processofcultivationmustbeemployedwhichwillgive，notabsolutelythegreatestamountofproduce，butthegreatestafter
deductingtheexpenses。Forthispurposeatractoffivehundredacres，fromwhichfiftyfamiliesproducedtheirown
subsistence，andproducedscarcelyanythingmore，maybeconvertedintoonefarm，andwiththelabouroftenfamilies，and
asmanyhorses，mayproducethesubsistenceofonlythirtyfamilies。Fortunately，however，theperiodatwhichthese
alterationstakeplaceisgenerallyoneofgreatsocialimprovement;sothat，afterashortinterval，theincreaseddiligence
andskillwithwhichlabourisapplied，occasionanincreaseofeventhegrossproduce。Thefundforthemaintenanceof
labourersnowbecomesincreasedfromtwodifferentsources——partlyfromtheincreasedefficiencyofhumanlabour。when
aidedbythatofhorsesandcattle，andpartlyfromtheresultsofapartofthehumanlaboursetfreebythesubstitutionof
brutes。Theultimateconsequencesofsuchachangearealwaysbeneficial;thechange。itselfmust，ingeneral，beaccompaniedbydistress。Butwiththeexceptionofthesetwocases，oneofwhichproducesonlytemporaryeffects，andtheother，though
:apparently。possible，seemneveractuallytooccur，it。appearstomedearthattheuse。ofmachinerymusteitherrasethegeneralrateofwages，orleaveitunaltered。Whenmachineryisappliedtotheproductionofcommoditieswhicharenotintended，directlyorindirectly，fortheuseof
labourers，itoccasionsnoalterationinthegeneralrateofwages;——Isaythegeneralrateofwages;becauseitmaydiminish
therateofwagesinsomeemployments，——adiminution。alwayscompensatedbyacorrespondingincreaseinsomeothers。I
wasshownatBirminghamasmallscrew，which，inthemanufactureofcorkscrews，performedtheworkoffifty—ninemen;
withitsassistanceonemancouldcutaspiralgrooveinasmanycorkscrewshanksassixtymencouldhavecutinthesame
timewiththetoolspreviouslyinuse。Astheuseofcorkscrewsislimited，it。isnotprobablethatthedemandforthemhas
sufficientlyincreasedtoenablethewholenumberoflabourerspreviouslyemployedintheirmanufacture，toremainso
employedaftersuchanincreaseintheirproductivepower。Someofthecorkscrew—makers，therefore，musthavebeen
thrownoutofwork，andtherateofwagesinthattradeprobablyfell。Butasthewholefundforthemaintenanceof
labourers，andthewholenumberoflabourerstobemaintained，remainedunaltered，thatfallmusthavebeenbalancedbya
risesomewhereelse——arisewhichwemaytracetoitsproximatecause，byrecollectingthatthefallinthepriceof
corkscrewsmusthavelefteverypurchaserofacorkscrewafundforthepurchaseoflabour，ratherlargerthanhewouldhavepossessedifhehadpaidtheformerprice。If，however，machinerybeappliedtotheproductionofanycommodityusedbythelabouringpopulation，thegeneralrate
ofwageswillrise。Thatitcannotfallisclear，onthegroundswhichIhavejuststated。Iftheimprovementbegreat，andthe
commoditynotsubjecttoacorrespondingincreaseofdemand，someofthelabourersformerlyemployedinitsproduction
willbethrownoutofemployment，andwages，inthattrade，willfall——afallwhich，asthewholefundforthemaintenance
oflabourisnotdiminished，mustbemetbyacorrespondingriseinsomeothertrade。Butthefundwillbeincreasedbythe
additionalquantityproducedofthecommoditytowhichtheimprovementhasbeenapplied:estimatedinthatcommodity，
therefore，thegeneralrateofwages，or，inotherwords，thequantityofcommoditiesobtainedbythelabouringpopulation，willbeincreasedbytheintroductionofmachinery;estimatedinallothers，itwillbestationary。Theexampletakenfromthemanufactureofcorkscrewsisasunfavourabletotheeffectsofmachineryascanbeproposed;
fortheuseofthecommodityissupposedtobeunabletokeepupwiththeincreasedproduction，andthewholenumberof
