Thirtythousandsoldiers，underthecommandofAlexander，thesonofPhilip，whowasintrustedbytheGreekswiththeirgloryandrevenge，weresufficienttosubduePersia。TheprincesofthehouseofSeleucususurpedandlosttheMacedoniancommandovertheEast。Aboutthesametime，that，byanignominioustreaty，theyresignedtotheRomansthecountryonthissideMountTarus，theyweredrivenbytheParthians，anobscurehordeofScythianorigin，fromalltheprovincesofUpperAsia。TheformidablepoweroftheParthians，whichspreadfromIndiatothefrontiersofSyria，wasinitsturnsubvertedbyArdshir，orArtaxerxes；thefounderofanewdynasty，which，underthenameofSassanides，governedPersiatilltheinvasionoftheArabs。
Thisgreatrevolution，whosefatalinfluencewassoonexperiencedbytheRomans，happenedinthefourthyearofAlexanderSeverus，twohundredandtwenty—sixyearsaftertheChristianera。^2^!
[Footnote1:Anancientchronologist，quotedbyValleiusPaterculus，l。i。c。6，observes，thattheAssyrians，theMedes，thePersians，andtheMacedonians，reignedoverAsiaonethousandninehundredandninety—fiveyears，fromtheaccessionofNinustothedefeatofAntiochusbytheRomans。Asthelatterofthesegreateventshappened289yearsbeforeChrist，theformermaybeplaced2184yearsbeforethesameaera。TheAstronomicalObservations，foundatBabylon，byAlexander，wentfiftyyearshigher。]
[Footnote*:TheParthianswereatribeoftheIndo—Germanicbranchwhichdweltonthesouth—eastoftheCaspian，andbelongedtothesameraceastheGetae，theMassagetae，andothernations，confoundedbytheancientsunderthevaguedenominationofScythians。Klaproth，TableauxHist。dl'Asie，p。40。Strabop。
747callstheParthiansCarduchi，i。e。，theinhabitantsofCurdistan。—M。]
[Footnote2:Inthefivehundredandthirty—eighthyearoftheaeraofSeleucus。SeeAgathias，l。ii。p。63。ThisgreateventsuchisthecarelessnessoftheOrientalsisplacedbyEutychiusashighasthetenthyearofCommodus，andbyMosesofChoreneaslowasthereignofPhilip。AmmianusMarcellinushassoservilelycopiedxxiii。6hisancientmaterials，whichareindeedverygood，thathedescribesthefamilyoftheArsacidesasstillseatedonthePersianthroneinthemiddleofthefourthcentury。]
[Footnote!:ThePersianHistory，ifthepoetryoftheShahNameh，theBookofKings，maydeservethatnamementionsfourdynastiesfromtheearliestagestotheinvasionoftheSaracens。
TheShahNamehwascomposedwiththeviewofperpetuatingtheremainsoftheoriginalPersianrecordsortraditionswhichhadsurvivedtheSaracenicinvasion。ThetaskwasundertakenbythepoetDukiki，andafterwards，underthepatronageofMahmoodofGhazni，completedbyFerdusi。ThefirstofthesedynastiesisthatofKaiomors，asSirW。Jonesobserves，thedarkandfabulousperiod；thesecond，thatoftheKaianian，theheroicandpoetical，inwhichtheearnedhavediscoveredsomecurious，andimaginedsomefanciful，analogieswiththeJewish，theGreek，andtheRomanaccountsoftheeasternworld。See，ontheShahNameh，TranslationbyGoerres，withVonHammer'sReview，ViennaJahrbuchvonLit。17，75，77。Malcolm'sPersia，8vo。ed。i。503。Macan'sPrefacetohisCriticalEditionoftheShahNameh。OntheearlyPersianHistory，averysensibleabstractofvariousopinionsinMalcolm'sHist。ofPersian。—M。]
ArtaxerxeshadservedwithgreatreputationinthearmiesofArtaban，thelastkingoftheParthians，anditappearsthathewasdrivenintoexileandrebellionbyroyalingratitude，thecustomaryrewardforsuperiormerit。Hisbirthwasobscure，andtheobscurityequallygaveroomtotheaspersionsofhisenemies，andtheflatteryofhisadherents。Ifwecreditthescandaloftheformer，Artaxerxessprangfromtheillegitimatecommerceofatanner'swifewithacommonsoldier。^3ThelatterrepresenthimasdescendedfromabranchoftheancientkingsofPersian，thoughtimeandmisfortunehadgraduallyreducedhisancestorstothehumblestationofprivatecitizens。^4Asthelinealheirofthemonarchy，heassertedhisrighttothethrone，andchallengedthenobletaskofdeliveringthePersiansfromtheoppressionunderwhichtheygroanedabovefivecenturiessincethedeathofDarius。TheParthiansweredefeatedinthreegreatbattles。
