[Footnote182:Thucydid。l。i。c。6Thehistorianwhoconsidersthiscircumstanceasthetestofcivilization,woulddisdainthebarbarismofaEuropeancourt]
[Footnote183:Hefirstratedatmillies800,000l。thedamagesofSicily,DivinatioinCaecilium,c。5,whichheafterwardsreducedtoquadringenties,320,000l。—1ActioinVerrem,c。
18,andwasfinallycontentwithtricies,24,000l。PlutarchinCiceron。tom。iii。p。1584hasnotdissembledthepopularsuspicionandreport。]
[Footnote184:Verreslivednearthirtyyearsafterhistrial,tillthesecondtriumvirate,whenhewasproscribedbythetasteofMarkAntonyforthesakeofhisCorinthianplate,Plin。Hist。
Natur。xxxiv。3。]
ThefirstimperfectattempttorestoretheproportionofcrimesandpunishmentswasmadebythedictatorSylla,who,inthemidstofhissanguinarytriumph,aspiredtorestrainthelicense,ratherthantooppresstheliberty,oftheRomans。Hegloriedinthearbitraryproscriptionoffourthousandsevenhundredcitizens。^185But,inthecharacterofalegislator,herespectedtheprejudicesofthetimes;and,insteadofpronouncingasentenceofdeathagainsttherobberorassassin,thegeneralwhobetrayedanarmy,orthemagistratewhoruinedaprovince,Syllawascontenttoaggravatethepecuniarydamagesbythepenaltyofexile,or,inmoreconstitutionallanguage,bytheinterdictionoffireandwater。TheCornelian,andafterwardsthePompeianandJulian,lawsintroducedanewsystemofcriminaljurisprudence;^186andtheemperors,fromAugustustoJustinian,disguisedtheirincreasingrigorunderthenamesoftheoriginalauthors。Buttheinventionandfrequentuseofextraordinarypainsproceededfromthedesiretoextendandconcealtheprogressofdespotism。InthecondemnationofillustriousRomans,thesenatewasalwayspreparedtoconfound,atthewilloftheirmasters,thejudicialandlegislativepowers。Itwasthedutyofthegovernorstomaintainthepeaceoftheirprovince,bythearbitraryandrigidadministrationofjustice;
thefreedomofthecityevaporatedintheextentofempire,andtheSpanishmalefactor,whoclaimedtheprivilegeofaRoman,waselevatedbythecommandofGalbaonafairerandmoreloftycross。^187Occasionalrescriptsissuedfromthethronetodecidethequestionswhich,bytheirnoveltyorimportance,appearedtosurpasstheauthorityanddiscernmentofaproconsul。
Transportationandbeheadingwerereservedforhonorablepersons;
meanercriminalswereeitherhanged,orburnt,orburiedinthemines,orexposedtothewildbeastsoftheamphitheatre。Armedrobberswerepursuedandextirpatedastheenemiesofsociety;
thedrivingawayhorsesorcattlewasmadeacapitaloffence;
^188butsimpletheftwasuniformlyconsideredasamerecivilandprivateinjury。Thedegreesofguilt,andthemodesofpunishment,weretoooftendeterminedbythediscretionoftherulers,andthesubjectwasleftinignoranceofthelegaldangerwhichhemightincurbyeveryactionofhislife。
[Footnote185:SuchisthenumberassignedbyValer'usMaximus,l。ix。c。2,No。1,Florusiv。21distinguishes2000senatorsandknights。AppiandeBell。Civil。l。i。c。95,tom。ii。p。
133,edit。Schweighausermoreaccuratelycomputesfortyvictimsofthesenatorianrank,and1600oftheequestriancensusororder。]
[Footnote186:ForthepenallawsLegesCorneliae,Pompeiae,Julae,ofSylla,Pompey,andtheCaesarsseethesentencesofPaulus,l。iv。tit。xviii。—xxx。p。497—528,edit。
Schulting,theGregorianCode,Fragment。l。xix。p。705,706,inSchulting,theCollatioLegumMosaicarumetRomanarum,tit。