labourersemployedonitis，consequently，diminished。This，however，isaveryrareoccurrence。Theusualeffectofan
increaseinthefacilityofproducingacommodityissotoincreaseitsconsumptionastooccasiontheemploymentofmore，notless，labourthanbefore。Ihavealreadycalledyourattentiontotheeffectsofmachineryinthemanufactureofcottonandinprinting。Eachofthese
tradesprobablyemploystentimesasmanylabourersasitwouldhaveemployedifspinning—jenniesandtypeshadnotbeen
invented。Undersuchcircumstances（andtheyaretheusualones），thebenefitsofmachineryarenotalloyedbyevenpartialinconvenience。Fifthly。Closelyconnectedwiththismistake，andoccasionedbythesamehabitofattendingonlytowhatistemporaryand
partial，andneglectingwhatispermanentandgeneral;ofdwellingontheevilthatisconcentrated，andbeinginsensibleof
thebenefitthatisdiffused，isthecommonerrorofsupposingthatthegeneralrateofwagescanbereducedbythe
importationofforeigncommodities。Infacttheopeningofanewmarketispreciselyanalogoustotheintroductionofa
newmachine，exceptthatitisamachinewhichitcostsnothingtoconstructortokeepup。Iftheforeigncommoditybenot
consumedbythelabouringpopulation，itsintroductionleavesthegeneralrateofwagesunaffected;ifitbeusedbythem，
theirwagesareraisedasestimatedinthatcommodity。IftheabsurdlawswhichfavourthewinesofPortugaltothe
exclusionofthoseofFrancewererepealed，morelabourerswouldbeemployedinproducingcommoditiesfortheFrench
market，andfewerforthePortuguese。Wageswouldtemporarilyfallintheonetrade，andriseintheother。Theclear
benefitwouldbederivedbythedrinkersofwine，who，atthesameexpense，wouldobtainmoreandbetterwine。Soifwhat
arccalledtheprotectingdutiesonFrenchsilkswereremoved，fewerlabourerswouldbeemployedinthedirectproduction
ofsilk，andmoreinitsindirectproduction，bytheproductionofthecottons，orhardware，withwhichitwouldbe
purchased。Thewearersofsilkwouldbetheonlyclassultimatelybenefited;andasthelaboutingpopulationneitherwear
silknordrinkwine，thegeneralrateofwageswould，inbothcases，remainunaltered。Butifthelawswhichprohibitour
obtainingonthemostadvantageoustermstea，andsugar，andcorn，werealtered，thatportionofthe。fundforthe
maintenanceoflabour，whichconsistsofcorn，sugar，andtea，wouldbeincreased。Andthegeneralrateofwages，asestimatedinthethreemostimportantarticlesoffood，wouldberaised。Sixthly。TheviewswhichIhavebeenendeayouringtoexplain，areinconsistentwiththecommonopinion，thatthe
unproductiveconsumptionoflandlordsandcapitalistsisbeneficialtothelabouringclasses，becauseitfurnishesthemwithemployment。Themaintainersofthistheorymustforgetthatitisnotemployment，butfood，clothing，shelter，andfuel——in
short，thematerialsofsubsistenceandcomfort，thatthelabouringclassesrequire。Thewordemploymentismerelya
conciseformofdesignatingtoil，trouble，exposure，andfatigue。Allthese，perse，areevils，andthelessofthemthatis
requiredforobtainingagivenamountofsubsistenceandcomfort，——or，inotherwords，thegreaterthefacilityofobtaining
thatgivenamount，——thebetter，caeterisparibus，willbetheconditionofthelabouringclasses;indeed，ofallclassesinthe
community。Whatoccasionstheprosperityofacolony？Notthedearnessofsubsistence，butitscheapness;notthe
difficultyofobtainingfood，clothing;shelter，andfuel，butthefacility。Nowhowcanunproductiveconsumptionincrease
thisfacility？Howcanthefundfromwhichallaretobemaintainedbeaugmentedbythedestructionofaportionofit？If
thehigherordersweretoreturntothecustomsofacenturyago，andcovertheircoatswithgoldlace，theymightenjoy
