thatis,ithasgonetoofarforthem。Itstarescorruptionintheface,andthevenaltribeareallalarmed。Theirfeardiscoversitselfintheiroutrage,andtheyarebutpublishingthegroansofawoundedvice。ButfromsuchoppositiontheFrenchRevolution,insteadofsuffering,receivesanhomage。Themoreitisstruckthemoresparksitwillemit;andthefearisitwillnotbestruckenough。Ithasnothingtodreadfromattacks;
　　truthhasgivenitanestablishment,andtimewillrecorditwithanameaslastingashisown。
　　HavingnowtracedtheprogressoftheFrenchRevolutionthroughmostofitsprincipalstages,fromitscommencementtothetakingoftheBastille,anditsestablishmentbytheDeclarationofRights,IwillclosethesubjectwiththeenergeticapostropheofM。delaFayette—
　　"Maythisgreatmonument,raisedtoLiberty,serveasalessontotheoppressor,andanexampletotheoppressed！"*[11]MiscellaneousChapterTopreventinterruptingtheargumentintheprecedingpartofthiswork,orthenarrativethatfollowsit,IreservedsomeobservationstobethrowntogetherinaMiscellaneousChapter;bywhichvarietymightnotbecensuredforconfusion。Mr。Burke'sbookisallMiscellany。HisintentionwastomakeanattackontheFrenchRevolution;butinsteadofproceedingwithanorderlyarrangement,hehasstormeditwithamobofideastumblingoveranddestroyingoneanother。
　　ButthisconfusionandcontradictioninMr。Burke'sBookiseasilyaccountedfor。—Whenamaninawrongcauseattemptstosteerhiscoursebyanythingelsethansomepolartruthorprinciple,heissuretobelost。Itisbeyondthecompassofhiscapacitytokeepallthepartsofanargumenttogether,andmakethemuniteinoneissue,byanyothermeansthanhavingthisguidealwaysinview。Neithermemorynorinventionwillsupplythewantofit。
　　Theformerfailshim,andthelatterbetrayshim。
　　Notwithstandingthenonsense,foritdeservesnobettername,thatMr。
　　Burkehasassertedabouthereditaryrights,andhereditarysuccession,andthataNationhasnotarighttoformaGovernmentofitself;ithappenedtofallinhiswaytogivesomeaccountofwhatGovernmentis。"Government,"
　　sayshe,"isacontrivanceofhumanwisdom。
　　Admittingthatgovernmentisacontrivanceofhumanwisdom,itmustnecessarilyfollow,thathereditarysuccession,andhereditaryrights（astheyarecalled）,canmakenopartofit,becauseitisimpossibletomakewisdomhereditary;andontheotherhand,thatcannotbeawisecontrivance,whichinitsoperationmaycommitthegovernmentofanationtothewisdomofanidiot。ThegroundwhichMr。Burkenowtakesisfataltoeverypartofhiscause。Theargumentchangesfromhereditaryrightstohereditarywisdom;andthequestionis,Whoisthewisestman？HemustnowshowthateveryoneinthelineofhereditarysuccessionwasaSolomon,orhistitleisnotgoodtobeaking。WhatastrokehasMr。Burkenowmade！Touseasailor'sphrase,hehasswabbedthedeck,andscarcelyleftanamelegibleinthelistofKings;andhehasmoweddownandthinnedtheHouseofPeers,withascytheasformidableasDeathandTime。
　　ButMr。Burkeappearstohavebeenawareofthisretort;andhehastakencaretoguardagainstit,bymakinggovernmenttobenotonlyacontrivanceofhumanwisdom,butamonopolyofwisdom。Heputsthenationasfoolsononeside,andplaceshisgovernmentofwisdom,allwisemenofGotham,ontheotherside;andhethenproclaims,andsaysthat"MenhaveaRIGHT
　　thattheirWANTSshouldbeprovidedforbythiswisdom。"Havingthusmadeproclamation,henextproceedstoexplaintothemwhattheirwantsare,andalsowhattheirrightsare。Inthishehassucceededdextrously,forhemakestheirwantstobeawantofwisdom;butasthisiscoldcomfort,hetheninformsthem,thattheyhavearight（nottoanyofthewisdom）
