Thesavagewhohollowsatree，insertsasharpstoneintoawoodenhandle，orappliesastringtoanelasticbranch，becomesinastateofnaturethejustproprietorofthecanoe，thebow，orthehatchet。Thematerialswerecommontoall，thenewform，theproduceofhistimeandsimpleindustry，belongssolelytohimself。Hishungrybrethrencannot，withoutasenseoftheirowninjustice，extortfromthehunterthegameoftheforestovertakenorslainbyhispersonalstrengthanddexterity。Ifhisprovidentcarepreservesandmultipliesthetameanimals，whosenatureistractabletotheartsofeducation，heacquiresaperpetualtitletotheuseandserviceoftheirnumerousprogeny，whichderivesitsexistencefromhimalone。Ifheenclosesandcultivatesafieldfortheirsustenanceandhisown，abarrenwasteisconvertedintoafertilesoil；theseed，themanure，thelabor，createanewvalue，andtherewardsofharvestarepainfullyearnedbythefatiguesoftherevolvingyear。Inthesuccessivestatesofsociety，thehunter，theshepherd，thehusbandman，maydefendtheirpossessionsbytworeasonswhichforciblyappealtothefeelingsofthehumanmind:thatwhatevertheyenjoyisthefruitoftheirownindustry；andthateverymanwhoenviestheirfelicity，maypurchasesimilaracquisitionsbytheexerciseofsimilardiligence。Such，intruth，maybethefreedomandplentyofasmallcolonycastonafruitfulisland。
　　Butthecolonymultiplies，whilethespacestillcontinuesthesame；thecommonrights，theequalinheritanceofmankind。areengrossedbytheboldandcrafty；eachfieldandforestiscircumscribedbythelandmarksofajealousmaster；anditisthepeculiarpraiseoftheRomanjurisprudence，thatiassertstheclaimofthefirstoccupanttothewildanimalsoftheearth，theair，andthewaters。Intheprogressfromprimitiveequitytofinalinjustice，thestepsaresilent，theshadesarealmostimperceptible，andtheabsolutemonopolyisguardedbypositivelawsandartificialreason。Theactive，insatiateprincipleofself—lovecanalonesupplytheartsoflifeandthewagesofindustry；andassoonascivilgovernmentandexclusivepropertyhavebeenintroduced，theybecomenecessarytotheexistenceofthehumanrace。ExceptinthesingularinstitutionsofSparta，thewisestlegislatorshavedisapprovedanagrarianlawasafalseanddangerousinnovation。AmongtheRomans，theenormousdisproportionofwealthsurmountedtheidealrestraintsofadoubtfultradition，andanobsoletestatute；atraditionthatthepoorestfollowerofRomulushadbeenendowedwiththeperpetualinheritanceoftwojugera；^138astatutewhichconfinedtherichestcitizentothemeasureoffivehundredjugera，orthreehundredandtwelveacresofland。TheoriginalterritoryofRomeconsistedonlyofsomemilesofwoodandmeadowalongthebanksoftheTyber；anddomesticexchangecouldaddnothingtothenationalstock。Butthegoodsofanalienorenemywerelawfullyexposedtothefirsthostileoccupier；thecitywasenrichedbytheprofitabletradeofwar；andthebloodofhersonswastheonlypricethatwaspaidfortheVolsciansheep，theslavesofBriton，orthegemsandgoldofAsiatickingdoms。Inthelanguageofancientjurisprudence，whichwascorruptedandforgottenbeforetheageofJustinian，thesespoilsweredistinguishedbythenameofmancepsormanicipium，takenwiththehand；andwhenevertheyweresoldoremancipated，thepurchaserrequiredsomeassurancethattheyhadbeenthepropertyofanenemy，andnotofafellow—citizen。^139Acitizencouldonlyforfeithisrightsbyapparentdereliction，andsuchderelictionofavaluableinterestcouldnoteasilybepresumed。