theirownfinery;buthowwouldthatbenefittheirinferiors？ThetheorywhichIamconsidering，repliesthattheywouldbe
benefitedbybeingemployedinmakingthelace。Itistruethatacoat，insteadofcosting5l。，wouldcost55l。Butwhat
becomesnowoftheextra50l。？foritcannotbesaidthatbecauseitisnotspentonalacedcoat，itdoesnotexist。Ifa
landlordwith10，000l。ayearspendsitunproductively，hepaysitawaytothosewhofurnishtheembellishmentsofhis
houseandgrounds，andsupplyhisstable，hisequipage，andhisclothes。Supposehimnowtoabandonallunproductive
expenditure，toconfinehimselftobarenecessaries，andtoearnthembyhisownlabour，thefirstconsequencewouldbe，
thatthoseamongwhomhepreviouslyspenthis10，000l。ayearwouldlosehimasanemployer;andbeyondthisthetheory
inquestionseesnothing。Butwhatwouldhedowiththe10，000l。whichhewouldstillannuallyreceive？Noonesupposes
thathewouldlockitupinabox，orburyitinhisgarden。Whetherproductivelyorunproductively，itstillmustbespent。If
spentbyhimself，asbythesuppositionitwouldbespentproductively，itmustincrease，andeveryyearstillfurtherincrease
thewholefundapplicabletotheuseoftherestofthecommunity。Ifnotspentbyhimself，itmustbelenttosomeother
person，andbythatpersonitmustbespentproductivelyorunproductively。Hemight，perhaps，buywithitpropertyinthe
Englishfunds;butwhatbecomesofitinthehandsoftilepersonwhosellstohimthatfundedproperty？Hemightbuywith
itFrenchrentes;butinwhatformwouldthepriceofthoserentesgotoParis？——Intheform，aswehaveseen，of
manufacturedcommodities。Quacunqueviadata，everymanmustspendhisincome;andthelesshespendsonhimself，themoreremainsfortherestoftheworld。Thelasttheory，inconsistentwithmyownviews，towhichIshallcallyourattention，isthatproposedbyMr。Ricardointhefollowingpassage:——'Thelabouringclasshavenosmallinterestinthemannerinwhichthenetincomeofthecountryisexpended，althoughitshould，inallcases，beexpendedforthegratificationandenjoymentofthosewhoarefairlyentitledtoit。'Ifalandlord，oracapitalist，expendshisrevenueinthemannerofanancientbaron，inthesupportofagreatnumberof
retainersormenialservants，hewillgiveemploymenttomuchmorelabourthanifheexpendeditonfineclothesorcostlyfurniture。'Inbothcasesthenetrevenuewouldbethesame，andsowouldbethegrossrevenue，buttheformerwouldberealizedin
differentcommodities。Ifmyrevenuewere10，000l。，thesamequantitynearlyofproductivelabourwouldbeemployed，
whetherIrealizeditinfineclothesandcostlyfurniture，etc。etc。，orin'aquantityoffoodandclothingofthesamevalue。If，
however，Irealizedmyrevenueinthefirstsetofcommodities，nomorelabourwouldbeconsequentlyemployed:Ishould
enjoymyfurnitureandmyclothes，andtherewouldbeanendofthem;butifIrealizedmyrevenueinfoodandclothing，
andmydesirewastoemploymenialservants，allthosewhomIcouldsoemploywithmyrevenueof10，000l，orwiththe
foodandclothingwhichitwouldpurchase，wouldbetobeaddedtotheformerdemandforlabourers，andthisaddition
wouldtakeplaceonlybecauseIchosethismodeofexpendingmyrevenue。Asthelabourers，then，areinterestedinthe
demandforlabour，theymustnaturallydesirethatasmuchaspossibleshouldbedivertedfromexpenditureonluxuries，tobeexpendedinthesupportofmenialservants。Inthesamemanneracountryengagedinwar，andwhichisunderthenecessityofmainmininglargefleetsandarmies，
employsagreatmanymorementhanwillbeemployedwhenthewarterminates，andtheannualexpenseswhichitbringswithitcease。IfIwerenotcalleduponforataxof500l。duringthewar，whichisexpendedonmeninthesituationsofsoldiersand
sailors，Imightprobablyspendthatportionofmyincomeonfurniture，clothes，books，etc。etc。，andwhetheritwas