i。—xv。,theTheodosianCode,l。ix。,theCodeofJustinian,l。ix。,thePandects,xlviii。,theInstitutes,l。iv。tit。
xviii。,andtheGreekversionofTheophilus,p。917—926。]
[Footnote187:Itwasaguardianwhohadpoisonedhisward。Thecrimewasatrocious:yetthepunishmentisreckonedbySuetoniusc。9amongtheactsinwhichGalbashowedhimselfacer,vehemens,etindelictiscoercendisimmodicus。]
[Footnote188:Theabactoresorabigeatores,whodroveonehorse,ortwomaresoroxen,orfivehogs,ortengoats,weresubjecttocapitalpunishment,Paul,Sentent。Recept。l。iv。tit。xviii。p。
497,498。Hadrian,adConcil。Baeticae,mostseverewheretheoffencewasmostfrequent,condemnsthecriminals,adgladium,ludidamnationem,Ulpian,deOfficioProconsulis,l。viii。inCollationeLegumMosaic。etRom。tit。xip。235。]
Asin,avice,acrime,aretheobjectsoftheology,ethics,andjurisprudence。Whenevertheirjudgmentsagree,theycorroborateeachother;but,asoftenastheydiffer,aprudentlegislatorappreciatestheguiltandpunishmentaccordingtothemeasureofsocialinjury。Onthisprinciple,themostdaringattackonthelifeandpropertyofaprivatecitizenisjudgedlessatrociousthanthecrimeoftreasonorrebellion,whichinvadesthemajestyoftherepublic:theobsequiousciviliansunanimouslypronounced,thattherepubliciscontainedinthepersonofitschief;andtheedgeoftheJulianlawwassharpenedbytheincessantdiligenceoftheemperors。Thelicentiouscommerceofthesexesmaybetoleratedasanimpulseofnature,orforbiddenasasourceofdisorderandcorruption;butthefame,thefortunes,thefamilyofthehusband,areseriouslyinjuredbytheadulteryofthewife。ThewisdomofAugustus,aftercurbingthefreedomofrevenge,appliedtothisdomesticoffencetheanimadversionofthelaws:andtheguiltyparties,afterthepaymentofheavyforfeituresandfines,werecondemnedtolongorperpetualexileintwoseparateislands。^189Religionpronouncesanequalcensureagainsttheinfidelityofthehusband;but,asitisnotaccompaniedbythesamecivileffects,thewifewasneverpermittedtovindicateherwrongs;^190andthedistinctionofsimpleordoubleadultery,sofamiliarandsoimportantinthecanonlaw,isunknowntothejurisprudenceoftheCodeandthePandects。Itouchwithreluctance,anddespatchwithimpatience,amoreodiousvice,ofwhichmodestyrejectsthename,andnatureabominatestheidea。TheprimitiveRomanswereinfectedbytheexampleoftheEtruscans^191andGreeks:^192
andinthemadabuseofprosperityandpower,everypleasurethatisinnocentwasdeemedinsipid;andtheScatinianlaw,^193whichhadbeenextortedbyanactofviolence,wasinsensiblyabolishedbythelapseoftimeandthemultitudeofcriminals。Bythislaw,therape,perhapstheseduction,ofaningenuousyouth,wascompensated,asapersonalinjury,bythepoordamagesoftenthousandsesterces,orfourscorepounds;theravishermightbeslainbytheresistanceorrevengeofchastity;andIwishtobelieve,thatatRome,asinAthens,thevoluntaryandeffeminatedeserterofhissexwasdegradedfromthehonorsandtherightsofacitizen。^194Butthepracticeofvicewasnotdiscouragedbytheseverityofopinion:theindeliblestainofmanhoodwasconfoundedwiththemorevenialtransgressionsoffornicationandadultery,norwasthelicentiousloverexposedtothesamedishonorwhichheimpressedonthemaleorfemalepartnerofhisguilt。FromCatullustoJuvenal,^195thepoetsaccuseandcelebratethedegeneracyofthetimes;andthereformationofmannerswasfeeblyattemptedbythereasonandauthorityofthecivilianstillthemostvirtuousoftheCaesarsproscribedthesinagainstnatureasacrimeagainstsociety。^196