　　buttobegovernedbyit;andinordertoimpressthemwithasolemnreverenceforthismonopoly—governmentofwisdom,andofitsvastcapacityforallpurposes,possibleorimpossible,rightorwrong,heproceedswithastrologicalmysteriousimportance,totelltothemitspowersinthesewords:"Therightsofmeningovernmentaretheiradvantages;andtheseareofteninbalancebetweendifferencesofgood;andincompromisessometimesbetweengoodandevil,andsometimesbetweenevilandevil。Politicalreasonisacomputingprinciple;adding—subtracting—multiplying—anddividing,morallyandnotmetaphysicallyormathematically,truemoraldenominations。"
　　Asthewonderingaudience,whomMr。Burkesupposeshimselftalkingto,maynotunderstandallthislearnedjargon,Iwillundertaketobeitsinterpreter。Themeaning,then,goodpeople,ofallthis,is:Thatgovernmentisgovernedbynoprinciplewhatever;thatitcanmakeevilgood,orgoodevil,justasitpleases。Inshort,thatgovernmentisarbitrarypower。
　　ButtherearesomethingswhichMr。Burkehasforgotten。First,hehasnotshownwherethewisdomoriginallycamefrom:andsecondly,hehasnotshownbywhatauthorityitfirstbegantoact。Inthemannerheintroducesthematter,itiseithergovernmentstealingwisdom,orwisdomstealinggovernment。Itiswithoutanorigin,anditspowerswithoutauthority。
　　Inshort,itisusurpation。
　　Whetheritbefromasenseofshame,orfromaconsciousnessofsomeradicaldefectinagovernmentnecessarytobekeptoutofsight,orfromboth,orfromanyothercause,Iundertakenottodetermine,butsoitis,thatamonarchicalreasonernevertracesgovernmenttoitssource,orfromitssource。Itisoneoftheshibbolethsbywhichhemaybeknown。
　　Athousandyearshence,thosewhoshallliveinAmericaorFrance,willlookbackwithcontemplativeprideontheoriginoftheirgovernment,andsay,Thiswastheworkofourgloriousancestors！Butwhatcanamonarchicaltalkersay？Whathashetoexultin？Alashehasnothing。Acertainsomethingforbidshimtolookbacktoabeginning,lestsomerobber,orsomeRobinHood,shouldrisefromthelongobscurityoftimeandsay,Iamtheorigin。
　　HardasMr。BurkelabouredattheRegencyBillandHereditarySuccessiontwoyearsago,andmuchashedivedforprecedents,hestillhadnotboldnessenoughtobringupWilliamofNormandy,andsay,Thereistheheadofthelist！thereisthefountainofhonour！thesonofaprostitute,andtheplundereroftheEnglishnation。
　　Theopinionsofmenwithrespecttogovernmentarechangingfastinallcountries。TheRevolutionsofAmericaandFrancehavethrownabeamoflightovertheworld,whichreachesintoman。Theenormousexpenseofgovernmentshasprovokedpeopletothink,bymakingthemfeel;andwhenoncetheveilbeginstorend,itadmitsnotofrepair。Ignoranceisofapeculiarnature:oncedispelled,itisimpossibletore—establishit。
　　Itisnotoriginallyathingofitself,butisonlytheabsenceofknowledge;
　　andthoughmanmaybekeptignorant,hecannotbemadeignorant。Themind,indiscoveringtruth,actsinthesamemannerasitactsthroughtheeyeindiscoveringobjects;whenonceanyobjecthasbeenseen,itisimpossibletoputthemindbacktothesameconditionitwasinbeforeitsawit。
　　Thosewhotalkofacounter—revolutioninFrance,showhowlittletheyunderstandofman。Theredoesnotexistinthecompassoflanguageanarrangementofwordstoexpresssomuchasthemeansofeffectingacounter—revolution。
　　Themeansmustbeanobliterationofknowledge;andithasneveryetbeendiscoveredhowtomakemanunknowhisknowledge,orunthinkhisthoughts。
　　Mr。Burkeislabouringinvaintostoptheprogressofknowledge;anditcomeswiththeworsegracefromhim,asthereisacertaintransactionknowninthecitywhichrendershimsuspectedofbeingapensionerinafictitiousname。Thismayaccountforsomestrangedoctrinehehasadvancedinhisbook,whichthoughhepointsitattheRevolutionSociety,iseffectuallydirectedagainstthewholenation。
