Astheprincipleonwhichconstitutionsarenowformedrejectsallhereditarypretensionstogovernment,italsorejectsallthatcatalogueofassumptionsknownbythenameofprerogatives。
　　Ifthereisanygovernmentwhereprerogativesmightwithapparentsafetybeentrustedtoanyindividual,itisinthefederalgovernmentofAmerica。ThepresidentoftheUnitedStatesofAmericaiselectedonlyforfouryears。Heisnotonlyresponsibleinthegeneralsenseoftheword,butaparticularmodeislaiddownintheconstitutionfortryinghim。Hecannotbeelectedunderthirty—fiveyearsofage;andhemustbeanativeofthecountry。
　　InacomparisonofthesecaseswiththeGovernmentofEngland,thedifferencewhenappliedtothelatteramountstoanabsurdity。InEnglandthepersonwhoexercisesprerogativeisoftenaforeigner;alwayshalfaforeigner,andalwaysmarriedtoaforeigner。Heisneverinfullnaturalorpoliticalconnectionwiththecountry,isnotresponsibleforanything,andbecomesofageateighteenyears;yetsuchapersonispermittedtoformforeignalliances,withouteventheknowledgeofthenation,andtomakewarandpeacewithoutitsconsent。
　　Butthisisnotall。Thoughsuchapersoncannotdisposeofthegovernmentinthemannerofatestator,hedictatesthemarriageconnections,which,ineffect,accomplishagreatpartofthesameend。HecannotdirectlybequeathhalfthegovernmenttoPrussia,buthecanformamarriagepartnershipthatwillproducealmostthesamething。Undersuchcircumstances,itishappyforEnglandthatsheisnotsituatedontheContinent,orshemight,likeHolland,fallunderthedictatorshipofPrussia。Holland,bymarriage,isaseffectuallygovernedbyPrussia,asiftheoldtyrannyofbequeathingthegovernmenthadbeenthemeans。
　　ThepresidencyinAmerica（or,asitissometimescalled,theexecutive）
　　istheonlyofficefromwhichaforeignerisexcluded,andinEnglanditistheonlyonetowhichheisadmitted。AforeignercannotbeamemberofParliament,buthemaybewhatiscalledaking。Ifthereisanyreasonforexcludingforeigners,itoughttobefromthoseofficeswheremischiefcanmostbeacted,andwhere,byunitingeverybiasofinterestandattachment,thetrustisbestsecured。Butasnationsproceedinthegreatbusinessofformingconstitutions,theywillexaminewithmoreprecisionintothenatureandbusinessofthatdepartmentwhichiscalledtheexecutive。Whatthelegislativeandjudicialdepartmentsareeveryonecansee;butwithrespecttowhat,inEurope,iscalledtheexecutive,asdistinctfromthosetwo,itiseitherapoliticalsuperfluityorachaosofunknownthings。
　　Somekindofofficialdepartment,towhichreportsshallbemadefromthedifferentpartsofanation,orfromabroad,tobelaidbeforethenationalrepresentatives,isallthatisnecessary;butthereisnoconsistencyincallingthistheexecutive;neithercanitbeconsideredinanyotherlightthanasinferiortothelegislative。
　　Thesovereignauthorityinanycountryisthepowerofmakinglaws,andeverythingelseisanofficialdepartment。
　　Nexttothearrangementoftheprinciplesandtheorganizationoftheseveralpartsofaconstitution,istheprovisiontobemadeforthesupportofthepersonstowhomthenationshallconfidetheadministrationoftheconstitutionalpowers。
　　Anationcanhavenorighttothetimeandservicesofanypersonathisownexpense,whomitmaychoosetoemployorentrustinanydepartmentwhatever;neithercananyreasonbegivenformakingprovisionforthesupportofanyonepartofagovernmentandnotfortheother。
