuratelyprinted。—M。]
[Footnote52:InhisOrationforMurena，c。9—13，Ciceroturnsintoridiculetheformsandmysteriesofthecivilians，whicharerepresentedwithmorecandorbyAulusGellius，Noct。
Attic。xx。10，Gravina，Oppp。265，266，267，andHeineccius，Antiquitat。l。iv。tit。vi。
Note:GibbonhadconceivedopinionstoodecidedagainsttheformsofprocedureinuseamongtheRomans。Yetitisonthesesolemnformsthatthecertaintyoflawshasbeenfoundedamongallnations。ThoseoftheRomanswereveryintimatelyalliedwiththeancientreligion，andmustofnecessityhavedisappearedasRomeattainedahigherdegreeofcivilization。Havenotmodernnations，eventhemostcivilized，overloadedtheirlawswithathousandforms，oftenabsurd，almostalwaystrivial?HowmanyexamplesareaffordedbytheEnglishlaw!See，onthenatureoftheseforms，theworkofM。deSavignyontheVocationofourAgeforLegislationandJurisprudence，Heidelberg，1814，p。9，10。—W。ThisworkofM。SavignyhasbeentranslatedintoEnglishbyMr。Hayward。—M。]
Amoreliberalartwascultivated，however，bythesageofRome，who，inastrictersense，maybeconsideredastheauthorsofthecivillaw。ThealterationoftheidiomandmannersoftheRomansrenderedthestyleoftheTwelveTableslessfamiliartoeachrisinggeneration，andthedoubtfulpassageswereimperfectlyexplainedbythestudyoflegalantiquarians。Todefinetheambiguities，tocircumscribethelatitude，toapplytheprinciples，toextendtheconsequences，toreconciletherealorapparentcontradictions，wasamuchnoblerandmoreimportanttask；andtheprovinceoflegislationwassilentlyinvadedbytheexpoundersofancientstatutes。Theirsubtleinterpretationsconcurredwiththeequityofthepraetor，toreformthetyrannyofthedarkerages:howeverstrangeorintricatethemeans，itwastheaimofartificialjurisprudencetorestorethesimpledictatesofnatureandreason，andtheskillofprivatecitizenswasusefullyemployedtounderminethepublicinstitutionsoftheircountry。^!Therevolutionofalmostonethousandyears，fromtheTwelveTablestothereignofJustinian，maybedividedintothreeperiods，almostequalinduration，anddistinguishedfromeachotherbythemodeofinstructionandthecharacterofthecivilians。^53Prideandignorancecontributed，duringthefirstperiod，toconfinewithinnarrowlimitsthescienceoftheRomanlaw。Onthepublicdaysofmarketorassembly，themastersoftheartwereseenwalkingintheforumreadytoimparttheneedfuladvicetothemeanestoftheirfellow—citizens，fromwhosevotes，onafutureoccasion，theymightsolicitagratefulreturn。Astheiryearsandhonorsincreased，theyseatedthemselvesathomeonachairorthrone，toexpectwithpatientgravitythevisitsoftheirclients，whoatthedawnofday，fromthetownandcountry，begantothunderattheirdoor。Thedutiesofsociallife，andtheincidentsofjudicialproceeding，weretheordinarysubjectoftheseconsultations，andtheverbalorwrittenopinionofthejuris—consultswasframedaccordingtotherulesofprudenceandlaw。Theyouthsoftheirownorderandfamilywerepermittedtolisten；theirchildrenenjoyedthebenefitofmoreprivatelessons，andtheMucianracewaslongrenownedforthehereditaryknowledgeofthecivillaw。Thesecondperiod，thelearnedandsplendidageofjurisprudence，maybeextendedfromthebirthofCicerotothereignofSeverusAlexander。Asystemwasformed，schoolswereinstituted，bookswerecomposed，andboththelivingandthedeadbecamesubservienttotheinstructionofthestudent。ThetripartiteofAeliusPaetus，surnamedCatus，ortheCunning，waspreservedastheoldestworkofJurisprudence。Catothecensorderivedsomeadditionalfamefromhislegalstudies，andthoseofhisson:thekindredappellationofMuciusScaevolawasillustratedbythreesagesofthelaw；buttheperfectionofthesciencewasascribedtoServiusSulpicius，theirdisciple，andthefriendofTully；
andthelongsuccession，whichshonewithequallustreundertherepublicandundertheCaesars，isfinallyclosedbytherespectablecharactersofPapinian，ofPaul，andofUlpian。
