Iprepareboxeswithabedoffresh,siftedearthtoreceivethelarvaeandthepupae,whichIlodgeeachinasortofhalf—cellformedbytheimprintofmyfinger。Iwillawaitthetransformationtodecidetowhichsextheybelong。Asfortheperfectinsects,theyareinspected,countedandatoncereleased。
Intheveryunlikelysuppositionthatthedistributionofthesexesmightvaryindifferentpartsofthecolony,Imakeasecondexcavation,atafewyards'distancefromtheother。Itsuppliesmewithanothercollectionbothofperfectinsectsandofpupaeandlarvae。
Whenthemetamorphosisofthelaggardsiscompleted,whichdoesnottakemanydays,Iproceedtotakeageneralcensus。ItgivesmetwohundredandfiftyHalicti。Well,inthisnumberofBees,collectedintheburrowbeforeanyhaveemerged,Iperceivenone,absolutelynonebutfemales;or,tobemathematicallyaccurate,Ifindjustonemale,onealone;andheissosmallandfeeblethathedieswithoutquitesucceedingindivestinghimselfofhisnymphalbands。Thissolitarymaleiscertainlyaccidental。Afemalepopulationoftwohundredandforty—nineHalictiimpliesothermalesthanthisabortion,orratherimpliesnoneatall。Ithereforeeliminatehimasanaccidentofnovalueandconcludethat,intheCylindricalHalictus,theJulygenerationconsistsoffemalesonly。
Thebuilding—operationsstartagaininthesecondweekofJuly。Thegalleriesarerestoredandlengthened;newcellsarefashionedandtheoldonesrepaired。Followtheprovisioning,thelayingoftheeggs,theclosingofthecells;and,beforeJulyisover,thereissolitudeagain。Letmealsosaythat,duringthebuilding—period,notamaleappearsinsight,afactwhichaddsfurtherprooftothatalreadysuppliedbymyexcavations。
Withthehightemperatureofthistimeoftheyear,thedevelopmentofthelarvaemakesrapidprogress:amonthissufficientforthevariousstagesofthemetamorphosis。Onthe24thofAugustthereareoncemoresignsoflifeabovetheburrowsoftheCylindricalHalictus,butunderverydifferentconditions。Forthefirsttime,bothsexesarepresent。Males,soeasilyrecognizedbytheirblackliveryandtheirslimabdomenadornedwitharedring,hoverbackwardsandforwards,almostlevelwiththeground。Theyfussaboutfromburrowtoburrow。Afewrarefemalescomeoutforamomentandthengoinagain。
Iproceedtomakeanexcavationwithmyspade;IgatherindiscriminatelywhateverIcomeacross。Larvaeareveryscarce;
pupaeabound,asdoperfectinsects。Thelistofmycapturesamountstoeightymalesandfifty—eightfemales。Themales,therefore,hithertoimpossibletodiscover,eitherontheflowersaroundorintheneighbourhoodoftheburrows,couldbepickedupto—daybythehundred,ifIwished。Theyoutnumberthefemalesbyaboutfourtothree;theyarealsofurtherdeveloped,inaccordancewiththegeneralrule,formostofthebackwardpupaegivemeonlyfemales。
Oncethetwosexeshadappeared,IexpectedathirdgenerationthatwouldspendthewinterinthelarvalstateandrecommenceinMaytheannualcyclewhichIhavejustdescribed。Myanticipationprovedtobeatfault。ThroughoutSeptember,whenthesunbeatsupontheburrows,Iseethemalesflittingingreatnumbersfromoneshafttotheother。Sometimesafemaleappears,returningfromthefields,butwithnopollenonherlegs。Sheseekshergallery,findsit,divesdownanddisappears。
Themales,asthoughindifferenttoherarrival,offerhernowelcome,donotharassherwiththeiramorouspursuits;theycontinuetovisitthedoorsoftheburrowswithawindingandoscillatingflight。Fortwomonths,Ifollowtheirevolutions。Iftheysetfootonearth,itistodescendforthwithintosomegallerythatsuitsthem。