[Footnote189:TillthepublicationoftheJuliusPaulusofSchulting,l。ii。tit。xxvi。p。317—323,itwasaffirmedandbelievedthattheJulianlawspunishedadulterywithdeath;andthemistakearosefromthefraudorerrorofTribonian。YetLipsiushadsuspectedthetruthfromthenarrativesofTacitus,Annal。ii。50,iii。24,iv。42,andevenfromthepracticeofAugustus,whodistinguishedthetreasonablefrailtiesofhisfemalekindred。]
[Footnote190:Incasesofadultery,Severusconfinedtothehusbandtherightofpublicaccusation,Cod。Justinian,l。ix。
tit。ix。leg。1。Noristhisprivilegeunjust—sodifferentaretheeffectsofmaleorfemaleinfidelity。]
[Footnote191:Timonl。i。andTheopompusl。xliii。apudAthenaeum,l。xii。p。517describetheluxuryandlustoftheEtruscans。AboutthesameperiodA。U。C。445theRomanyouthstudiedinEtruria,liv。ix。36。]
[Footnote192:ThePersianshadbeencorruptedinthesameschool,Herodot。l。i。c。135。AcuriousdissertationmightbeformedontheintroductionofpaederastyafterthetimeofHomer,itsprogressamongtheGreeksofAsiaandEurope,thevehemenceoftheirpassions,andthethindeviceofvirtueandfriendshipwhichamusedthephilosophersofAthens。Butsceleraostendioportetdumpuniuntur,abscondiflagitia。]
[Footnote193:Thename,thedate,andtheprovisionsofthislawareequallydoubtful,Gravina,Opp。p。432,433。Heineccius,Hist。Jur。Rom。No。108。Ernesti,Clav。Ciceron。inIndiceLegum。ButIwillobservethatthenefandaVenusofthehonestGermanisstyledaversabythemorepoliteItalian。]
[Footnote194:SeetheorationofAeschinesagainstthecatamiteTimarchus,inReiske,Orator。Graec。tom。iii。p。21—184。]
[Footnote195:Acrowdofdisgracefulpassageswillforcethemselvesonthememoryoftheclassicreader:IwillonlyremindhimofthecooldeclarationofOvid:—
Odiconcubitusquinonutrumqueresolvant。Hocestquodpuerumtangaramoreminus。]
[Footnote196:AeliusLampridius,inVit。Heliogabal。inHist。
Augustp。112AureliusVictor,inPhilippo,CodexTheodos。l。ix。
tit。vii。leg。7,andGodefroy'sCommentary,tom。iii。p。63。
TheodosiusabolishedthesubterraneousbrothelsofRome,inwhichtheprostitutionofbothsexeswasactedwithimpunity。]
ChapterXLIV:IdeaOfTheRomanJurisprudence。
PartVII。
Anewspiritoflegislation,respectableeveninitserror,aroseintheempirewiththereligionofConstantine。^197ThelawsofMoseswerereceivedasthedivineoriginalofjustice,andtheChristianprincesadaptedtheirpenalstatutestothedegreesofmoralandreligiousturpitude。Adulterywasfirstdeclaredtobeacapitaloffence:thefrailtyofthesexeswasassimilatedtopoisonorassassination,tosorceryorparricide;
thesamepenaltieswereinflictedonthepassiveandactiveguiltofpaederasty;andallcriminalsoffreeorservileconditionwereeitherdrownedorbeheaded,orcastaliveintotheavengingflames。Theadulterersweresparedbythecommonsympathyofmankind;buttheloversoftheirownsexwerepursuedbygeneralandpiousindignation:theimpuremannersofGreecestillprevailedinthecitiesofAsia,andeveryvicewasfomentedbythecelibacyofthemonksandclergy。Justinianrelaxedthepunishmentatleastoffemaleinfidelity:theguiltyspousewasonlycondemnedtosolitudeandpenance,andattheendoftwoyearsshemightberecalledtothearmsofaforgivinghusband。