　　Butadmittingthatthehonourofbeingentrustedwithanypartofagovernmentistobeconsideredasufficientreward,itoughttobesotoeverypersonalike。Ifthemembersofthelegislatureofanycountryaretoserveattheirownexpensethatwhichiscalledtheexecutive,whethermonarchicalorbyanyothername,oughttoserveinlikemanner。Itisinconsistenttopaytheone,andaccepttheserviceoftheothergratis。
　　InAmerica,everydepartmentinthegovernmentisdecentlyprovidedfor;butnooneisextravagantlypaid。EverymemberofCongress,andoftheAssemblies,isallowedasufficiencyforhisexpenses。
　　WhereasinEngland,amostprodigalprovisionismadeforthesupportofonepartoftheGovernment,andnonefortheother,theconsequenceofwhichisthattheoneisfurnishedwiththemeansofcorruptionandtheotherisputintotheconditionofbeingcorrupted。Lessthanafourthpartofsuchexpense,appliedasitisinAmerica,wouldremedyagreatpartofthecorruption。
　　AnotherreformintheAmericanconstitutionistheexplodingalloathsofpersonality。TheoathofallegianceinAmericaistothenationonly。Theputtinganyindividualasafigureforanationisimproper。Thehappinessofanationisthesuperiorobject,andthereforetheintentionofanoathofallegianceoughtnottobeobscuredbybeingfigurativelytaken,to,orinthenameof,anyperson。Theoath,calledthecivicoath,inFrance,viz。,"thenation,thelaw,andtheking,"isimproper。Iftakenatall,itoughttobeasinAmerica,tothenationonly。Thelawmayormaynotbegood;
　　but,inthisplace,itcanhavenoothermeaning,thanasbeingconducivetothehappinessofanation,andthereforeisincludedinit。Theremainderoftheoathisimproper,ontheground,thatallpersonaloathsoughttobeabolished。Theyaretheremainsoftyrannyononepartandslaveryontheother;andthenameoftheCreatoroughtnottobeintroducedtowitnessthedegradationofhiscreation;oriftaken,asisalreadymentioned,asfigurativeofthenation,itisinthisplaceredundant。
　　Butwhateverapologymaybemadeforoathsatthefirstestablishmentofagovernment,theyoughtnottobepermittedafterwards。
　　Ifagovernmentrequiresthesupportofoaths,itisasignthatitisnotworthsupporting,andoughtnottobesupported。
　　Makegovernmentwhatitoughttobe,anditwillsupportitself。
　　Toconcludethispartofthesubject:—Oneofthegreatestimprovementsthathavebeenmadefortheperpetualsecurityandprogressofconstitutionalliberty,istheprovisionwhichthenewconstitutionsmakeforoccasionallyrevising,altering,andamendingthem。
　　TheprincipleuponwhichMr。Burkeformedhispoliticalcreed,thatof"bindingandcontrollingposteritytotheendoftime,andofrenouncingandabdicatingtherightsofallposterity,forever,"
　　isnowbecometoodetestabletobemadeasubjectofdebate;
　　andtherefore,Ipassitoverwithnoothernoticethanexposingit。
　　Governmentisbutnowbeginningtobeknown。Hithertoithasbeenthemereexerciseofpower,whichforbadealleffectualenquiryintorights,andgroundeditselfwhollyonpossession。Whiletheenemyoflibertywasitsjudge,theprogressofitsprinciplesmusthavebeensmallindeed。
　　TheconstitutionsofAmerica,andalsothatofFrance,haveeitheraffixedaperiodfortheirrevision,orlaiddownthemodebywhichimprovementshallbemade。Itisperhapsimpossibletoestablishanythingthatcombinesprincipleswithopinionsandpractice,whichtheprogressofcircumstances,throughalengthofyears,willnotinsomemeasurederange,orrenderinconsistent;and,therefore,topreventinconveniencesaccumulating,tilltheydiscouragereformationsorprovokerevolutions,itisbesttoprovidethemeansofregulatingthemastheyoccur。TheRightsofManaretherightsofallgenerationsofmen,andcannotbemonopolisedbyany。Thatwhichisworthfollowing,willbefollowedforthesakeofitsworth,anditisinthisthatitssecuritylies,andnotinanyconditionswithwhichitmaybeencumbered。