expendedintheonewayortheother，therewouldbethesamequantityoflabouremployedinproduction;forthefoodand
clothingofthesoldierandsailorwouldrequirethesameamountofindustrytoproducethemasthemoreluxurious
commodities:but，inthecaseofwar，therewouldbetheadditionaldemandformenassoldiersandsailors;and，
consequently，awarwhichissupportedoutoftherevenue，andnotfromthecapitalofacountry，isfavourabletoanincreaseofpopulation。Attheterminationofthewar，whenpartofmyrevenuerevertstome，andisemployedasbeforeinthepurchaseofwine，
furniture，orotherluxuries，thepopulationwhichitbeforesupported，andwhichthewarcalledintoexistence，willbecome
redundant，andbyitseffectontherestofthepopulation，anditscompetitionwithitforemployment，willsinkthevalueofwages，andverymateriallydeterioratetheconditionofthelabouringclasses。'（4）Mr。Ricardo's。theoryis，thatitismorebeneficialtothelabouringclassestobeemployedintheproductionofservicesthan
intheproductionofcommodities;thatitisbetterforthemtobeemployedinstandingbehindchairsthaninmakingchairs;
assoldiersorsailorsthanasmanufacturers。Nowasitisclearthatthewholequantityofcommoditiesprovidedfortheuse
oflabourersisnotincreasedbytheconversionofanartisanintoafootmanorasoldier，eitherMr。Ricardomustbewrong，ormyelementarypropositionisfalse。Mr。Ricardoseemstohavebeenledtohisconclusionsbyobservingthatthewagesofservants，sailors，andsoldiersare
principallypaidinkind——thoseofartisansinmoney。Hecorrectlystates，thatifamanwith10，000l。a—yearspendshis
incomeinthepurchaseofcommoditiesforhisownuse，heretains，afterhavingmadethosepurchases，nofurtherfundfor
themaintenanceoflabour;butthatifhespendsitinthepurchaseofcommoditiestobeemployedinmaintainingmenial
servants，hehas，inthosepurchasedcommodities，anewfundwithwhichhecanmaintainacertainnumberofmenial
servants。Itappearedtohim，therefore，thatthelandlordwould，inthelattercase，beabletospendhisincometwiceover;
tosubsisttwiceasmany。personsasbefore。Itdidnotoccurtohimthatthelandlord，bypurchasinghimselfthesubsistence
ofhisservants，merelydoesforthemwhattheywouldbeabletodobetter。forthemselves;that，insteadofspendinghis
ownincometwiceover，hemerelytakesonhimselfthebusinessofspendingtheirsforthem;（5）andthatifheweretogiveto
hisservantsthevalueoftheirwholesubsistenceinmoney，thewholebodyoflabourerswouldbejustaswellmaintainedas
inthesupposedcaseofhispurchasingtheirsubsistence，andthengivingittotheminexchangefortheirservices。Noone
wouldmaintainthatifitwerethepractice，inthiscountry，asitisinIndia，togivetoservantsboardwages，thedemandfor
labourwouldbelessened;orthatifitwerethepractice，asitisinsemi—barbarouscountries，tomaintainservantsto
producewithintheirmasterswallsthecommoditieswhichweareaccustomedtopurchasefromshops，thedemandfor
labourwouldbeincreased。Stilllesscoulditbe。maintained，thatifthoseservants，insteadofproducingcommodities，were
employedinfollowingtheirmaster'sperson，ormountingguardbeforehisdoor，suchachangewouldcreateanadditionaldemandformen，andbefavourabletoanincreaseofpopulation。SofaramIfromconcurringinMr。Ricardo'sopinion，thatitistheinterestofthelabourersthatrevenueshouldbespent
ratheronservicesthanoncommodities，thatIbelievetheirinteresttobepreciselyopposite。Inthefirstplace，thelabourer
cangenerallymanagebetterhisownincomethanitcanbemanagedforhimbyhismaster。Ifadomesticservantcouldearn
aswagesthewholesumwhichhecostshismaster，evenifheweretospenditashereceivedit，hewouldprobablyspendit