　　Yet，accordingtotheTwelveTables，aprescriptionofoneyearformovables，andoftwoyearsforimmovables，abolishedtheclaimoftheancientmaster，iftheactualpossessorhadacquiredthembyafairtransactionfromthepersonwhomhebelievedtobethelawfulproprietor。^140Suchconscientiousinjustice，withoutanymixtureoffraudorforcecouldseldominjurethemembersofasmallrepublic；butthevariousperiodsofthree，often，oroftwentyyears，determinedbyJustinian，aremoresuitabletothelatitudeofagreatempire。Itisonlyinthetermofprescriptionthatthedistinctionofrealandpersonalfortunehasbeenremarkedbythecivilians；andtheirgeneralideaofpropertyisthatofsimple，uniform，andabsolutedominion。Thesubordinateexceptionsofuse，ofusufruct，^141ofservitude，^142imposedforthebenefitofaneighboronlandsandhouses，areabundantlyexplainedbytheprofessorsofjurisprudence。Theclaimsofproperty，asfarastheyarealteredbythemixture，thedivision，orthetransformationofsubstances，areinvestigatedwithmetaphysicalsubtiltybythesamecivilians。
　　[Footnote137:Institut。l。ii。titi。ii。ComparethepureandprecisereasoningofCaiusandHeinecciusl。ii。tit。i。p。69—
　　91withthelooseprolixityofTheophilus，p。207—265。TheopinionsofUlpianarepreservedinthePandects，l。i。tit。
　　viii。leg。41，No。1。]
　　[Footnote138:TheherediumofthefirstRomansisdefinedbyVarro，deReRustica，l。i。c。ii。p。141，c。x。p。160，161，edit。Gesner，andcloudedbyPliny'sdeclamation，Hist。Natur。
　　xviii。2。AjustandlearnedcommentisgivenintheAdministrationdesTerreschezlesRomains，p。12—66。
　　Note:Ontheduojugera，compareNiebuhr，vol。i。p。337。—
　　M。]
　　[Footnote139:TheresmancipiisexplainedfromfaintandremotelightsbyUlpianFragment。tit。xviii。p。618，619andBynkershoek，Opptom。i。p。306—315。Thedefinitionissomewhatarbitrary；andasnoneexceptmyselfhaveassignedareason，Iamdiffidentofmyown。]
　　[Footnote140:Fromthisshortprescription，HumeEssays，vol。
　　i。p。423infersthattherecouldnotthenbemoreorderandsettlementinItalythannowamongsttheTartars。BythecivilianofhisadversaryWallace，heisreproached，andnotwithoutreason，foroverlookingtheconditions，Institut。l。ii。
　　tit。vi。
　　Note:Gibbonacknowledges，intheformernote，theobscurityofhisviewswithregardtotheresmancipi。Theinterpreters，whoprecededhim，arenotagreedonthispoint，oneofthemostdifficultintheancientRomanlaw。TheconclusionsofHume，ofwhichtheauthorherespeaks，aregroundedonfalseassumptions。
　　GibbonhadconceivedveryinaccuratenotionsofPropertyamongtheRomans，andthoseofmanyauthorsinthepresentdayarenotlesserroneous。Wethinkitright，inthisplace，todevelopthesystemofpropertyamongtheRomans，astheresultofthestudyoftheextantoriginalauthoritiesontheancientlaw，andasithasbeendemonstrated，recognized，andadoptedbythemostlearnedexpositorsoftheRomanlaw。Besidestheauthoritiesformerlyknown，suchastheFragmentsofUlpian，t。xix。andt。
　　i。16。Theoph。Paraph。i。5，4，maybeconsultedtheInstitutesofGaius，i。54，andii。40，etseq。