　　Whenamanleavespropertytohisheirs,hedoesnotconnectitwithanobligationthattheyshallacceptit。Why,then,shouldwedootherwisewithrespecttoconstitutions？Thebestconstitutionthatcouldnowbedevised,consistentwiththeconditionofthepresentmoment,maybefarshortofthatexcellencewhichafewyearsmayafford。Thereisamorningofreasonrisinguponmanonthesubjectofgovernment,thathasnotappearedbefore。Asthebarbarismofthepresentoldgovernmentsexpires,themoralconditionsofnationswithrespecttoeachotherwillbechanged。Manwillnotbebroughtupwiththesavageideaofconsideringhisspeciesashisenemy,becausetheaccidentofbirthgavetheindividualsexistenceincountriesdistinguishedbydifferentnames;andasconstitutionshavealwayssomerelationtoexternalaswellastodomesticcircumstances,themeansofbenefittingbyeverychange,foreignordomestic,shouldbeapartofeveryconstitution。WealreadyseeanalterationinthenationaldispositionofEnglandandFrancetowardseachother,which,whenwelookbacktoonlyafewyears,isitselfaRevolution。Whocouldhaveforeseen,orwhocouldhavebelieved,thataFrenchNationalAssemblywouldeverhavebeenapopulartoastinEngland,orthatafriendlyallianceofthetwonationsshouldbecomethewishofeither？Itshowsthatman,werehenotcorruptedbygovernments,isnaturallythefriendofman,andthathumannatureisnotofitselfvicious。Thatspiritofjealousyandferocity,whichthegovernmentsofthetwocountriesinspired,andwhichtheyrenderedsubservienttothepurposeoftaxation,isnowyieldingtothedictatesofreason,interest,andhumanity。Thetradeofcourtsisbeginningtobeunderstood,andtheaffectationofmystery,withalltheartificialsorcerybywhichtheyimposeduponmankind,isonthedecline。Ithasreceiveditsdeath—wound;andthoughitmaylinger,itwillexpire。Governmentoughttobeasmuchopentoimprovementasanythingwhichappertainstoman,insteadofwhichithasbeenmonopolisedfromagetoage,bythemostignorantandviciousofthehumanrace。Needweanyotherproofoftheirwretchedmanagement,thantheexcessofdebtsandtaxeswithwhicheverynationgroans,andthequarrelsintowhichtheyhaveprecipitatedtheworld？Justemergingfromsuchabarbarouscondition,itistoosoontodeterminetowhatextentofimprovementgovernmentmayyetbecarried。Forwhatwecanforesee,allEuropemayformbutonegreatRepublic,andmanbefreeofthewhole。
　　CHAPTERV
　　WaysAndMeansOfImprovingTheConditionOfEuropeInterspersedWithMiscellaneousObservationsIncontemplatingasubjectthatembraceswithequatorialmagnitudethewholeregionofhumanityitisimpossibletoconfinethepursuitinonesingledirection。Ittakesgroundoneverycharacterandconditionthatappertainstoman,andblendstheindividual,thenation,andtheworld。Fromasmallspark,kindledinAmerica,aflamehasarisennottobeextinguished。
　　Withoutconsuming,liketheUltimaRatioRegum,itwindsitsprogressfromnationtonation,andconquersbyasilentoperation。Manfindshimselfchanged,hescarcelyperceiveshow。Heacquiresaknowledgeofhisrightsbyattendingjustlytohisinterest,anddiscoversintheeventthatthestrengthandpowersofdespotismconsistwhollyinthefearofresistingit,andthat,inorder"tobefree,itissufficientthathewillsit。"
　　Havinginalltheprecedingpartsofthisworkendeavouredtoestablishasystemofprinciplesasabasisonwhichgovernmentsoughttobeerected,Ishallproceedinthis,tothewaysandmeansofrenderingthemintopractice。Butinordertointroducethispartofthesubjectwithmorepropriety,andstrongereffect,somepreliminaryobservations,deduciblefrom,orconnectedwith,thoseprinciples,arenecessary。