Butthesameemperordeclaredhimselftheimplacableenemyofunmanlylust,andthecrueltyofhispersecutioncanscarcelybeexcusedbythepurityofhismotives。^198Indefianceofeveryprincipleofjustice,hestretchedtopastaswellasfutureoffencestheoperationsofhisedicts,withthepreviousallowanceofashortrespiteforconfessionandpardon。A
painfuldeathwasinflictedbytheamputationofthesinfulinstrument,ortheinsertionofsharpreedsintotheporesandtubesofmostexquisitesensibility;andJustiniandefendedtheproprietyoftheexecution,sincethecriminalswouldhavelosttheirhands,hadtheybeenconvictedofsacrilege。Inthisstateofdisgraceandagony,twobishops,IsaiahofRhodesandAlexanderofDiospolis,weredraggedthroughthestreetsofConstantinople,whiletheirbrethrenwereadmonished,bythevoiceofacrier,toobservethisawfullesson,andnottopollutethesanctityoftheircharacter。Perhapstheseprelateswereinnocent。Asentenceofdeathandinfamywasoftenfoundedontheslightandsuspiciousevidenceofachildoraservant:
theguiltofthegreenfaction,oftherich,andoftheenemiesofTheodora,waspresumedbythejudges,andpaederastybecamethecrimeofthosetowhomnocrimecouldbeimputed。AFrenchphilosopher^199hasdaredtoremarkthatwhateverissecretmustbedoubtful,andthatournaturalhorrorofvicemaybeabusedasanengineoftyranny。Butthefavorablepersuasionofthesamewriter,thatalegislatormayconfideinthetasteandreasonofmankind,isimpeachedbytheunwelcomediscoveryoftheantiquityandextentofthedisease。^200
[Footnote197:SeethelawsofConstantineandhissuccessorsagainstadultery,sodomy&c。,intheTheodosian,l。ix。tit。
vii。leg。7,l。xi。tit。xxxvileg。1,4andJustinianCodes,l。ix。tit。ix。leg。30,31。Theseprincesspeakthelanguageofpassionaswellasofjustice,andfraudulentlyascribetheirownseveritytothefirstCaesars。]
[Footnote198:Justinian,Novel。lxxvii。cxxxiv。cxli。ProcopiusinAnecdot。c。11,16,withthenotesofAlemannus。Theophanes,p。151。Cedrenus。p。688。Zonaras,l。xiv。p。64。]
[Footnote199:Montesquieu,EspritdesLoix,l。xii。c。6。Thateloquentphilosopherconciliatestherightsoflibertyandofnature,whichshouldneverbeplacedinoppositiontoeachother。]
[Footnote200:ForthecorruptionofPalestine,2000yearsbeforetheChristianaera,seethehistoryandlawsofMoses。AncientGaulisstigmatizedbyDiodorusSiculus,tom。i。l。v。p。356,
ChinabytheMahometarandChristiantravellers,AncientRelationsofIndiaandChina,p。34translatedbyRenaudot,andhisbittercriticthePerePremare,LettresEdifiantes,tom。xix。
p。435,andnativeAmericabytheSpanishhistorians,GarcilassodelaVega,l。iii。c。13,Rycaut'stranslation;andDictionnairedeBayle,tom。iii。p。88。Ibelieve,andhope,thatthenegroes,intheirowncountry,wereexemptfromthismoralpestilence。]
ThefreecitizensofAthensandRomeenjoyed,inallcriminalcases,theinvaluableprivilegeofbeingtriedbytheircountry。^2011。Theadministrationofjusticeisthemostancientofficeofaprince:itwasexercisedbytheRomankings,andabusedbyTarquin;whoalone,withoutlaworcouncil,pronouncedhisarbitraryjudgments。Thefirstconsulssucceededtothisregalprerogative;butthesacredrightofappealsoonabolishedthejurisdictionofthemagistrates,andallpubliccausesweredecidedbythesupremetribunalofthepeople。Butawilddemocracy,superiortotheforms,toooftendisdainstheessentialprinciples,ofjustice:theprideofdespotismwasenvenomedbyplebeianenvy,andtheheroesofAthensmightsometimesapplaudthehappinessofthePersian,whosefatedependedonthecapriceofasingletyrant。Somesalutaryrestraints,imposedbythepeopleortheirownpassions,wereatoncethecauseandeffectofthegravityandtemperanceoftheRomans。Therightofaccusationwasconfinedtothemagistrates。
