reportwasdexterouslyscattered，thattheFranks，theunknownnationsoftheLatinworld，werearmingbyseaandlandinthedefenceoftheChristiancause，andtheirformidableaidwasexpectedwithfardifferentsensationsinthecampandcity。Atlength，afterasiegeofthirteenmonths，^14thehopelessMoslemahreceivedfromthecaliphthewelcomepermissionofretreat。ThemarchoftheArabiancavalryovertheHellespontandthroughtheprovincesofAsia，wasexecutedwithoutdelayormolestation；butanarmyoftheirbrethrenhadbeencutinpiecesonthesideofBithynia，andtheremainsofthefleetweresorepeatedlydamagedbytempestandfire，thatonlyfivegalleysenteredtheportofAlexandriatorelatethetaleoftheirvariousandalmostincredibledisasters。^15
　　[Footnote11:InthedivisionoftheThemes，orprovincesdescribedbyConstantinePorphyrogenitus，deThematibus，l。i。
　　p。9，10，theObsequium，aLatinappellationofthearmyandpalace，wasthefourthinthepublicorder。Nicewasthemetropolis，anditsjurisdictionextendedfromtheHellespontovertheadjacentpartsofBithyniaandPhrygia，seethetwomapsprefixedbyDelisletotheImperiumOrientaleofBanduri。]
　　[Footnote*:Comparepage274。ItissingularthatGibbonshouldthuscontradicthimselfinafewpages。Byhisownaccountthiswasthesecondtime。—M。]
　　[Footnote!:TheaccountofthissiegeintheTarikhTebryisaveryunfavorablespecimenofAsiatichistory，fullofabsurdfables，andwrittenwithtotalignoranceofthecircumstancesoftimeandplace。Price，vol。i。p。498—M。]
　　[Footnote12:Thecaliphhademptiedtwobasketsofeggsandoffigs，whichheswallowedalternately，andtherepastwasconcludedwithmarrowandsugar。InoneofhispilgrimagestoMecca，Solimanate，atasinglemeal，seventypomegranates，akid，sixfowls，andahugequantityofthegrapesofTayef。Ifthebilloffarebecorrect，wemustadmiretheappetite，ratherthantheluxury，ofthesovereignofAsia，Abulfeda，Annal。
　　Moslem。p。126。
　　Note:TheTarikhTebryascribesthedeathofSolimantoapleurisy。ThesamegrossgluttonyinwhichSolimanindulged，thoughnotfataltothelife，interferedwiththemilitaryduties，ofhisbrotherMoslemah。Price，vol。i。p。511。—M。]
　　[Footnote!!:MajorPrice'sestimateofOmar'scharacterismuchmorefavorable。Amongaraceofsanguinarytyrants，Omarwasjustandhumane。Hisvirtuesaswellashisbigotrywereactive。
　　—M。]
　　[Footnote13:SeethearticleofOmarBenAbdalaziz，intheBibliothequeOrientale，p。689，690，praeferens，saysElmacin，p。91，religionemsuamrebussuismundanis。HewassodesirousofbeingwithGod，thathewouldnothaveanointedhisearhisownsayingtoobtainaperfectcureofhislastmalady。Thecaliphhadonlyoneshirt，andinanageofluxury，hisannualexpensewasnomorethantwodrachms，Abulpharagius，p。131。
　　HauddiugavisuseoprincipefuiturbisMuslemus，Abulfeda，p。
　　127。]
　　[Footnote14:BothNicephorusandTheophanesagreethatthesiegeofConstantinoplewasraisedthe15thofAugust，A。D。718；butastheformer，ourbestwitness，affirmsthatitcontinuedthirteenmonths，thelattermustbemistakeninsupposingthatitbeganonthesamedayoftheprecedingyear。IdonotfindthatPagihasremarkedthisinconsistency。]
　　[Footnote*:TheTarikhTebryembellishestheretreatofMoslemahwithsomeextraordinaryandincrediblecircumstances。Price，p。
　　514。—M。]
　　[Footnote15:InthesecondsiegeofConstantinople，IhavefollowedNicephorus，Brev。p。33—36，Theophanes，Chronograph，p。324—334，Cedrenus，Compend。p。449—452，
　　Zonaras，tom。ii。p。98—102，Elmacin，Hist。Saracen，p。88，
　　Abulfeda，Annal。Moslem。p。126，andAbulpharagius，Dynast。p。
　　130，themostsatisfactoryoftheArabs。]