　　Whatevertheformorconstitutionofgovernmentmaybe,itoughttohavenootherobjectthanthegeneralhappiness。When,insteadofthis,itoperatestocreateandincreasewretchednessinanyofthepartsofsociety,itisonawrongsystem,andreformationisnecessary。Customarylanguagehasclassedtheconditionofmanunderthetwodescriptionsofcivilisedanduncivilisedlife。Totheoneithasascribedfelicityandaffluence;
　　totheotherhardshipandwant。But,howeverourimaginationmaybeimpressedbypaintingandcomparison,itisneverthelesstrue,thatagreatportionofmankind,inwhatarecalledcivilisedcountries,areinastateofpovertyandwretchedness,farbelowtheconditionofanIndian。Ispeaknotofonecountry,butofall。ItissoinEngland,itissoalloverEurope。Letusenquireintothecause。
　　Itliesnotinanynaturaldefectintheprinciplesofcivilisation,butinpreventingthoseprincipleshavingauniversaloperation;theconsequenceofwhichis,aperpetualsystemofwarandexpense,thatdrainsthecountry,anddefeatsthegeneralfelicityofwhichcivilisationiscapable。AlltheEuropeangovernments（Francenowexcepted）areconstructednotontheprincipleofuniversalcivilisation,butonthereverseofit。Sofarasthosegovernmentsrelatetoeachother,theyareinthesameconditionasweconceiveofsavageuncivilisedlife;theyputthemselvesbeyondthelawaswellofGODasofman,andare,withrespecttoprincipleandreciprocalconduct,likesomanyindividualsinastateofnature。Theinhabitantsofeverycountry,underthecivilisationoflaws,easilycivilisetogether,butgovernmentsbeingyetinanuncivilisedstate,andalmostcontinuallyatwar,theyperverttheabundancewhichcivilisedlifeproducestocarryontheuncivilisedparttoagreaterextent。Bythusengraftingthebarbarismofgovernmentupontheinternalcivilisationofacountry,itdrawsfromthelatter,andmoreespeciallyfromthepoor,agreatportionofthoseearnings,whichshouldbeappliedtotheirownsubsistenceandcomfort。Apartfromallreflectionsofmoralityandphilosophy,itisamelancholyfactthatmorethanone—fourthofthelabourofmankindisannuallyconsumedbythisbarbaroussystem。Whathasservedtocontinuethisevil,isthepecuniaryadvantagewhichallthegovernmentsofEuropehavefoundinkeepingupthisstateofuncivilisation。Itaffordstothempretencesforpower,andrevenue,forwhichtherewouldbeneitheroccasionnorapology,ifthecircleofcivilisationwererenderedcomplete。Civilgovernmentalone,orthegovernmentoflaws,isnotproductiveofpretencesformanytaxes;itoperatesathome,directlyundertheeyeofthecountry,andprecludesthepossibilityofmuchimposition。Butwhenthesceneislaidintheuncivilisedcontentionofgovernments,thefieldofpretencesisenlarged,andthecountry,beingnolongerajudge,isopentoeveryimposition,whichgovernmentspleasetoact。Notathirtieth,scarcelyafortieth,partofthetaxeswhichareraisedinEnglandareeitheroccasionedby,orappliedto,thepurposeofcivilgovernment。Itisnotdifficulttosee,thatthewholewhichtheactualgovernmentdoesinthisrespect,istoenactlaws,andthatthecountryadministersandexecutesthem,atitsownexpense,bymeansofmagistrates,juries,sessions,andassize,overandabovethetaxeswhichitpays。Inthisviewofthecase,wehavetwodistinctcharactersofgovernment;theonethecivilgovernment,orthegovernmentoflaws,whichoperatesathome,theotherthecourtorcabinetgovernment,whichoperatesabroad,ontherudeplanofuncivilisedlife;theoneattendedwithlittlecharge,theotherwithboundlessextravagance;andsodistinctarethetwo,thatifthelatterweretosink,asitwere,byasuddenopeningoftheearth,andtotallydisappear,theformerwouldnotbederanged。Itwouldstillproceed,becauseitisthecommoninterestofthenationthatitshould,andallthemeansareinpractice。Revolutions,then,havefortheirobjectachangeinthemoralconditionofgovernments,andwiththischangetheburthenofpublictaxeswilllessen,andcivilisationwillbelefttotheenjoymentofthatabundance,ofwhichitisnowdeprived。