　　"TheKingofEngland,"sayshe,"holdshiscrown（foritdoesnotbelongtotheNation,accordingtoMr。Burke）incontemptofthechoiceoftheRevolutionSociety,whohavenotasinglevoteforakingamongthemeitherindividuallyorcollectively;andhisMajesty'sheirseachintheirtimeandorder,willcometotheCrownwiththesamecontemptoftheirchoice,withwhichhisMajestyhassucceededtothatwhichhenowwears。"
　　AstowhoisKinginEngland,orelsewhere,orwhetherthereisanyKingatall,orwhetherthepeoplechooseaCherokeechief,oraHessianhussarforaKing,itisnotamatterthatItroublemyselfabout—bethattothemselves;butwithrespecttothedoctrine,sofarasitrelatestotheRightsofMenandNations,itisasabominableasanythingeverutteredinthemostenslavedcountryunderheaven。Whetheritsoundsworsetomyear,bynotbeingaccustomedtohearsuchdespotism,thanwhatitdoestoanotherperson,Iamnotsowellajudgeof;butofitsabominableprincipleIamatnolosstojudge。
　　ItisnottheRevolutionSocietythatMr。Burkemeans;itistheNation,aswellinitsoriginalasinitsrepresentativecharacter;andhehastakencaretomakehimselfunderstood,bysayingthattheyhavenotavoteeithercollectivelyorindividually。TheRevolutionSocietyiscomposedofcitizensofalldenominations,andofmembersofboththeHousesofParliament;andconsequently,ifthereisnotarighttoavoteinanyofthecharacters,therecanbenorighttoanyeitherinthenationorinitsParliament。Thisoughttobeacautiontoeverycountryhowtoimportforeignfamiliestobekings。Itissomewhatcurioustoobserve,thatalthoughthepeopleofEnglandhadbeeninthehabitoftalkingaboutkings,itisalwaysaForeignHouseofKings;hatingForeignersyetgovernedbythem。—
　　ItisnowtheHouseofBrunswick,oneofthepettytribesofGermany。
　　IthashithertobeenthepracticeoftheEnglishParliamentstoregulatewhatwascalledthesuccession（takingitforgrantedthattheNationthencontinuedtoaccordtotheformofannexingamonarchicalbranchofitsgovernment;forwithoutthistheParliamentcouldnothavehadauthoritytohavesenteithertoHollandortoHanover,ortoimposeakinguponthenationagainstitswill）。AndthismustbetheutmostlimittowhichParliamentcangouponthiscase;buttherightoftheNationgoestothewholecase,becauseithastherightofchangingitswholeformofgovernment。
　　TherightofaParliamentisonlyarightintrust,arightbydelegation,andthatbutfromaverysmallpartoftheNation;andoneofitsHouseshasnoteventhis。ButtherightoftheNationisanoriginalright,asuniversalastaxation。Thenationisthepaymasterofeverything,andeverythingmustconformtoitsgeneralwill。
　　IremembertakingnoticeofaspeechinwhatiscalledtheEnglishHouseofPeers,bythethenEarlofShelburne,andIthinkitwasatthetimehewasMinister,whichisapplicabletothiscase。Idonotdirectlychargemymemorywitheveryparticular;butthewordsandthepurport,asnearlyasIremember,werethese:"ThattheformofaGovernmentwasamatterwhollyatthewilloftheNationatalltimes,thatifitchoseamonarchicalform,ithadarighttohaveitso;andifitafterwardschosetobeaRepublic,ithadarighttobeaRepublic,andtosaytoaKing,"Wehavenolongeranyoccasionforyou。"