　　Inthetwosieges，thedeliveranceofConstantinoplemaybechieflyascribedtothenovelty，theterrors，andtherealefficacyoftheGreekfire。^16TheimportantsecretofcompoundinganddirectingthisartificialflamewasimpartedbyCallinicus，anativeofHeliopolisinSyria，whodesertedfromtheserviceofthecaliphtothatoftheemperor。^17Theskillofachemistandengineerwasequivalenttothesuccoroffleetsandarmies；andthisdiscoveryorimprovementofthemilitaryartwasfortunatelyreservedforthedistressfulperiod，whenthedegenerateRomansoftheEastwereincapableofcontendingwiththewarlikeenthusiasmandyouthfulvigoroftheSaracens。ThehistorianwhopresumestoanalyzethisextraordinarycompositionshouldsuspecthisownignoranceandthatofhisByzantineguides，sopronetothemarvellous，socareless，and，inthisinstance，sojealousofthetruth。Fromtheirobscure，andperhapsfallacious，hintsitshouldseemthattheprincipalingredientoftheGreekfirewasthenaphtha，^18orliquidbitumen，alight，tenacious，andinflammableoil，^19whichspringsfromtheearth，andcatchesfireassoonasitcomesincontactwiththeair。Thenaphthawasmingled，Iknownotbywhatmethodsorinwhatproportions，withsulphurandwiththepitchthatisextractedfromevergreenfirs。^20Fromthismixture，whichproducedathicksmokeandaloudexplosion，proceededafierceandobstinateflame，whichnotonlyroseinperpendicularascent，butlikewiseburntwithequalvehemenceindescentorlateralprogress；insteadofbeingextinguished，itwasnourishedandquickenedbytheelementofwater；andsand，urine，orvinegar，weretheonlyremediesthatcoulddampthefuryofthispowerfulagent，whichwasjustlydenominatedbytheGreekstheliquid，orthemaritime，fire。Fortheannoyanceoftheenemy，itwasemployedwithequaleffect，byseaandland，inbattlesorinsieges。Itwaseitherpouredfromtherampartinlargeboilers，orlaunchedinred—hotballsofstoneandiron，ordartedinarrowsandjavelins，twistedroundwithflaxandtow，whichhaddeeplyimbibedtheinflammableoil；sometimesitwasdepositedinfire—ships，thevictimsandinstrumentsofamoreamplerevenge，andwasmostcommonlyblownthroughlongtubesofcopperwhichwereplantedontheprowofagalley，andfancifullyshapedintothemouthsofsavagemonsters，thatseemedtovomitastreamofliquidandconsumingfire。ThisimportantartwaspreservedatConstantinople，asthepalladiumofthestate:thegalleysandartillerymightoccasionallybelenttothealliesofRome；butthecompositionoftheGreekfirewasconcealedwiththemostjealousscruple，andtheterroroftheenemieswasincreasedandprolongedbytheirignoranceandsurprise。Inthetreatiesoftheadministrationoftheempire，theroyalauthor^21suggeststheanswersandexcusesthatmightbesteludetheindiscreetcuriosityandimportunatedemandsoftheBarbarians。
　　TheyshouldbetoldthatthemysteryoftheGreekfirehadbeenrevealedbyanangeltothefirstandgreatestoftheConstantines，withasacredinjunction，thatthisgiftofHeaven，thispeculiarblessingoftheRomans，shouldneverbecommunicatedtoanyforeignnation；thattheprinceandthesubjectwerealikeboundtoreligioussilenceunderthetemporalandspiritualpenaltiesoftreasonandsacrilege；andthattheimpiousattemptwouldprovokethesuddenandsupernaturalvengeanceoftheGodoftheChristians。Bytheseprecautions，thesecretwasconfined，abovefourhundredyears，totheRomansoftheEast；andattheendoftheeleventhcentury，thePisans，towhomeveryseaandeveryartwerefamiliar，sufferedtheeffects，withoutunderstandingthecomposition，oftheGreekfire。ItwasatlengtheitherdiscoveredorstolenbytheMahometans；and，intheholywarsofSyriaandEgypt，theyretortedaninvention，contrivedagainstthemselves，ontheheadsoftheChristians。Aknight，whodespisedtheswordsandlancesoftheSaracens，relates，withheartfeltsincerity，hisownfears，andthoseofhiscompanions，atthesightandsoundofthemischievousenginethatdischargedatorrentoftheGreekfire，thefeuGregeois，asitisstyledbythemoreearlyoftheFrenchwriters。Itcameflyingthroughtheair，saysJoinville，^22