Itisnotuncommontoseeseveralofthemonthethresholdofthesameburrow。Theneachawaitshisturntoenter;theyareaspeaceableintheirrelationsasthefemaleswhoarejointownersofaburrow。Atothertimes,onewantstogoinasasecondiscomingout。
Thissuddenencounterproducesnostrife。Theoneleavingtheholewithdrawsalittletoonesidetomakeenoughroomfortwo;theotherslipspastasbesthecan。Thesepeacefulmeetingsareallthemorestrikingwhenweconsidertheusualrivalrybetweenmalesofthesamespecies。
Norubbish—moundstandsatthemouthoftheshafts,showingthatthebuildinghasnotbeenresumed;atthemost,afewcrumbsofearthareheapedoutside。Andbywhom,pray?Bythemalesandbythemalone。
Thelazysexhasbethoughtitselfofworking。Itturnsnavvyandshootsoutgrainsofearththatwouldinterferewithitscontinualentrancesandexits。ForthefirsttimeIwitnessacustomwhichnoHymenopteronhadyetshownme:Iseethemaleshauntingtheinterioroftheburrowswithanassiduityequallingthatofthemothersemployedinnest—building。
Thecauseoftheseunwontedoperationssoonstandsrevealed。Thefemalesseenflittingabovetheburrowsareveryrare;themajorityofthefemininepopulationremainsequesteredunderground,donotperhapscomeoutonceduringthewholeofthelatterpartofsummer。
Thosewhodoventureoutgoinagainsoon,empty—handedofcourseandalwayswithoutanyamorousteasingfromthemales,anumberofwhomarehoveringabovetheburrows。
Ontheotherhand,watchascarefullyasImay,Idonotdiscoverasingleactofpairingoutofdoors。Theweddingsareclandestine,therefore,andtakeplaceunderground。Thisexplainsthemales'
fussyvisitstothedoorsofthegalleriesduringthehottesthoursoftheday,theircontinualdescentsintothedepthsandtheircontinualreappearances。Theyarelookingforthefemalescloisteredintheretirementofthecells。
Alittlespade—worksoonturnssuspicionintocertainty。Iunearthasufficientnumberofcouplestoprovetomethatthesexescometogetherunderground。Whenthemarriageisconsummated,thered—
beltedonequitsthespotandgoestodieoutsidetheburrow,afterdraggingfromflowertoflowerthebitoflifethatremainstohim。
Theothershutsherselfupinhercell,theretoawaitthereturnofthemonthofMay。
SeptemberisspentbytheHalictussolelyinnuptialcelebrations。
Whenevertheskyisfine,Iwitnesstheevolutionsofthemalesabovetheburrows,withtheircontinualentrancesandexits;shouldthesunbeveiled,theytakerefugedownthepassages。Themoreimpatient,half—hiddeninthepit,showtheirlittleblackheadsoutside,asthoughpeepingfortheleastbreakinthecloudsthatwillallowthemtopayabriefvisittotheflowersroundabout。Theyalsospendthenightintheburrows。Inthemorning,Iattendtheirlevee;Iseethemputtheirheadtothewindow,takealookattheweatherandthengoinagainuntilthesunbeatsontheencampment。
ThesamemodeoflifeiscontinuedthroughoutOctober,butthemalesbecomelessnumerousfromdaytodayasthestormyseasonapproachesandfewerfemalesremaintobewooed。Bythetimethatthefirstcoldweathercomes,inNovember,completesolitudereignsovertheburrows。Ioncemorehaverecoursetothespade。Ifindnonebutfemalesintheircells。Thereisnotonemaleleft。Allhavevanished,allaredead,thevictimsoftheirlifeofpleasureandofthewindandrain。ThusendsthecycleoftheyearfortheCylindricalHalictus。