　　WhenMr。Burkesaysthat"HisMajesty'sheirsandsuccessors,eachintheirtimeandorder,willcometothecrownwiththesamecontentoftheirchoicewithwhichHisMajestyhadsucceededtothathewears,"itissayingtoomucheventothehumblestindividualinthecountry;partofwhosedailylabourgoestowardsmakingupthemillionsterlinga—year,whichthecountrygivesthepersonitstylesaking。Governmentwithinsolenceisdespotism;butwhencontemptisaddeditbecomesworse;andtopayforcontemptistheexcessofslavery。ThisspeciesofgovernmentcomesfromGermany;andremindsmeofwhatoneoftheBrunswicksoldierstoldme,whowastakenprisonerby,theAmericansinthelatewar:"Ah！"saidhe,"Americaisafinefreecountry,itisworththepeople'sfightingfor;
　　Iknowthedifferencebyknowingmyown:inmycountry,iftheprincesayseatstraw,weeatstraw。"Godhelpthatcountry,thoughtI,beitEnglandorelsewhere,whoselibertiesaretobeprotectedbyGermanprinciplesofgovernment,andPrincesofBrunswick！
　　AsMr。BurkesometimesspeaksofEngland,sometimesofFrance,andsometimesoftheworld,andofgovernmentingeneral,itisdifficulttoanswerhisbookwithoutapparentlymeetinghimonthesameground。AlthoughprinciplesofGovernmentaregeneralsubjects,itisnexttoimpossible,inmanycases,toseparatethemfromtheideaofplaceandcircumstance,andthemoresowhencircumstancesareputforarguments,whichisfrequentlythecasewithMr。Burke。
　　Intheformerpartofhisbook,addressinghimselftothepeopleofFrance,hesays:"Noexperiencehastaughtus（meaningtheEnglish）,thatinanyothercourseormethodthanthatofahereditarycrown,canourlibertiesberegularlyperpetuatedandpreservedsacredasourhereditaryright。"IaskMr。Burke,whoistotakethemaway？M。delaFayette,inspeakingtoFrance,says:"ForaNationtobefree,itissufficientthatshewillsit。"ButMr。BurkerepresentsEnglandaswantingcapacitytotakecareofitself,andthatitslibertiesmustbetakencareofbyaKingholdingitin"contempt。"IfEnglandissunktothis,itispreparingitselftoeatstraw,asinHanover,orinBrunswick。Butbesidesthefollyofthedeclaration,ithappensthatthefactsareallagainstMr。Burke。
　　Itwasbythegovernmentbeinghereditary,thatthelibertiesofthepeoplewereendangered。CharlesI。andJamesII。areinstancesofthistruth;
　　yetneitherofthemwentsofarastoholdtheNationincontempt。
　　Asitissometimesofadvantagetothepeopleofonecountrytohearwhatthoseofothercountrieshavetosayrespectingit,itispossiblethatthepeopleofFrancemaylearnsomethingfromMr。Burke'sbook,andthatthepeopleofEnglandmayalsolearnsomethingfromtheanswersitwilloccasion。WhenNationsfalloutaboutfreedom,awidefieldofdebateisopened。Theargumentcommenceswiththerightsofwar,withoutitsevils,andasknowledgeistheobjectcontendedfor,thepartythatsustainsthedefeatobtainstheprize。
　　Mr。Burketalksaboutwhathecallsanhereditarycrown,asifitweresomeproductionofNature;orasif,likeTime,ithadapowertooperate,notonlyindependently,butinspiteofman;orasifitwereathingorasubjectuniversallyconsentedto。Alas！ithasnoneofthoseproperties,butisthereverseofthemall。Itisathinginimagination,theproprietyofwhichismorethandoubted,andthelegalityofwhichinafewyearswillbedenied。
　　But,toarrangethismatterinaclearerviewthanwhatgeneralexpressioncanheadsunderwhich（whatiscalled）anhereditarycrown,ormoreproperlyspeaking,anhereditarysuccessiontotheGovernmentofaNation,canbeconsidered;whichare—
　　First,TherightofaparticularFamilytoestablishitself。
　　Secondly,TherightofaNationtoestablishaparticularFamily。
　　Withrespecttothefirstoftheseheads,thatofaFamilyestablishingitselfwithhereditarypowersonitsownauthority,andindependentoftheconsentofaNation,allmenwillconcurincallingitdespotism;anditwouldbetrespassingontheirunderstandingtoattempttoproveit。