　　likeawingedlong—taileddragon，aboutthethicknessofahogshead，withthereportofthunderandthevelocityoflightning；andthedarknessofthenightwasdispelledbythisdeadlyillumination。TheuseoftheGreek，or，asitmightnowbecalled，oftheSaracenfire，wascontinuedtothemiddleofthefourteenthcentury，^23whenthescientificorcasualcompoundofnitre，sulphur，andcharcoal，effectedanewrevolutionintheartofwarandthehistoryofmankind。^24
　　[Footnote16:OursureandindefatigableguideinthemiddleagesandByzantinehistory，CharlesduFresneduCange，hastreatedinseveralplacesoftheGreekfire，andhiscollectionsleavefewgleaningsbehind。SeeparticularlyGlossar。Med。etInfim。
　　Graecitat。p。1275，subvoce。Glossar。Med。etInfim。Latinitat。
　　IgnisGroecus。ObservationssurVillehardouin，p。305，306。
　　ObservationssurJoinville，p。71，72。]
　　[Footnote17:Theophanesstyleshim，p。295。Cedrenusp。437
　　bringsthisartistfromtheruinsofHeliopolisinEgypt；andchemistrywasindeedthepeculiarscienceoftheEgyptians。]
　　[Footnote18:Thenaphtha，theoleumincendiariumofthehistoryofJerusalem，Gest。DeiperFrancos，p。1167，theOrientalfountainofJamesdeVitry，l。iii。c。84，isintroducedonslightevidenceandstrongprobability。Cinanmusl。vi。p。165
　　callstheGreekfire:andthenaphthaisknowntoaboundbetweentheTigrisandtheCaspianSea。AccordingtoPliny，Hist。Natur。
　　ii。109，itwassubservienttotherevengeofMedea，andineitheretymology，Procop。deBell。Gothic。l。iv。c。11，mayfairlysignifythisliquidbitumen。
　　Note:ItisremarkablethattheSyrianhistorianMichelgivesthenameofnaphthatothenewly—inventedGreekfire，whichseemstoindicatethatthissubstanceformedthebaseofthedestructivecompound。St。Martin，tom。xi。p。420。—M。]
　　[Footnote19:Onthedifferentsortsofoilsandbitumens，seeDr。Watson'sthepresentbishopofLlandaff'sChemicalEssays，vol。iii。essayi。，aclassicbook，thebestadaptedtoinfusethetasteandknowledgeofchemistry。ThelessperfectideasoftheancientsmaybefoundinStraboGeograph。l。xvi。p。1078
　　andPliny，Hist。Natur。ii。108，109。HuicNaphthaemagnacognatioestignium，transiliuntqueprotinusineamundecunquevisam。OfourtravellersIambestpleasedwithOtter，tom。i。
　　p。153，158。]
　　[Footnote20:AnnaComnenahaspartlydrawnasidethecurtain。
　　Alexiad。l。xiii。p。383。Elsewherel。xi。p。336shementionsthepropertyofburning。Leo，inthexixthchapterofhisTactics，OperaMeursii，tom。vi。p。843，edit。Lami，Florent。1745，speaksofthenewinvention。ThesearegenuineandImperialtestimonies。]
　　[Footnote21:Constantin。Porphyrogenit。deAdministrat。Imperii，c。xiii。p。64，65。]
　　[Footnote22:HistoiredeSt。Louis，p。39。Paris，1668，p。44。
　　Paris，del'ImprimerieRoyale，1761。TheformeroftheseeditionsispreciousfortheobservationsofDucange；thelatterforthepureandoriginaltextofJoinville。Wemusthaverecoursetothattexttodiscover，thatthefeuGregeoiswasshotwithapileorjavelin，fromanenginethatactedlikeasling。]
　　[Footnote23:Thevanity，orenvy，ofshakingtheestablishedpropertyofFame，hastemptedsomemodernstocarrygunpowderabovethexivth，seeSirWilliamTemple，Dutens，&c。，andtheGreekfireabovetheviithcentury，seetheSalusteduPresidentdesBrosses，tom。ii。p。381。Buttheirevidence，whichprecedesthevulgaraeraoftheinvention，isseldomclearorsatisfactory，andsubsequentwritersmaybesuspectedoffraudorcredulity。Intheearliestsieges，somecombustiblesofoilandsulphurhavebeenused，andtheGreekfirehassomeaffinitieswithgunpowderbothinitsnatureandeffects:fortheantiquityofthefirst，apassageofProcopius，deBell。Goth。l。iv。c。