InthelastofthesetheirkingArtabanwasslain，andthespiritofthenationwasforeverbroken。^5TheauthorityofArtaxerxeswassolemnlyacknowledgedinagreatassemblyheldatBalchinKhorasan。^!TwoyoungerbranchesoftheroyalhouseofArsaceswereconfoundedamongtheprostratesatraps。Athird，moremindfulofancientgrandeurthanofpresentnecessity，attemptedtoretire，withanumeroustrainofvessels，towardstheirkinsman，thekingofArmenia；butthislittlearmyofdeserterswasintercepted，andcutoff，bythevigilanceoftheconqueror，^6whoboldlyassumedthedoublediadem，andthetitleofKingofKings，whichhadbeenenjoyedbyhispredecessor。Butthesepompoustitles，insteadofgratifyingthevanityofthePersian，servedonlytoadmonishhimofhisduty，andtoinflameinhissoulandshouldtheambitionofrestoringintheirfullsplendor，thereligionandempireofCyrus。
[Footnote3:Thetanner'snamewasBabec；thesoldier's，Sassan:
fromtheformerArtaxerxesobtainedthesurnameofBabegan，fromthelatterallhisdescendantshavebeenstyledSassanides。]
[Footnote4:D'Herbelot，BibliothequeOrientale，Ardshir。]
[Footnote*:IntheplainofHoormuz，thesonofBabekwashailedinthefieldwiththeproudtitleofShahanShah，kingofkings—
anameeversinceassumedbythesovereignsofPersia。Malcolm，i。71。—M。]
[Footnote5:DionCassius，l。lxxx。Herodian，l。vi。p。207。
AbulpharaginsDynast。p。80。]
[Footnote!:SeethePersianaccountoftheriseofArdeschirBabeganinMalcolml69。—M。]
[Footnote6:SeeMosesChorenensis，l。ii。c。65—71。]
I。DuringthelongservitudeofPersiaundertheMacedonianandtheParthianyoke，thenationsofEuropeandAsiahadmutuallyadoptedandcorruptedeachother'ssuperstitions。TheArsacides，indeed，practisedtheworshipoftheMagi；buttheydisgracedandpolluteditwithavariousmixtureofforeignidolatry。ThememoryofZoroaster，theancientprophetandphilosopherofthePersians，^7wasstillreveredintheEast；
buttheobsoleteandmysteriouslanguage，inwhichtheZendavestawascomposed，^8openedafieldofdisputetoseventysects，whovariouslyexplainedthefundamentaldoctrinesoftheirreligion，andwereallindifferentlydevidedbyacrowdofinfidels，whorejectedthedivinemissionandmiraclesoftheprophet。Tosuppresstheidolaters，reunitetheschismatics，andconfutetheunbelievers，bytheinfallibledecisionofageneralcouncil，thepiousArtaxerxessummonedtheMagifromallpartsofhisdominions。Thesepriests，whohadsolongsighedincontemptandobscurityobeyedthewelcomesummons；and，ontheappointedday，appeared，tothenumberofabouteightythousand。Butasthedebatesofsotumultuousanassemblycouldnothavebeendirectedbytheauthorityofreason，orinfluencedbytheartofpolicy，thePersiansynodwasreduced，bysuccessiveoperations，tofortythousand，tofourthousand，tofourhundred，toforty，andatlasttosevenMagi，themostrespectedfortheirlearningandpiety。Oneofthese，Erdaviraph，ayoungbutholyprelate，receivedfromthehandsofhisbrethrenthreecupsofsoporiferouswine。Hedrankthemoff，andinstantlyfellintoalongandprofoundsleep。Assoonashewaked，herelatedtothekingandtothebelievingmultitude，hisjourneytoheaven，andhisintimateconferenceswiththeDeity。Everydoubtwassilencedbythissupernaturalevidence；andthearticlesofthefaithofZoroasterwerefixedwithequalauthorityandprecision。
^9Ashortdelineationofthatcelebratedsystemwillbefounduseful，notonlytodisplaythecharacterofthePersiannation，buttoillustratemanyoftheirmostimportanttransactions，bothinpeaceandwar，withtheRomanempire。^10
[Footnote*:SilvestredeSacyAntiquitesdelaPersehadprovedtheneglectoftheZoroastrianreligionundertheParthiankings。—M。]