　　TheRomanlawsprotectedallpropertyacquiredinalawfulmanner。Theyimposedonthosewhohadinvadedit，theobligationofmakingrestitutionandreparationofalldamagecausedbythatinvasion；theypunisheditmoreover，inmanycases，byapecuniaryfine。Buttheydidnotalwaysgrantarecoveryagainstthethirdperson，whohadbecomebonafidepossessedoftheproperty。Hewhohadobtainedpossessionofathingbelongingtoanother，knowingnothingofthepriorrightsofthatperson，maintainedthepossession。Thelawhadexpresslydeterminedthosecases，inwhichitpermittedpropertytobereclaimedfromaninnocentpossessor。Inthesecasespossessionhadthecharactersofabsoluteproprietorship，calledmancipium，jusQuiritium。Topossessthisright，itwasnotsufficienttohaveenteredintopossessionofthethinginanymanner；theacquisitionwasboundtohavethatcharacterofpublicity，whichwasgivenbytheobservationofsolemnforms，prescribedbythelaws，ortheuninterruptedexerciseofproprietorshipduringacertaintime:theRomancitizenalonecouldacquirethisproprietorship。Everyotherkindofpossession，whichmightbenamedimperfectproprietorship，wascalled"inbonishabere。"ItwasnottillafterthetimeofCicerothatthegeneralnameofDominiumwasgiventoallproprietorship。
　　Itwasthenthepublicitywhichconstitutedthedistinctivecharacterofabsolutedominion。Thispublicitywasgroundedonthemodeofacquisition，whichthemodernshavecalledCivil，ModiadquirendiCiviles。Thesemodesofacquisitionwere，1。Mancipiumormancipatio，whichwasnothingbutthesolemndeliveringoverofthethinginthepresenceofadeterminatenumberofwitnessesandapublicofficer；itwasfromthisprobablythatproprietorshipwasnamed，2。Injurecessio，whichwasasolemndeliveringoverbeforethepraetor。
　　3。Adjudicatio，madebyajudge，inacaseofpartition。
　　4。Lex，whichcomprehendedmodesofacquiringinparticularcasesdeterminedbylaw；probablythelawofthexii。tables；forinstance，thesubcoronaemptioandthelegatum。
　　5。Usna，calledafterwardsusacapio，andbythemodernsprescription。
　　Thiswasonlyayearformovables；twoyearsforthingsnotmovable。Itsprimaryobjectwasaltogetherdifferentfromthatofprescriptioninthepresentday。ItwasoriginallyintroducedinordertotransformthesimplepossessionofathinginbonishabereintoRomanproprietorship。Thepublicanduninterruptedpossessionofathing，enjoyedforthespaceofoneortwoyears，wassufficienttomakeknowntotheinhabitantsofthecityofRometowhomthethingbelonged。Thislastmodeofacquisitioncompletedthesystemofcivilacquisitions。bylegalizing。asitwere，everyotherkindofacquisitionwhichwasnotconferred，fromthecommencement，bytheJusQuiritium。V。Ulpian。Fragm。
　　i。16。Gaius，ii。14。Webelieve，accordingtoGaius，43，thatthisusucaptionwasextendedtothecasewhereathinghadbeenacquiredfromapersonnottherealproprietor；andthataccordingtothetimeprescribed，itgavetothepossessortheRomanproprietorship。ButthisdoesnotappeartohavebeentheoriginaldesignofthisInstitution。Caeterumetiamearumrerumusucapionobiscompetit，quaenonadominonobistraditafuerint，simodoeasbonafideacceperimusGaius，lii。43。
　　Astothingsofsmallervalue，orthosewhichitwasdifficulttodistinguishfromeachother，thesolemnitiesofwhichwespeakwerenotrequisitetoobtainlegalproprietorship。
　　Inthiscasesimpledeliverywassufficient。
　　InproportiontotheaggrandizementoftheRepublic，thislatterprinciplebecamemoreimportantfromtheincreaseofthecommerceandwealthofthestate。Itwasnecessarytoknowwhatwerethosethingsofwhichabsolutepropertymightbeacquiredbysimpledelivery，andwhat，onthecontrary，those，theacquisitionofwhichmustbesanctionedbythesesolemnities。
　　Thisquestionwasnecessarilytobedecidedbyageneralrule；
　　anditisthisrulewhichestablishesthedistinctionbetweenresmancipiandnecmancipi，adistinctionaboutwhichtheopinionsofmodernciviliansdiffersomuchthatthereareabovetenconflictingsystemsonthesubject。ThesystemwhichaccordsbestwithasoundinterpretationoftheRomanlaws，isthatproposedbyM。TrekelofHamburg，andstillfurtherdevelopedbyM。Hugo，whohasextracteditintheMagazineofCivilLaw，vol。ii。p。7。