　　11，forthatofthesecond，somefactsintheArabichistoryofSpain，A。D。1249，1312，1332。Bibliot。Arab。Hisp。tom。ii。p。
　　6，7，8，arethemostdifficulttoelude。]
　　[Footnote24:Thatextraordinaryman，FriarBacon，revealstwooftheingredients，saltpetreandsulphur，andconcealsthethirdinasentenceofmysteriousgibberish，asifhedreadedtheconsequencesofhisowndiscovery，Biog。Brit。vol。i。p。430，newedition。]
　　ChapterLII:MoreConquestsByTheArabs。
　　PartII。
　　ConstantinopleandtheGreekfiremightexcludetheArabsfromtheeasternentranceofEurope；butintheWest，onthesideofthePyrenees，theprovincesofGaulwerethreatenedandinvadedbytheconquerorsofSpain。^25ThedeclineoftheFrenchmonarchyinvitedtheattackoftheseinsatiatefanatics。ThedescendantsofClovishadlosttheinheritanceofhismartialandferociousspirit；andtheirmisfortuneordemerithasaffixedtheepithetoflazytothelastkingsoftheMerovingianrace。^26
　　Theyascendedthethronewithoutpower，andsunkintothegravewithoutaname。Acountrypalace，intheneighborhoodofCompiegne^27wasallottedfortheirresidenceorprison:buteachyear，inthemonthofMarchorMay，theywereconductedinawagondrawnbyoxentotheassemblyoftheFranks，togiveaudiencetoforeignambassadors，andtoratifytheactsofthemayorofthepalace。Thatdomesticofficerwasbecometheministerofthenationandthemasteroftheprince。Apublicemploymentwasconvertedintothepatrimonyofaprivatefamily:
　　theelderPepinleftakingofmatureyearsundertheguardianshipofhisownwidowandherchild；andthesefeebleregentswereforciblydispossessedbythemostactiveofhisbastards。Agovernment，halfsavageandhalfcorrupt，wasalmostdissolved；andthetributarydukes，andprovincialcounts，andtheterritoriallords，weretemptedtodespisetheweaknessofthemonarch，andtoimitatetheambitionofthemayor。Amongtheseindependentchiefs，oneoftheboldestandmostsuccessfulwasEudes，dukeofAquitain，whointhesouthernprovincesofGaulusurpedtheauthority，andeventhetitleofking。TheGoths，theGascons，andtheFranks，assembledunderthestandardofthisChristianhero:herepelledthefirstinvasionoftheSaracens；andZama，lieutenantofthecaliph，losthisarmyandhislifeunderthewallsofThoulouse。Theambitionofhissuccessorswasstimulatedbyrevenge；theyrepassedthePyreneeswiththemeansandtheresolutionofconquest。TheadvantageoussituationwhichhadrecommendedNarbonne^28asthefirstRomancolony，wasagainchosenbytheMoslems:theyclaimedtheprovinceofSeptimaniaorLanguedocasajustdependenceoftheSpanishmonarchy:thevineyardsofGasconyandthecityofBourdeauxwerepossessedbythesovereignofDamascusandSamarcand；andthesouthofFrance，fromthemouthoftheGaronnetothatoftheRhone，assumedthemannersandreligionofArabia。
　　[Footnote25:FortheinvasionofFranceandthedefeatoftheArabsbyCharlesMartel，seetheHistoriaArabumc。11，12，13，14ofRodericXimenes，archbishopofToledo，whohadbeforehimtheChristianchronicleofIsidorePacensis，andtheMahometanhistoryofNovairi。TheMoslemsaresilentorconciseintheaccountoftheirlosses；butMCardonnetom。i。p。129，130，131hasgivenapureandsimpleaccountofallthathecouldcollectfromIbnHalikan，Hidjazi，andananonymouswriter。ThetextsofthechroniclesofFrance，andlivesofsaints，areinsertedintheCollectionofBouquet，tom。iii。，andtheAnnalsofPagi，whotom。iii。undertheproperyearshasrestoredthechronology，whichisanticipatedsixyearsintheAnnalsofBaronius。TheDictionaryofBayleAbderameandMunuzahasmoremeritforlivelyreflectionthanoriginalresearch。]
　　[Footnote26:Eginhart，deVitaCaroliMagni，c。ii。p。13—78，edit。Schmink，Utrecht，1711。SomemoderncriticsaccusetheministerofCharlemagneofexaggeratingtheweaknessoftheMerovingians；butthegeneraloutlineisjust，andtheFrenchreaderwillforeverrepeatthebeautifullinesofBoileau'sLutrin。]