InFebruary,afterahardwinter,whenthesnowhadlainonthegroundforafortnight,IwantedoncemoretolookintothematterofmyHalicti。Iwasinbedwithpneumoniaandatthepointofdeath,toallappearances。Ihadlittleornopain,thankGod,butextremedifficultyinliving。Withthelittleluciditylefttome,beingabletodonoothersortofobserving,Iobservedmyselfdying;Iwatchedwithacertaininterestthegradualfallingtopiecesofmypoormachinery。Wereitnotfortheterrorofleavingmyfamily,whowerestillyoung,Iwouldgladlyhavedeparted。Theafter—lifemusthavesomanyhigherandfairertruthstoteachus。
Myhourhadnotyetcome。Whenthelittlelampsofthoughtbegantoemerge,allflickering,fromtheduskofunconsciousness,IwishedtotakeleaveoftheHymenopteron,myfondestjoy,andfirstofallofmyneighbour,theHalictus。MysonEmiletookthespadeandwentanddugthefrozenground。Notamalewasfound,ofcourse;buttherewereplentyoffemales,numbedwiththecoldintheircells。
Afewwerebroughtformetosee。Theirlittlechambersshowednoefflorescenceofrime,withwhichallthesurroundingearthwascoated。Thewaterproofvarnishhadbeenwonderfullyefficacious。Asfortheanchorites,rousedfromtheirtorporbythewarmthoftheroom,theybegantowanderaboutmybed,whereIfollowedthemvaguelywithmyfadingeyes。
Maycame,aseagerlyawaitedbythesickmanasbytheHalicti。I
leftOrangeforSerignan,mylaststage,Iexpect。WhileIwasmoving,theBeesresumedtheirbuilding。Igavethemaregretfulglance,forIhadstillmuchtolearnintheircompany。Ihaveneversincemetwithsuchamightycolony。
TheseoldobservationsonthehabitsoftheCylindricalHalictusmaynowbefollowedbyageneralsummarywhichwillincorporatetherecentdatasuppliedbytheZebraHalictusandtheEarlyHalictus。
ThefemalesoftheCylindricalHalictuswhomIunearthfromNovemberonwardsareevidentlyfecundated,asisprovedbytheassiduityofthemalesduringtheprecedingtwomonthsandmostpositivelyconfirmedbythecouplesdiscoveredinthecourseofmyexcavations。
Thesefemalesspendthewinterintheircells,asdomanyoftheearly—hatchingmelliferousinsects,suchasAnthophoraeandMason—
bees,whobuildtheirnestsinthespring,thelarvaereachingtheperfectstateinthesummerandyetremainingshutupintheircellsuntilthefollowingMay。ButthereisthisgreatdifferenceinthecaseoftheCylindricalHalictus,thatintheautumnthefemalesleavetheircellsforatimetoreceivethemalesunderground。Thecouplespairandthemalesperish。Leftalone,thefemalesreturntotheircells,wheretheyspendtheinclementseason。
TheZebraHalicti,studiedfirstatOrangeandthen,underbetterconditions,atSerignan,inmyownenclosure,havenotthesesubterraneancustoms:theycelebratetheirweddingsamidthejoysofthelight,thesunandtheflowers。IseethefirstmalesappearinthemiddleofSeptember,onthecentauries。Generallythereareseveralofthemcourtingthesamebride。Nowone,thenanother,theyswoopuponhersuddenly,claspher,leaveher,seizeholdofheragain。Fiercebrawlsdecidewhoshallpossessher。Oneisacceptedandtheothersdecamp。Withaswiftandangularflight,theygofromflowertoflower,withoutalighting。Theyhoveronthewing,lookingaboutthem,moreintentonpairingthanoneating。
TheEarlyHalictusdidnotsupplymewithanydefiniteinformation,partlythroughmyownfault,partlythroughthedifficultyofexcavationinastonysoil,whichcallsforthepick—axeratherthanthespade。IsuspectherofhavingthenuptialcustomsoftheCylindricalHalictus。