　　Thisisthesystemnowalmostuniversallyadopted。ResmancipibycontractionformancipiiwerethingsofwhichtheabsolutepropertyJusQuiritiummightbeacquiredonlybythesolemnitiesmentionedabove，atleastbythatofmancipation，whichwas，withoutdoubt，themosteasyandthemostusual。
　　Gaius，ii。25。Asforotherthings，theacquisitionofwhichwasnotsubjecttotheseforms，inordertoconferabsoluteright，theywerecalledresnecmancipi。SeeUlpian，Fragm。xix。
　　1。3，7。
　　UlpianandVarroenumeratethedifferentkindsofresmancipi。Theirenumerationsdonotquiteagree；andvariousmethodsofreconcilingthemhavebeenattempted。TheauthorityofUlpian，however，whowroteasacivilian，oughttohavethegreaterweightonthissubject。
　　Butwhyarethesethingsaloneresmancipi?Thisisoneofthequestionswhichhavebeenmostfrequentlyagitated，andonwhichtheopinionsofciviliansaremostdivided。M。Hugohasresolveditinthemostnaturalandsatisfactorymanner。"Allthingswhichwereeasilyknownindividually，whichwereofgreatvalue，withwhichtheRomanswereacquainted，andwhichtheyhighlyappreciated，wereresmancipi。Ofoldmancipationorsomeothersolemnformwasrequiredfortheacquisitionofthesethings，anaccountoftheirimportance。Mancipationservedtoprovetheiracquisition，becausetheywereeasilydistinguishedonefromtheother。"OnthisgreathistoricaldiscussionconsulttheMagazineofCivilLawbyM。Hugo，vol。ii。p。37，38；thedissertationofM。J。M。Zachariae，deRebusMancipietnecMancipiConjecturae，p。11。Lipsiae，1807；theHistoryofCivilLawbyM。Hugo；andmyInstitutionesJurisRomaniPrivatip。108，110。
　　Asageneralrule，itmaybesaidthatallthingsareresnecmancipi；theresmancipiaretheexceptiontothisprinciple。
　　Thepraetorschangedthesystemofpropertybyallowingaperson，whohadathinginbonis，therighttorecoverbeforetheprescribedtermofusucaptionhadconferredabsoluteproprietorship。Paulianainremactio。Justinianwentstillfurther，intimeswhentherewasnolongeranydistinctionbetweenaRomancitizenandastranger。Hegrantedtherightofrecoveringallthingswhichhadbeenacquired，whetherbywhatwerecalledcivilornaturalmodesofacquisition，Cod。l。vii。
　　t。25，31。AndhesoalteredthetheoryofGaiusinhisInstitutes，ii。1，thatnotraceremainsofthedoctrinetaughtbythatcivilian。—W。]
　　[Footnote141:SeetheInstitutesl。i。tit。iv。v。andthePandects，l。vii。NoodthascomposedalearnedanddistincttreatisedeUsufructu，Opp。tom。i。p。387—478。]
　　[Footnote142:ThequestionsdeServitutibusarediscussedintheInstitutesl。ii。tit。iii。andPandects，l。viii。CiceroproMurena，c。9andLactantiusInstitut。Divin。l。i。c。i。
　　affecttolaughattheinsignificantdoctrine，deaquadepluviaarcenda，&c。Yetitmightbeoffrequentuseamonglitigiousneighbors，bothintownandcountry。]
　　Thepersonaltitleofthefirstproprietormustbedeterminedbyhisdeath:butthepossession，withoutanyappearanceofchange，ispeaceablycontinuedinhischildren，theassociatesofhistoil，andthepartnersofhiswealth。Thisnaturalinheritancehasbeenprotectedbythelegislatorsofeveryclimateandage，andthefatherisencouragedtopersevereinslowanddistantimprovements，bythetenderhope，thatalongposteritywillenjoythefruitsofhislabor。Theprincipleofhereditarysuccessionisuniversal；buttheorderhasbeenvariouslyestablishedbyconvenienceorcaprice，bythespiritofnationalinstitutions，orbysomepartialexamplewhichwasoriginallydecidedbyfraudorviolence。