　　Incontemplatingthewholeofthissubject,Iextendmyviewsintothedepartmentofcommerce。Inallmypublications,wherethematterwouldadmit,Ihavebeenanadvocateforcommerce,becauseIamafriendtoitseffects。Itisapacificsystem,operatingtocordialisemankind,byrenderingnations,aswellasindividuals,usefultoeachother。Astothemeretheoreticalreformation,Ihaveneverpreacheditup。Themosteffectualprocessisthatofimprovingtheconditionofmanbymeansofhisinterest;anditisonthisgroundthatItakemystand。Ifcommercewerepermittedtoacttotheuniversalextentitiscapable,itwouldextirpatethesystemofwar,andproducearevolutionintheuncivilisedstateofgovernments。Theinventionofcommercehasarisensincethosegovernmentsbegan,andisthegreatestapproachtowardsuniversalcivilisationthathasyetbeenmadebyanymeansnotimmediatelyflowingfrommoralprinciples。Whateverhasatendencytopromotethecivilintercourseofnationsbyanexchangeofbenefits,isasubjectasworthyofphilosophyasofpolitics。Commerceisnootherthanthetrafficoftwoindividuals,multipliedonascaleofnumbers;andbythesamerulethatnatureintendedfortheintercourseoftwo,sheintendedthatofall。Forthispurposeshehasdistributedthematerialsofmanufacturesandcommerce,invariousanddistantpartsofanationandoftheworld;andastheycannotbeprocuredbywarsocheaplyorsocommodiouslyasbycommerce,shehasrenderedthelatterthemeansofextirpatingtheformer。Asthetwoarenearlytheoppositeofeachother,consequently,theuncivilisedstateoftheEuropeangovernmentsisinjurioustocommerce。
　　Everykindofdestructionorembarrassmentservestolessenthequantity,anditmattersbutlittleinwhatpartofthecommercialworldthereductionbegins。Likeblood,itcannotbetakenfromanyoftheparts,withoutbeingtakenfromthewholemassincirculation,andallpartakeoftheloss。Whentheabilityinanynationtobuyisdestroyed,itequallyinvolvestheseller。
　　CouldthegovernmentofEnglanddestroythecommerceofallothernations,shewouldmosteffectuallyruinherown。Itispossiblethatanationmaybethecarrierfortheworld,butshecannotbethemerchant。Shecannotbethesellerandbuyerofherownmerchandise。Theabilitytobuymustresideoutofherself;and,therefore,theprosperityofanycommercialnationisregulatedbytheprosperityoftherest。Iftheyarepoorshecannotberich,andhercondition,bewhatitmay,isanindexoftheheightofthecommercialtideinothernations。Thattheprinciplesofcommerce,anditsuniversaloperationmaybeunderstood,withoutunderstandingthepractice,isapositionthatreasonwillnotdeny;anditisonthisgroundonlythatIarguethesubject。Itisonethinginthecounting—house,intheworlditisanother。Withrespecttoitsoperationitmustnecessarilybecontemplatedasareciprocalthing;thatonlyone—halfitspowersresideswithinthenation,andthatthewholeisaseffectuallydestroyedbythedestroyingthehalfthatresideswithout,asifthedestructionhadbeencommittedonthatwhichiswithin;forneithercanactwithouttheother。Wheninthelast,aswellasinformerwars,thecommerceofEnglandsunk,itwasbecausethequantitywaslessenedeverywhere;anditnowrises,becausecommerceisinarisingstateineverynation。IfEngland,atthisday,importsandexportsmorethanatanyformerperiod,thenationswithwhichshetradesmustnecessarilydothesame;herimportsaretheirexports,andviceversa。Therecanbenosuchthingasanationflourishingaloneincommerce:shecanonlyparticipate;