Theirnames，andthevarioustitlesoftheirproductions，havebeenminutelypreserved，andtheexampleofLabeomaysuggestsomeideaoftheirdiligenceandfecundity。ThateminentlawyeroftheAugustanagedividedtheyearbetweenthecityandcountry，betweenbusinessandcomposition；andfourhundredbooksareenumeratedasthefruitofhisretirement。OfthecollectionofhisrivalCapito，thetwohundredandfifty—ninthbookisexpresslyquoted；andfewteacherscoulddelivertheiropinionsinlessthanacenturyofvolumes。Inthethirdperiod，betweenthereignsofAlexanderandJustinian，theoraclesofjurisprudencewerealmostmute。Themeasureofcuriosityhadbeenfilled:thethronewasoccupiedbytyrantsandBarbarians，theactivespiritsweredivertedbyreligiousdisputes，andtheprofessorsofRome，Constantinople，andBerytus，werehumblycontenttorepeatthelessonsoftheirmoreenlightenedpredecessors。Fromtheslowadvancesandrapiddecayoftheselegalstudies，itmaybeinferred，thattheyrequireastateofpeaceandrefinement。Fromthemultitudeofvoluminouscivilianswhofilltheintermediatespace，itisevidentthatsuchstudiesmaybepursued，andsuchworksmaybeperformed，withacommonshareofjudgment，experience，andindustry。ThegeniusofCiceroandVirgilwasmoresensiblyfelt，aseachrevolvingagehadbeenfoundincapableofproducingasimilarorasecond:butthemosteminentteachersofthelawwereassuredofleavingdisciplesequalorsuperiortothemselvesinmeritandreputation。
[Footnote!:Compare，ontheResponsaPrudentum，Warnkonig，HistoireExterneduDroitRomainBruxelles，1836，p。122。—M。]
[Footnote53:TheseriesofthecivillawyersisdeducedbyPomponius，deOrigineJurisPandect。l。i。tit。ii。Themodernshavediscussed，withlearningandcriticism，thisbranchofliteraryhistory；andamongtheseIhavechieflybeenguidedbyGravinap。41—79andHeineccius，Hist。J。R。No。113—
351。Cicero，moreespeciallyinhisbooksdeOratore，deClarisOratoribus，deLegibus，andtheClavieCiceronianaofErnestiunderthenamesofMucius，&c。affordmuchgenuineandpleasinginformation。Horaceoftenalludestothemorninglaborsofthecivilians，Serm。I。i。10，Epist。II。i。103，&c
AgricolamlaudatjurislegumqueperitusSubgallicantum，consultorubiostiapulsat。
Romaedulcediufuitetsolemne，reclusaManedomovigilare，clientipromerejura。
Note:ItisparticularlyinthisdivisionofthehistoryoftheRomanjurisprudenceintoepochs，thatGibbondisplayshisprofoundknowledgeofthelawsofthispeople。M。Hugo，adoptingthisdivision，prefacedthesethreeperiodswiththehistoryofthetimesanteriortotheLawoftheTwelveTables，whichare，asitwere，theinfancyoftheRomanlaw。—W]
ThejurisprudencewhichhadbeengrosslyadaptedtothewantsofthefirstRomans，waspolishedandimprovedintheseventhcenturyofthecity，bytheallianceofGrecianphilosophy。TheScaevolashadbeentaughtbyuseandexperience；
butServiusSulpiciuswasthefirstcivilianwhoestablishedhisartonacertainandgeneraltheory。^54Forthediscernmentoftruthandfalsehoodheapplied，asaninfalliblerule，thelogicofAristotleandthestoics，reducedparticularcasestogeneralprinciples，anddiffusedovertheshapelessmassthelightoforderandeloquence。Cicero，hiscontemporaryandfriend，declinedthereputationofaprofessedlawyer；butthejurisprudenceofhiscountrywasadornedbyhisincomparablegenius，whichconvertsintogoldeveryobjectthatittouches。
AftertheexampleofPlato，hecomposedarepublic；and，fortheuseofhisrepublic，atreatiseoflaws；inwhichhelaborstodeducefromacelestialoriginthewisdomandjusticeoftheRomanconstitution。Thewholeuniverse，accordingtohissublimehypothesis，formsoneimmensecommonwealth:godsandmen，whoparticipateofthesameessence，aremembersofthesamecommunity；reasonprescribesthelawofnatureandnations；andallpositiveinstitutions，howevermodifiedbyaccidentorcustom，aredrawnfromtheruleofright，whichtheDeityhasinscribedoneveryvirtuousmind。Fromthesephilosophicalmysteries，hemildlyexcludesthescepticswhorefusetobelieve，andtheepicureanswhoareunwillingtoact。Thelatterdisdainthecareoftherepublic:headvisesthemtoslumberintheirshadygardens。Buthehumblyentreatsthatthenewacademywouldbesilent，sinceherboldobjectionswouldtoosoondestroythefairandwellorderedstructureofhisloftysystem。^55Plato，Aristotle，andZeno，herepresentsastheonlyteacherswhoarmandinstructacitizenforthedutiesofsociallife。Ofthese，thearmorofthestoics^56wasfoundtobeofthefirmesttemper；anditwaschieflyworn，bothforuseandornament，intheschoolsofjurisprudence。Fromtheportico，theRomancivilianslearnedtolive，toreason，andtodie:buttheyimbibedinsomedegreetheprejudicesofthesect；theloveofparadox，thepertinacioushabitsofdispute，andaminuteattachmenttowordsandverbaldistinctions。Thesuperiorityofformtomatterwasintroducedtoascertaintherightofproperty:
andtheequalityofcrimesiscountenancedbyanopinionofTrebatius，^57thathewhotouchestheear，touchesthewholebody；andthathewhostealsfromaheapofcorn，orahogsheadofwine，isguiltyoftheentiretheft。^58