Avoteofthethirtyfivetribescouldinflictafine;butthecognizanceofallcapitalcrimeswasreservedbyafundamentallawtotheassemblyofthecenturies,inwhichtheweightofinfluenceandpropertywassuretopreponderate。Repeatedproclamationsandadjournmentswereinterposed,toallowtimeforprejudiceandresentmenttosubside:thewholeproceedingmightbeannulledbyaseasonableomen,ortheoppositionofatribune;
andsuchpopulartrialswerecommonlylessformidabletoinnocencethantheywerefavorabletoguilt。Butthisunionofthejudicialandlegislativepowersleftitdoubtfulwhethertheaccusedpartywaspardonedoracquitted;and,inthedefenceofanillustriousclient,theoratorsofRomeandAthensaddresstheirargumentstothepolicyandbenevolence,aswellastothejustice,oftheirsovereign。2。Thetaskofconveningthecitizensforthetrialofeachoffenderbecamemoredifficult,asthecitizensandtheoffenderscontinuallymultiplied;andthereadyexpedientwasadoptedofdelegatingthejurisdictionofthepeopletotheordinarymagistrates,ortoextraordinaryinquisitors。Inthefirstagesthesequestionswererareandoccasional。InthebeginningoftheseventhcenturyofRometheyweremadeperpetual:fourpraetorswereannuallyempoweredtositinjudgmentonthestateoffencesoftreason,extortion,peculation,andbribery;andSyllaaddednewpraetorsandnewquestionsforthosecrimeswhichmoredirectlyinjurethesafetyofindividuals。Bytheseinquisitorsthetrialwaspreparedanddirected;buttheycouldonlypronouncethesentenceofthemajorityofjudges,whowithsometruth,andmoreprejudice,havebeencomparedtotheEnglishjuries。^202Todischargethisimportant,thoughburdensomeoffice,anannuallistofancientandrespectablecitizenswasformedbythepraetor。Aftermanyconstitutionalstruggles,theywerechoseninequalnumbersfromthesenate,theequestrianorder,andthepeople;fourhundredandfiftywereappointedforsinglequestions;andthevariousrollsordecuriesofjudgesmusthavecontainedthenamesofsomethousandRomans,whorepresentedthejudicialauthorityofthestate。Ineachparticularcause,asufficientnumberwasdrawnfromtheurn;theirintegritywasguardedbyanoath;themodeofballotsecuredtheirindependence;thesuspicionofpartialitywasremovedbythemutualchallengesoftheaccuseranddefendant;andthejudgesofMilo,bytheretrenchmentoffifteenoneachside,werereducedtofifty—onevoicesortablets,ofacquittal,ofcondemnation,oroffavorabledoubt。^2033。Inhisciviljurisdiction,thepraetorofthecitywastrulyajudge,andalmostalegislator;but,assoonashehadprescribedtheactionoflaw,heoftenreferredtoadelegatethedeterminationofthefact。Withtheincreaseoflegalproceedings,thetribunalofthecentumvirs,inwhichhepresided,acquiredmoreweightandreputation。Butwhetherheactedalone,orwiththeadviceofhiscouncil,themostabsolutepowersmightbetrustedtoamagistratewhowasannuallychosenbythevotesofthepeople。Therulesandprecautionsoffreedomhaverequiredsomeexplanation;theorderofdespotismissimpleandinanimate。