Thereisanotherdifference,whichcausescertainvariationsofdetailinthesecustoms。Intheautumn,thefemalesoftheCylindricalHalictusleavetheirburrowsseldomornotatall。Thosewhodogooutinvariablycomebackafterabriefhaltupontheflowers。Allpassthewinterinthenatalcells。Ontheotherhand,thoseoftheZebraHalictusmovetheirquarters,meetthemalesoutsideanddonotreturntotheburrows,whichmyautumnexcavationsalwaysfinddeserted。Theyhibernateinthefirsthiding—placesthatoffer。
Inthespring,thefemales,fecundatedsincetheautumn,comeout:
theCylindricalHalictifromtheircells,theZebraHalictifromtheirvariousshelters,theEarlyHalictiapparentlyfromtheirchambers,likethefirst。Theyworkattheirnestsintheabsenceofanymale,asdoalsotheSocialWasps,whosewholebroodhasperishedexceptingafewmothersalsofecundatedintheautumn。Inbothcases,theassistanceofthemalesisequallyreal,onlyithasprecededthelayingbyaboutsixmonths。
Sofar,thereisnothingnewinthelifeoftheHalicti;buthereiswheretheunexpectedappears:inJuly,anothergenerationisproduced;andthistimewithoutmales。Theabsenceofmasculineassistanceisnolongerameresemblancehere,duetoanearlierfecundation:itisarealityestablishedbeyondadoubtbythecontinuityofmyobservationsandbymyexcavationsduringthesummerseason,beforetheemergenceofthenewBees。Atthisperiod,alittlebeforeJuly,ifmyspadeunearththecellsofanyoneofmythreeHalicti,theresultisalwaysfemales,nothingbutfemales,withexceedinglyrareexceptions。
True,itmaybesaidthatthesecondprogenyisduetothemotherswhoknewthemalesinautumnandwhowouldbeabletonidifytwiceayear。Thesuggestionisnotadmissible。TheZebraHalictusconfirmswhatIsay。Sheshowsustheoldmothersnolongerleavingthehomebutmountingguardattheentrancetotheburrows。Noharvesting—orpottery—workispossiblewiththeseabsorbingdoorkeeping—functions。
Thereforethereisnonewfamily,evenadmittingthatthemothers'
ovariesarenotdepleted。
IdonotknowifasimilarargumentisvalidinthecaseoftheCylindricalHalictus。Hassheanygeneralsurvivors?Asmyattentionhadnotyetbeendirectedonthispointintheolddays,whenIhadtheinsectatmydoor,Ihavenorecordstogoupon。Forallthat,I
aminclinedtothinkthattheportressoftheZebraHalictusisunknownhere。Thereasonofthisabsencewouldbethenumberofworkersatthestart。
InMay,theZebraHalictus,livingbyherselfinherwinterretreat,foundsherhousealone。Whenherdaughterssucceedher,inJuly,sheistheonlygrandmotherintheestablishmentandthepostofportressfallstoher。WiththeCylindricalHalictus,theconditionsaredifferent。HeretheMayworkersaremanyinthesameburrow,wheretheydwellincommonduringthewinter。Supposingthattheysurvivewhenthebusinessofthehouseholdisfinished,towhomwilltheofficeofoverseerfall?Theirnumberissogreatandtheyareallsofullofzealthatdisorderwouldbeinevitable。Butwecanleavethissmallmatterunsettledpendingfurtherinformation。
Thefactremainsthatfemales,femalesexclusively,havecomeoutoftheeggslaidinMay。Theyhavedescendants,ofthatthereisnoroomfordoubt;theyprocreatethoughtherearenomalesintheirtime。
>Fromthisgenerationbyasinglesex,therespring,twomonthslater,malesandfemales。Thesemate;andthesameorderofthingsrecommences。
Tosumup,judgingbythethreespeciesthatformthesubjectofmyinvestigations,theHalictihavetwogenerationsayear:oneinthespring,issuingfromthemotherswhohavelivedthroughthewinterafterbeingfecundatedintheautumn;theotherinthesummer,thefruitofparthenogenesis,thatistosay,ofreproductionbythepowersofthemotheralone。Oftheunionofthetwosexes,femalesaloneareborn;parthenogenesisgivesbirthatthesametimetofemalesandmales。