[Footnote7:HydeandPrideaux，workingupthePersianlegendsandtheirownconjecturesintoaveryagreeablestory，representZoroasterasacontemporaryofDariusHystaspes。Butitissufficienttoobserve，thattheGreekwriters，wholivedalmostintheageofDarius，agreeinplacingtheaeraofZoroastermanyhundred，oreventhousand，yearsbeforetheirowntime。ThejudiciouscriticismsofMr。Moyleperceived，andmaintainedagainsthisuncle，Dr。Prideaux，theantiquityofthePersianprophet。Seehiswork，vol。ii。
Note:TherearethreeleadingtheoriesconcerningtheageofZoroaster:1。Thatwhichassignshimtoanageofgreatandalmostindefiniteantiquity—itisthatofMoyle，adoptedbyGibbon，Volney，Recherchessurl'Histoire，ii。2。Rhode，also，dieHeiligeSage，&c。，inaveryingeniousandably—developedtheory，throwstheBactrianprophetfarbackintoantiquity2。
Foucher，Mem。del'Acad。xxvii。253，Tychsen，inCom。Soc。
Gott。ii。112，Heeren，ldeen。i。459，andrecentlyHolty，identifytheGushtaspofthePersianmythologicalhistorywithCyaxarestheFirst，thekingoftheMedes，andconsiderthereligiontobeMedianinitsorigin。M。Guizotconsidersthisopinionmostprobable，noteinloc。3。Hyde，Prideaux，AnquetilduPerron，Kleuker，Herder，Goerres，Mythen—Geschichte，VonHammer。Wien。Jahrbuch，vol。ix。，Malcolm，i。528，DeGuigniaut，Relig。del'Antiq。2dpart，vol。iii。，Klaproth，Tableauxdel'Asie，p。21，makeGushtaspDariusHystaspes，andZoroasterhiscontemporary。ThesilenceofHerodotusappearsthegreatobjectiontothistheory。Somewriters，asM。Foucherresting，asM。Guizotobserves，onthedoubtfulauthorityofPliny，makemorethanoneZoroaster，andsoattempttoreconciletheconflictingtheories。—M。]
[Footnote8:ThatancientidiomwascalledtheZend。Thelanguageofthecommentary，thePehlvi，thoughmuchmoremodern，hasceasedmanyagesagotobealivingtongue。ThisfactaloneifitisallowedasauthenticsufficientlywarrantstheantiquityofthosewritingswhichMd'AnquetilhasbroughtintoEurope，andtranslatedintoFrench。
Note:Zendsignifieslife，living。Thewordmeans，eitherthecollectionofthecanonicalbooksofthefollowersofZoroaster，orthelanguageitselfinwhichtheyarewritten。
TheyarethebooksthatcontainthewordoflifewhetherthelanguagewasoriginallycalledZend，orwhetheritwassocalledfromthecontentsofthebooks。Avestameansword，oracle，revelation:thistermisnotthetitleofaparticularwork，butofthecollectionofthebooksofZoroaster，astherevelationofOrmuzd。ThiscollectionissometimescalledZendavesta，sometimesbrieflyZend。
TheZendwastheancientlanguageofMedia，asisprovedbyitsaffinitywiththedialectsofArmeniaandGeorgia；itwasalreadyadeadlanguageundertheArsacidesinthecountrywhichwasthesceneoftheeventsrecordedintheZendavesta。Somecritics，amongothersRichardsonandSirW。Jones，havecalledinquestiontheantiquityofthesebooks。TheformerpretendedthatZendhadneverbeenawrittenorspokenlanguage，buthadbeeninventedinthelatertimesbytheMagi，forthepurposesoftheirart；butKleuker，inthedissertationswhichheaddedtothoseofAnquetilandtheAbbeFoucher，hasprovedthattheZendwasalivingandspokenlanguage。—G。SirW。Jonesappearstohaveabandonedhisdoubts，ondiscoveringtheaffinitybetweentheZendandtheSanskrit。SincethetimeofKleuker，thisquestionhasbeeninvestigatedbymanylearnedscholars。SirW。
Jones，Leyden，Asiat。Research。x。283，andMr。Erskine，BombayTrans。ii。299，consideritaderivativefromtheSanskrit。TheantiquityoftheZendavestahaslikewisebeenassertedbyRask，thegreatDanishlinguist，who，accordingtoMalcolm，broughtbackfromtheEastfreshtranscriptsandadditionstothosepublishedbyAnquetil。AccordingtoRask，theZendandSanskritaresisterdialects；theonetheparentofthePersian，theotheroftheIndianfamilyoflanguages。—G。andM。
ButthesubjectismoresatisfactorilyillustratedinBopp'scomparativeGrammaroftheSanscrit，Zend，Greek，Latin，Lithuanian，Gothic，andGermanlanguages。Berlin。1833—5。