　　andthedestructionofitinanypartmustnecessarilyaffectall。When,therefore,governmentsareatwar,theattackismadeuponacommonstockofcommerce,andtheconsequenceisthesameasifeachhadattackedhisown。Thepresentincreaseofcommerceisnottobeattributedtoministers,ortoanypoliticalcontrivances,buttoitsownnaturaloperationinconsequenceofpeace。Theregularmarketshadbeendestroyed,thechannelsoftradebrokenup,thehighroadoftheseasinfestedwithrobbersofeverynation,andtheattentionoftheworldcalledtootherobjects。Thoseinterruptionshaveceased,andpeacehasrestoredthederangedconditionofthingstotheirproperorder。*[25]Itisworthremarkingthateverynationreckonsthebalanceoftradeinitsownfavour;andthereforesomethingmustbeirregularinthecommonideasuponthissubject。Thefact,however,istrue,accordingtowhatiscalledabalance;anditisfromthiscausethatcommerceisuniversallysupported。Everynationfeelstheadvantage,oritwouldabandonthepractice:butthedeceptionliesinthemodeofmakinguptheaccounts,andinattributingwhatarecalledprofitstoawrongcause。Mr。Pitthassometimesamusedhimself,byshowingwhathecalledabalanceoftradefromthecustom—housebooks。Thismodeofcalculatingnotonlyaffordsnorulethatistrue,butonethatisfalse。Inthefirstplace,Everycargothatdepartsfromthecustom—houseappearsonthebooksasanexport;and,accordingtothecustom—housebalance,thelossesatsea,andbyforeignfailures,areallreckonedonthesideofprofitbecausetheyappearasexports。
　　Secondly,Becausetheimportationbythesmugglingtradedoesnotappearonthecustom—housebooks,toarrangeagainsttheexports。
　　Nobalance,therefore,asapplyingtosuperioradvantages,canbedrawnfromthesedocuments;andifweexaminethenaturaloperationofcommerce,theideaisfallacious;andiftrue,wouldsoonbeinjurious。Thegreatsupportofcommerceconsistsinthebalancebeingalevelofbenefitsamongallnations。
　　Twomerchantsofdifferentnationstradingtogether,willbothbecomerich,andeachmakesthebalanceinhisownfavour;
　　consequently,theydonotgetrichofeachother;anditisthesamewithrespecttothenationsinwhichtheyreside。Thecasemustbe,thateachnationmustgetrichoutofitsownmeans,andincreasesthatrichesbysomethingwhichitprocuresfromanotherinexchange。
　　IfamerchantinEnglandsendsanarticleofEnglishmanufactureabroadwhichcostshimashillingathome,andimportssomethingwhichsellsfortwo,hemakesabalanceofoneshillinginhisfavour;butthisisnotgainedoutoftheforeignnationortheforeignmerchant,forhealsodoesthesamebythearticleshereceives,andneitherhastheadvantageupontheother。Theoriginalvalueofthetwoarticlesintheirpropercountrieswasbuttwoshillings;butbychangingtheirplaces,theyacquireanewideaofvalue,equaltodoublewhattheyhadfirst,andthatincreasedvalueisequallydivided。
　　Thereisnootherwiseabalanceonforeignthanondomesticcommerce。
　　ThemerchantsofLondonandNewcastletradeonthesameprinciples,asiftheyresidedindifferentnations,andmaketheirbalancesinthesamemanner:yetLondondoesnotgetrichoutofNewcastle,anymorethanNewcastleoutofLondon:butcoals,themerchandizeofNewcastle,haveanadditionalvalueatLondon,andLondonmerchandizehasthesameatNewcastle。