　　[Footnote27:Mamaccae，ontheOyse，betweenCompiegneandNoyon，whichEginhartcallsperparvireditusvillam，seethenotes，andthemapofancientFranceforDom。Bouquet'sCollection。
　　Compendium，orCompiegne，wasapalaceofmoredignity，Hadrian。
　　ValesiiNotitiaGalliarum，p。152，andthatlaughingphilosopher，theAbbeGalliani，DialoguessurleCommercedesBleds，maytrulyaffirm，thatitwastheresidenceoftheroistresChretiensentreschevelus。]
　　[Footnote28:Evenbeforethatcolony，A。U。C。630，VelleiusPatercul。i。15，InthetimeofPolybius，Hist。l。iii。p。265，edit。Gronov。NarbonnewasaCeltictownofthefirsteminence，andoneofthemostnorthernplacesoftheknownworld，D'Anville，Noticedel'AncienneGaule，p。473。]
　　ButthesenarrowlimitswerescornedbythespiritofAbdalraman，orAbderame，whohadbeenrestoredbythecaliphHashemtothewishesofthesoldiersandpeopleofSpain。ThatveterananddaringcommanderadjudgedtotheobedienceoftheprophetwhateveryetremainedofFranceorofEurope；andpreparedtoexecutethesentence，attheheadofaformidablehost，inthefullconfidenceofsurmountingalloppositioneitherofnatureorofman。Hisfirstcarewastosuppressadomesticrebel，whocommandedthemostimportantpassesofthePyrenees:
　　Manuza，aMoorishchief，hadacceptedtheallianceofthedukeofAquitain；andEudes，fromamotiveofprivateorpublicinterest，devotedhisbeauteousdaughtertotheembracesoftheAfricanmisbeliever。ButthestrongestfortressesofCerdagnewereinvestedbyasuperiorforce；therebelwasovertakenandslaininthemountains；andhiswidowwassentacaptivetoDamascus，togratifythedesires，ormoreprobablythevanity，ofthecommanderofthefaithful。FromthePyrenees，AbderameproceededwithoutdelaytothepassageoftheRhoneandthesiegeofArles。
　　AnarmyofChristiansattemptedthereliefofthecity:thetombsoftheirleaderswereyetvisibleinthethirteenthcentury；andmanythousandsoftheirdeadbodieswerecarrieddowntherapidstreamintotheMediterraneanSea。ThearmsofAbderamewerenotlesssuccessfulonthesideoftheocean。HepassedwithoutoppositiontheGaronneandDordogne，whichunitetheirwatersintheGulfofBourdeaux；buthefound，beyondthoserivers，thecampoftheintrepidEudes，whohadformedasecondarmyandsustainedaseconddefeat，sofataltotheChristians，that，accordingtotheirsadconfession，Godalonecouldreckonthenumberoftheslain。ThevictoriousSaracenoverrantheprovincesofAquitain，whoseGallicnamesaredisguised，ratherthanlost，inthemodernappellationsofPerigord，Saintonge，andPoitou:hisstandardswereplantedonthewalls，oratleastbeforethegates，ofToursandofSens；andhisdetachmentsoverspreadthekingdomofBurgundyasfarasthewell—knowncitiesofLyonsandBesancon。ThememoryofthesedevastationsforAbderamedidnotsparethecountryorthepeoplewaslongpreservedbytradition；andtheinvasionofFrancebytheMoorsorMahometansaffordsthegroundworkofthosefables，whichhavebeensowildlydisfiguredintheromancesofchivalry，andsoelegantlyadornedbytheItalianmuse。Inthedeclineofsocietyandart，thedesertedcitiescouldsupplyaslenderbootytotheSaracens；theirrichestspoilwasfoundinthechurchesandmonasteries，whichtheystrippedoftheirornamentsanddeliveredtotheflames:andthetutelarsaints，bothHilaryofPoitiersandMartinofTours，forgottheirmiraculouspowersinthedefenceoftheirownsepulchres。^29AvictoriouslineofmarchhadbeenprolongedaboveathousandmilesfromtherockofGibraltartothebanksoftheLoire；therepetitionofanequalspacewouldhavecarriedtheSaracenstotheconfinesofPolandandtheHighlandsofScotland；theRhineisnotmoreimpassablethantheNileorEuphrates，andtheArabianfleetmighthavesailedwithoutanavalcombatintothemouthoftheThames。