AccordingtoBopp，theZendis，insomerespects，ofamoreremarkablestructurethantheSanskrit。PartsoftheZendavestahavebeenpublishedintheoriginal，byM。Bournouf，atParis，andM。Ol。shausen，inHamburg。—M。
ThePehlviwasthelanguageofthecountriesborderingonAssyria，andprobablyofAssyriaitself。Pehlvisignifiesvalor，heroism；thePehlvi，therefore，wasthelanguageoftheancientheroesandkingsofPersia，thevaliant。Mr。ErskineprefersthederivationfromPehla，aborder。—M。ItcontainsanumberofAramaicroots。AnquetilconsidereditformedfromtheZend。
Kleukerdoesnotadoptthisopinion。ThePehlvi，hesays，ismuchmoreflowing，andlessoverchargedwithvowels，thantheZend。ThebooksofZoroaster，firstwritteninZend，wereafterwardstranslatedintoPehlviandParsi。ThePehlvihadfallenintodisuseunderthedynastyoftheSassanides，butthelearnedstillwroteit。TheParsi，thedialectofParsorFarristan，wasthenprevailingdialect。Kleuker，AnhangzumZendAvesta，2，ii。parti。p。158，partii。31。—G。
Mr。ErskineBombayTransactionsconsiderstheexistingZendavestatohavebeencompiledinthetimeofArdeschirBabegan。—M。]
[Footnote9:HydedeReligioneveterumPers。c。21。]
[Footnote10:IhaveprincipallydrawnthisaccountfromtheZendavestaofM。d'Anquetil，andtheSadder，subjoinedtoDr。
Hyde'streatise。Itmust，however，beconfessed，thatthestudiedobscurityofaprophet，thefigurativestyleoftheEast，andthedeceitfulmediumofaFrenchorLatinversionmayhavebetrayedusintoerrorandheresy，inthisabridgmentofPersiantheology。
Note:ItistoberegrettedthatGibbonfollowedthepost—
MahometanSadderofHyde。—M。]
Thegreatandfundamentalarticleofthesystem，wasthecelebrateddoctrineofthetwoprinciples；aboldandinjudiciousattemptofEasternphilosophytoreconciletheexistenceofmoralandphysicalevilwiththeattributesofabeneficentCreatorandGovernoroftheworld。ThefirstandoriginalBeing，inwhom，orbywhom，theuniverseexists，isdenominatedinthewritingsofZoroaster，Timewithoutbounds；^!butitmustbeconfessed，thatthisinfinitesubstanceseemsratherametaphysical，abstractionofthemind，thanarealobjectendowedwithself—consciousness，orpossessedofmoralperfections。FromeithertheblindortheintelligentoperationofthisinfiniteTime，whichbearsbuttoonearanaffinitywiththechaosoftheGreeks，thetwosecondarybutactiveprinciplesoftheuniverse，werefromalleternityproduced，OrmusdandAhriman，eachofthempossessedofthepowersofcreation，buteachdisposed，byhisinvariablenature，toexercisethemwithdifferentdesigns。Theprincipleofgoodiseternallyaborbedinlight；theprincipleofevileternallyburiedindarkness。ThewisebenevolenceofOrmusdformedmancapableofvirtue，andabundantlyprovidedhisfairhabitationwiththematerialsofhappiness。Byhisvigilantprovidence，themotionoftheplanets，theorderoftheseasons，andthetemperatemixtureoftheelements，arepreserved。ButthemaliceofAhrimanhaslongsincepiercedOrmusd'segg；or，inotherwords，hasviolatedtheharmonyofhisworks。Sincethatfataleruption，themostminutearticlesofgoodandevilareintimatelyintermingledandagitatedtogether；therankestpoisonsspringupamidstthemostsalutaryplants；deluges，earthquakes，andconflagrationsattesttheconflictofNature，andthelittleworldofmanisperpetuallyshakenbyviceandmisfortune。Whilsttherestofhumankindareledawaycaptivesinthechainsoftheirinfernalenemy，thefaithfulPersianalonereserveshisreligiousadorationforhisfriendandprotectorOrmusd，andfightsunderhisbanneroflight，inthefullconfidencethatheshall，inthelastday，sharethegloryofhistriumph。Atthatdecisiveperiod，theenlightenedwisdomofgoodnesswillrenderthepowerofOrmusdsuperiortothefuriousmaliceofhisrival。Ahrimanandhisfollowers，disarmedandsubdued，willsinkintotheirnativedarkness；andvirtuewillmaintaintheeternalpeaceandharmonyoftheuniverse。^11^!!