　　Thoughtheprincipleofallcommerceisthesame,thedomestic,inanationalview,isthepartthemostbeneficial;becausethewholeoftheadvantages,anbothsides,restswithinthenation;whereas,inforeigncommerce,itisonlyaparticipationofone—half。
　　Themostunprofitableofallcommerceisthatconnectedwithforeigndominion。Toafewindividualsitmaybebeneficial,merelybecauseitiscommerce;buttothenationitisaloss。Theexpenseofmaintainingdominionmorethanabsorbstheprofitsofanytrade。Itdoesnotincreasethegeneralquantityintheworld,butoperatestolessenit;andasagreatermasswouldbeafloatbyrelinquishingdominion,theparticipationwithouttheexpensewouldbemorevaluablethanagreaterquantitywithit。
　　Butitisimpossibletoengrosscommercebydominion;andthereforeitisstillmorefallacious。Itcannotexistinconfinedchannels,andnecessarilybreaksoutbyregularorirregularmeans,thatdefeattheattempt:andtosucceedwouldbestillworse。
　　France,sincetheRevolution,hasbeenmoreindifferentastoforeignpossessions,andothernationswillbecomethesamewhentheyinvestigatethesubjectwithrespecttocommerce。
　　Totheexpenseofdominionistobeaddedthatofnavies,andwhentheamountsofthetwoaresubtractedfromtheprofitsofcommerce,itwillappear,thatwhatiscalledthebalanceoftrade,evenadmittingittoexist,isnotenjoyedbythenation,butabsorbedbytheGovernment。
　　Theideaofhavingnaviesfortheprotectionofcommerceisdelusive。
　　Itisputtingmeansofdestructionforthemeansofprotection。Commerceneedsnootherprotectionthanthereciprocalinterestwhicheverynationfeelsinsupportingit—itiscommonstock—itexistsbyabalanceofadvantagestoall;andtheonlyinterruptionitmeets,isfromthepresentuncivilisedstateofgovernments,andwhichitisitscommoninteresttoreform。*[26]
　　Quittingthissubject,Inowproceedtoothermatters。—AsitisnecessarytoincludeEnglandintheprospectofageneralreformation,itispropertoinquireintothedefectsofitsgovernment。
　　Itisonlybyeachnationreformingitsown,thatthewholecanbeimproved,andthefullbenefitofreformationenjoyed。Onlypartialadvantagescanflowfrompartialreforms。
　　FranceandEnglandaretheonlytwocountriesinEuropewhereareformationingovernmentcouldhavesuccessfullybegun。
　　Theonesecurebytheocean,andtheotherbytheimmensityofitsinternalstrength,coulddefythemalignancyofforeigndespotism。Butitiswithrevolutionsaswithcommerce,theadvantagesincreasebytheirbecominggeneral,anddoubletoeitherwhateachwouldreceivealone。
　　Asanewsystemisnowopeningtotheviewoftheworld,theEuropeancourtsareplottingtocounteractit。Alliances,contrarytoallformersystems,areagitating,andacommoninterestofcourtsisformingagainstthecommoninterestofman。ThiscombinationdrawsalinethatrunsthroughoutEurope,andpresentsacausesoentirelynewastoexcludeallcalculationsfromformercircumstances。Whiledespotismwarredwithdespotism,manhadnointerestinthecontest;butinacausethatunitesthesoldierwiththecitizen,andnationwithnation,thedespotismofcourts,thoughitfeelsthedangerandmeditatesrevenge,isafraidtostrike。
　　Noquestionhasarisenwithintherecordsofhistorythatpressedwiththeimportanceofthepresent。Itisnotwhetherthisorthatpartyshallbeinornot,orWhigorTory,highorlowshallprevail;
　　butwhethermanshallinherithisrights,anduniversalcivilisationtakeplace？Whetherthefruitsofhislaboursshallbeenjoyedbyhimselforconsumedbytheprofligacyofgovernments？Whetherrobberyshallbebanishedfromcourts,andwretchednessfromcountries？