Whenthemother,theoriginalgenitrix,hasbeenableoncetodispensewithacoadjutor,whydoessheneedonelater?Whatisthepunyidlertherefor?Hewasunnecessary。Whydoeshebecomenecessarynow?Shallweeverobtainasatisfactoryanswertothequestion?Itisdoubtful。However,withoutmuchhopeofsucceedingwewillonedayconsulttheGall—fly,whoisbetter—versedthanweinthetangledproblemofthesexes。
INDEX。
AlpineOdynerus。
Amadeus'Eumenes。
Ammophila(seealsoHairyAmmophila)。
Andrena。
AndrenoidOsmia。
Ant。
Anthidium(seethevarietiesbelow,Cotton—bee,ResinBee)。
Anthidiumbellicosum。
Anthidiumcingulatum(seeGirdledAnthidium)。
Anthidiumdiadema(seeDiademAnthidium)。
Anthidiumflorentinum(seeFlorentineAnthidium)。
AnthidiumLatreillii(seeLatreille'sResin—bee)。
Anthidiummanicatum(seeManicateAnthidium)。
Anthidiumquadrilobum(seeFour—lobedResin—bee)。
Anthidiumscapulare(seeScapularAnthidium)。
Anthidiumseptemdentatum(seeSeven—prongedResin—bee)。
Anthocopapapaveris(seeUpholsterer—bee)。
Anthophora(seealsoAnthophoraoftheWalls,Hairy—footedAnthophora,MaskedAnthophora)。
AnthophoraoftheWalls。
Anthophoraparietina(seeAnthophoraoftheWalls)。
Anthophorapilipes(seeHairy—footedAnthophora)。
Anthrax(seeAnthraxsinuata)。
Anthraxsinuata。
Aphis(seePlant—louse)。
Archimedes。
Augustus,theEmperor。
Bee。
Beetle。
Bembex。
Black,AdamandCharles。
BlackPlant—louse。
BlackPsen。
Black—tippedLeaf—cutter。
BlueOsmia。
Book—louse。
BrownSnail。
Bulimulusradiatus。
Bumble—bee。
Calicurgus(seePompilus)。
Capricorn。
Carpenter—bee。
Cat。
Cemonusunicolor。
Cerambyx(seeCapricorn)。
Ceratina(seealsothevarietiesbelow)。
Ceratinaalbilabris。
Ceratinacallosa。
Ceratinachalcites。
Ceratinacoerulea。
Cerceris。
Cetonia。
Chaffinch。
Chalicodoma(seeMason—bee)。
Chrysisflammea。
Cockroach。
Coelyoxiscaudata。
Coelyoxisoctodentata。
Colletes。
CommonSnail。
CommonWasp。
Cotton—bee(seealsothevarietiesofAnthidium)。
Crayfish。
Cricket。
Criocerismerdigera(seeLily—beetle)。
Cryptusbimaculatus。
Cryptusgyrator。
CylindricalHalictus。
Darwin,CharlesRobert。
Decticusverrucivorus。
Devillario,Henri。
DiademAnthidium。
Dioxyscincta。
Dog。
Dragon—fly。
Dryden,John。
Dufour,JeanMarieLeon。
Dung—beetle。
Dzierzon,Johann。
EarlyHalictus。
Earth—worm。
Earwig。
Epeira(seeGardenSpider)。
Ephialtesdivinator。
Ephialtesmediator。
Ephippiger。
EumenesAmadei(seeAmadeus'Eumenes)。
Euritemarubicola。
Fabre,Emile,theauthor'sson。
Fabricius,JohannChristian。
FeebleLeaf—cutter。
Field—mouse。
FlorentineAnthidium。
Fly(seealsoHouse—fly)。
Foenuspyrenaicus。
Four—lobedResin—bee。
Franklin,Benjamin。
GardenSnail。
GardenSpider。
GirdledAnthidium。
GirdledSnail(seeBrownSnail)。
Gnat。
GoldenOsmia。
Goldfinch。
Grasshopper(seealsoGreatGreenGrasshopper)。
GreatGreenGrasshopper。
GreatPeacockMoth。
GreenGrasshopper(seeEphippiger,GreatGreenGrasshopper)。
GreenOsmia。
GreyLizard。
HairyAmmophila。
Hairy—footedAnthophora。
Halictus(seealsothevarietiesbelow)。
Halictuscylindricus(seeCylindricalHalictus)。
Halictusmalachurus(seeEarlyHalictus)。
Halictuszebrus(seeZebraHalictus)。
Hare—footedLeaf—cutter。
Helixalgira。
Helixaspersa(seeCommonSnail)。