withmoreenjoyment。Secondly，theincomespentonservicesisspentinthepurchaseofwhatperishesattheinstantofits
creation;thatspentoncommoditiesoftenleavesresultswhich，whentheirfirstpurchaserhasdonewiththem，are
serviceabletoothers。Inthiscountrythepoorare，toagreatextent，clothedwithgarmentsoriginallyprovidedfortheir
superiors。Inallthebetterclassofcottagesmaybefoundarticlesoffurniturewhichnevercouldhavebeenmadefortheir
presentpossessors。Alargeportionofthecommoditieswhichnowcontributetothecomfortofthelabouringclasseswould
neverhaveexisted，ifithadbeenthefashioninthiscountry，duringthelastfiftyyears，topreferretinueandattendanceto
durablecommodities。And，thirdly，theincomeemployedoncommoditiesisfavourabletothecreationofbothmaterialand
immaterialcapital;thatemployedonservicesisnot。Thedutiesofaservantaresoeasilylearned，thathecanscarcelybe
termedaskilledlabourer:hisaccumulationsaresmallinamount，andseldomturnedtomuchadvantage。Theartisanlearns
atrade，inwhicheveryyearaddstohisskill，andistaughtmechanicalandchemicalprocesses，oftensusceptibleof
indefiniteimprovement，andinwhichasingleinventionmayraisetheauthortowealth，anddiffuseprosperityoverawhole
district，orevenawholenation。Anindustriousartisancanoftensavealargeportionofhisincome，andinvestitwithgreat
andimmediateprofit。Hepurchaseswithhissavingsasmallstockoftoolsandmaterials，andbythevigilanceandactivity
whichcanbeappliedonlytoasmallcapital，renderseveryportionofitefficient。Theancestors，andnottheremote
ancestors，ofsomeofourrichestandourproudestfamilies，theauthorsofsomeofourmostvaluablediscoveries，were
commonmechanics。Whatmenialservanthasinthiscountry，andinmoderntimes，beenapublicbenefactor，orevenraised
himselftoaffluence？Bothhistoryandobservationshowthatthosecountriesinwhichexpenditureischieflyemployedinthepurchaseofservicesarepoor，andthoseinwhichitisemployedoncommoditiesarerich。Mr。Ricardo'stheoryastotheeffectsofwarisstillmorestrikinglyerroneous。Itis，inthefirstplace，opentoallthe
objectionswhichIhavealreadyopposedtohisviewsrespectingmenialservants。Therevenuewhichisemployedin
maintainingsoldiersandsailorswould，evenifunproductivelyconsumed，maintainatleastanequalnumberofservantsand
artisans;andthatportionofitwhichwouldhavebeenemployedinthemaintenanceofartisanswould（aswehaveseen）
havebeenfarmorebeneficiallyemployed。Thedemandforsoldiersandsailorsisnot，ashetermsit，anadditional，itis
merelyasubstituteddemand。Butagreatpartofthatrevenuewouldhavebeenproductivelyconsumed。Insteadof
employingsomelabourersinconvertingsuburbsintofortifications，andforestsintonavies，toperishbydryrotinharbour，orbyexposure。atsea，andothersinwalkingthedeckandparadingontherampart，itwouldhaveemployedtheminaddingmoreandmore
everyyeartothefundfromwhichtheirsubsistenceisderived。Warismischievoustoeveryclassinthecommunity;butto
noneisitsuch。acurseastothelabourers。
THEEND。
NOTES:
1。Thisisoneofthemodesinwhichslaverymaybeextinguished，butitisadreadfulabuseoflanguagetocalliteuthanasia。
2。SeeMr。WilmotHorton's'CausesandRemediesofPauperism，'fourthseries。
HieetiamfatisaperitCassandrafuturisOraDeijussunonunquamcreditaTeucris。3。Andyetitappearsnowtobethought，thatwagesmayberaisedbythedestructionor（whatisthesameinimmediate
effect）thedisuseofmachinesalreadyconstructed。
4。Principles，etc。，p。475。5。Hedidnotperceivethatallthatthelandlordspendsinpurchasingthesubsistenceandclothingofhisservantsissomuch
deductedfromwhathewouldotherwisehavetopaytheminmoney。