ThejurisprudenceoftheRomansappeartohavedeviatedfromtheinequalityofnaturemuchlessthantheJewish，^143theAthenian，^144ortheEnglishinstitutions。^145Onthedeathofacitizen，allhisdescendants，unlesstheywerealreadyfreedfromhispaternalpower，werecalledtotheinheritanceofhispossessions。Theinsolentprerogativeofprimogeniturewasunknown；thetwosexeswereplacedonajustlevel；allthesonsanddaughterswereentitledtoanequalportionofthepatrimonialestate；andifanyofthesonshadbeeninterceptedbyaprematuredeath，hispersonwasrepresented，andhissharewasdivided，byhissurvivingchildren。Onthefailureofthedirectline，therightofsuccessionmustdivergetothecollateralbranches。Thedegreesofkindred^146arenumberedbythecivilians，ascendingfromthelastpossessortoacommonparent，anddescendingfromthecommonparenttothenextheir:myfatherstandsinthefirstdegree，mybrotherinthesecond，hischildreninthethird，andtheremainderoftheseriesmaybeconceivedbyafancy，orpicturedinagenealogicaltable。Inthiscomputation，adistinctionwasmade，essentialtothelawsandeventheconstitutionofRome；theagnats，orpersonsconnectedbyalineofmales，werecalled，astheystoodinthenearestdegree，toanequalpartition；butafemalewasincapableoftransmittinganylegalclaims；andthecognatsofeveryrank，withoutexceptingthedearrelationofamotherandason，weredisinheritedbytheTwelveTables，asstrangersandaliens。AmongtheRomansagensorlineagewasunitedbyacommonnameanddomesticrites；thevariouscognomensorsurnamesofScipio，orMarcellus，distinguishedfromeachotherthesubordinatebranchesorfamiliesoftheCornelianorClaudianrace:thedefaultoftheagnats，ofthesamesurname，wassuppliedbythelargerdenominationofgentiles；andthevigilanceofthelawsmaintained，inthesamename，theperpetualdescentofreligionandproperty。AsimilarprincipledictatedtheVoconianlaw，^147whichabolishedtherightoffemaleinheritance。Aslongasvirginsweregivenorsoldinmarriage，theadoptionofthewifeextinguishedthehopesofthedaughter。Buttheequalsuccessionofindependentmatronssupportedtheirprideandluxury，andmighttransportintoaforeignhousetherichesoftheirfathers。
　　WhilethemaximsofCato^148wererevered，theytendedtoperpetuateineachfamilyajustandvirtuousmediocrity:tillfemaleblandishmentsinsensiblytriumphed；andeverysalutaryrestraintwaslostinthedissolutegreatnessoftherepublic。
　　Therigorofthedecemvirswastemperedbytheequityofthepraetors。Theiredictsrestoredandemancipatedposthumouschildrentotherightsofnature；anduponthefailureoftheagnats，theypreferredthebloodofthecognatstothenameofthegentileswhosetitleandcharacterwereinsensiblycoveredwithoblivion。ThereciprocalinheritanceofmothersandsonswasestablishedintheTertullianandOrphitiandecreesbythehumanityofthesenate。AnewandmoreimpartialorderwasintroducedbytheNovelsofJustinian，whoaffectedtorevivethejurisprudenceoftheTwelveTables。Thelinesofmasculineandfemalekindredwereconfounded:thedescending，ascending，andcollateralserieswasaccuratelydefined；andeachdegree，accordingtotheproximityofbloodandaffection，succeededtothevacantpossessionsofaRomancitizen。^149
　　[Footnote143:Amongthepatriarchs，thefirst—bornenjoyedamysticandspiritualprimogeniture，Genesis，xxv。31。InthelandofCanaan，hewasentitledtoadoubleportionofinheritance，Deuteronomy，xxi。17，withLeClerc'sjudiciousCommentary。]