Helixcaespitum(seeGardenSnail)。
Helixnemoralis。
Helixstriata。
Heriadesrubicola。
Herring。
Hive—bee。
Honey—bee(seeHive—bee)。
HornedOsmia。
House—dog(seeDog)。
House—fly。
Kid。
Kirby,William。
LaFontaine,Jeande。
Lamb。
LanguedocianSphex。
Laniuscollurio(seeRed—backedShrike)。
LaPalice,JacquesdeChabannes,Seigneurde。
Latreille,PierreAndre。
Latreille'sOsmia。
Latreille'sResin—bee。
Leaf—cutter,Leaf—cuttingBee(seeMegachile)。
Leaf—insect。
Leucopsis。
Lily—beetle。
Lithurgus(seealsothevarietiesbelow)。
Lithurguschrysurus。
Lithurguscornutus。
Lizard(seealsoGreyLizard)。
Locust。
Locustaviridissima(seeGreatGreenGrasshopper)。
MacmillanCo。
"MademoiselleMori",authorof。
ManicateAnthidium。
Mantis,Mantisreligiosa(seePrayingMantis)。
MaskedAnthophora。
Mason—bee(seealsothevarietiesbelow)。
Mason—beeofthePebbles(seeMason—beeoftheWalls)。
Mason—beeoftheSheds。
Mason—beeoftheShrubs。
Mason—beeoftheWalls。
May—fly。
Meade—Waldo,Geoffrey。
Megachile(seealsothevarietiesbelow)。
Megachilealbocincta(seeWhite—girdledLeaf—cutter)。
Megachileapicalis(seeBlack—tippedLeaf—cutter)。
Megachileargentata(seeSilveryLeaf—cutter)。
MegachileDufourii(seeSilkyLeaf—cutter)。
Megachileimbecilla(seeFeebleLeaf—cutter)。
Megachilelagopoda(seeHare—footedLeaf—cutter)。
Megachilesericans(seeSilkyLeaf—cutter)。
Melitta(seeColletes)。
Miall,Bernard。
MidwifeToad。
Morawitz'Osmia。
Odynerus(seealsothevarietiesbelow)
Odynerusalpestris(seeAlpineOdynerus)。
Odynerusdelphinalis。
Odynerusrubicola。
Oil—beetle。
Omalusauratus。
Osmia(seealsothevarietiesbelow)。
Osmiaandrenoides(seeAndrenoidOsmia)。
Osmiaaurulenta(seeGoldenOsmia)。
Osmiacornuta(seeHornedOsmia)。
Osmiacyanea(seeBlueOsmia)。
Osmiacyanoxantha。
Osmiadetrita(seeRaggedOsmia)。
OsmiaLatreillii(seeLatreille'sOsmia)。
OsmiaMorawitzi(seeMorawitz'Osmia)。
Osmiaparvula(seeTinyOsmia)。
Osmiarufo—hirta(seeRedOsmia)。
Osmiatricornis(seeThree—hornedOsmia)。
Osmiatridentata(seeThree—prongedOsmia)。
Osmiaversicolor(seeVariegatedOsmia)。
Osmiaviridana(seeGreenOsmia)。
Pelopaeus。
Perez,ProfessorJean。
Philanthus(seePhilanthusapivorus)。
Philanthusapivorus。
Plant—louse(seealsoBlackPlant—louse)。
Pompilus。
PrayingMantis。
Prosopisconfusa。
Psenatratus(seeBlackPsen)。
Rabelais,Francois。
RaggedOsmia。
Reaumur,ReneAntoineFerchaultde。
Red—backedShrike。
Red—Osmia。
Resin—bee(seealsothevarieties)。
RingedCalicurgus(seePompilus)。
Rodwell,MissFrances。
Rosechafer(seeCetonia)。
Sapyga(seeSpottedSapyga)。
Sardine。
ScapularAnthidium。
Scolia。
Scorpion。
Seven—prongedResin—bee。
Shrike(seeRed—backedShrike)。
SilkyLeaf—cutter。
SilveryLeaf—cutter。
Snail(seealsothevarieties)
SocialWasp(seeCommonWasp)。
Soleniuslapidarius。
Soleniusvagus。
Sophocles。
Sparrow。
Spence,William。
Sphex(seealsoLanguedocianSphex,Yellow—wingedSphex。)
SpottedSapyga。
Stick—insect。
Stizus。
Tachina。
Tachytes。
Tarantula。
TeixeiradeMattos,Alexander。
Termite。
Three—hornedOsmia。
Three—prongedOsmia。
Tiberius,theEmperor。
TinyOsmia。
Tripoxylonfigulus。
UnarmedZonitis(seeZonitismutica)。
Upholsterer—bee。
VariegatedOsmia。
Virgil。
Wasp(seealsoCommonWasp)。
WeavingSpider。
Weevil。
White—girdledLeaf—cutter。
Wolf。
Worm(seeEarth—worm)。
Xylocopaviolacea(seeCarpenter—bee)。
Yellow—wingedSphex。
ZebraHalictus。
Zonitismutica。