[Footnote!:ZeruaneAkerene，sotranslatedbyAnquetilandKleuker。ThereisadissertationofFoucheronthissubject，Mem。
del'Acad。desInscr。t。xxix。AccordingtoBohlendasalteIndienitistheSanskritSarvanAkaranam，theUncreatedWhole；
or，accordingtoFred。Schlegel，SarvanAkharyamtheUncreateIndivisible。—M。]
[Footnote*:Thisisanerror。Ahrimanwasnotforcedbyhisinvariablenaturetodoevil；theZendavestaexpresslyrecognizesseetheIzeschnethathewasborngood，thatinhisoriginhewaslight；envyrenderedhimevil；hebecamejealousofthepowerandattributesofOrmuzd；thenlightwaschangedintodarkness，andAhrimanwasprecipitatedintotheabyss。SeetheAbridgmentoftheDoctrineoftheAncientPersians，byAnquetil，c。iiSection2。—G。]
[Footnote11:ThemodernParseesandinsomedegreetheSadder
exaltOrmusdintothefirstandomnipotentcause，whilsttheydegradeAhrimanintoaninferiorbutrebelliousspirit。TheirdesireofpleasingtheMahometansmayhavecontributedtorefinetheirtheologicalsystems。]
[Footnote!!:AccordingtotheZendavesta，Ahrimanwillnotbeannihilatedorprecipitatedforeverintodarkness:attheresurrectionofthedeadhewillbeentirelydefeatedbyOrmuzd，hispowerwillbedestroyed，hiskingdomoverthrowntoitsfoundations，hewillhimselfbepurifiedintorrentsofmeltingmetal；hewillchangehisheartandhiswill，becomeholy，heavenlyestablishinhisdominionsthelawandwordofOrmuzd，unitehimselfwithhimineverlastingfriendship，andbothwillsinghymnsinhonoroftheGreatEternal。SeeAnquetil'sAbridgment。Kleuker，Anhangpartiii。p85，36；andtheIzeschne，oneofthebooksoftheZendavesta。AccordingtotheSadderBun—Dehesch，amoremodernwork，Ahrimanistobeannihilated:butthisiscontrarytothetextitselfoftheZendavesta，andtotheideaitsauthorgivesofthekingdomofEternity，afterthetwelvethousandyearsassignedtothecontestbetweenGoodandEvil。—G。]
ChapterVIII:StateOfPersionAndRestorationOfTheMonarchy。
PartII。
ThetheologyofZoroasterwasdarklycomprehendedbyforeigners，andevenbythefargreaternumberofhisdisciples；
butthemostcarelessobserverswerestruckwiththephilosophicsimplicityofthePersianworship。"Thatpeople，"saidHerodotus，^12"rejectstheuseoftemples，ofaltars，andofstatues，andsmilesatthefollyofthosenationswhoimaginethatthegodsaresprungfrom，orbearanyaffinitywith，thehumannature。
Thetopsofthehighestmountainsaretheplaceschosenforsacrifices。Hymnsandprayersaretheprincipalworship；theSupremeGod，whofillsthewidecircleofheaven，istheobjecttowhomtheyareaddressed。"Yet，atthesametime，inthetruespiritofapolytheist，heaccuseththemofadoringEarth，Water，Fire，theWinds，andtheSunandMoon。ButthePersiansofeveryagehavedeniedthecharge，andexplainedtheequivocalconduct，whichmightappeartogiveacolortoit。Theelements，andmoreparticularlyFire，Light，andtheSun，whomtheycalledMithra，^!weretheobjectsoftheirreligiousreverence，becausetheyconsideredthemasthepurestsymbols，thenoblestproductions，andthemostpowerfulagentsoftheDivinePowerandNature。^13