　　Butthesecondhead,thatofaNationestablishingaparticularFamilywithhereditarypowers,doesnotpresentitselfasdespotismonthefirstreflection;butifmenwillpermititasecondreflectiontotakeplace,andcarrythatreflectionforwardbutoneremoveoutoftheirownpersonstothatoftheiroffspring,theywillthenseethathereditarysuccessionbecomesinitsconsequencesthesamedespotismtoothers,whichtheyreprobatedforthemselves。Itoperatestoprecludetheconsentofthesucceedinggenerations;
　　andthepreclusionofconsentisdespotism。WhenthepersonwhoatanytimeshallbeinpossessionofaGovernment,orthosewhostandinsuccessiontohim,shallsaytoaNation,Iholdthispowerin"contempt"ofyou,itsignifiesnotonwhatauthorityhepretendstosayit。Itisnorelief,butanaggravationtoapersoninslavery,toreflectthathewassoldbyhisparent;andasthatwhichheightensthecriminalityofanactcannotbeproducedtoprovethelegalityofit,hereditarysuccessioncannotbeestablishedasalegalthing。
　　Inordertoarriveatamoreperfectdecisiononthishead,itwillbepropertoconsiderthegenerationwhichundertakestoestablishaFamilywithhereditarypowers,apartandseparatefromthegenerationswhicharetofollow;andalsotoconsiderthecharacterinwhichthefirstgenerationactswithrespecttosucceedinggenerations。
　　Thegenerationwhichfirstselectsaperson,andputshimattheheadofitsGovernment,eitherwiththetitleofKing,oranyotherdistinction,actsonitsownchoice,beitwiseorfoolish,asafreeagentforitselfThepersonsosetupisnothereditary,butselectedandappointed;andthegenerationwhosetshimup,doesnotliveunderahereditarygovernment,butunderagovernmentofitsownchoiceandestablishment。Werethegenerationwhosetshimup,andthepersonsosetup,toliveforever,itnevercouldbecomehereditarysuccession;andofconsequencehereditarysuccessioncanonlyfollowonthedeathofthefirstparties。
　　As,therefore,hereditarysuccessionisoutofthequestionwithrespecttothefirstgeneration,wehavenowtoconsiderthecharacterinwhichthatgenerationactswithrespecttothecommencinggeneration,andtoallsucceedingones。
　　Itassumesacharacter,towhichithasneitherrightnortitle。ItchangesitselffromaLegislatortoaTestator,andeffectstomakeitsWill,whichistohaveoperationafterthedemiseofthemakers,tobequeaththeGovernment;anditnotonlyattemptstobequeath,buttoestablishonthesucceedinggeneration,anewanddifferentformofGovernmentunderwhichitselflived。Itself,asalreadyobserved,livednotunderahereditaryGovernmentbutunderaGovernmentofitsownchoiceandestablishment;
　　anditnowattempts,byvirtueofawillandtestament（andwhichithasnotauthoritytomake）,totakefromthecommencinggeneration,andallfutureones,therightsandfreeagencybywhichitselfacted。
　　But,exclusiveoftherightwhichanygenerationhastoactcollectivelyasatestator,theobjectstowhichitappliesitselfinthiscase,arenotwithinthecompassofanylaw,orofanywillortestament。
　　Therightsofmeninsociety,areneitherdevisableortransferable,norannihilable,butaredescendableonly,anditisnotinthepowerofanygenerationtointerceptfinally,andcutoffthedescent。Ifthepresentgeneration,oranyother,aredisposedtobeslaves,itdoesnotlessentherightofthesucceedinggenerationtobefree。Wrongscannothavealegaldescent。WhenMr。BurkeattemptstomaintainthattheEnglishnationdidattheRevolutionof1688,mostsolemnlyrenounceandabdicatetheirrightsforthemselves,andforalltheirposterityforever,hespeaksalanguagethatmeritsnotreply,andwhichcanonlyexcitecontemptforhisprostituteprinciples,orpityforhisignorance。
　　Inwhateverlighthereditarysuccession,asgrowingoutofthewillandtestamentofsomeformergeneration,presentsitself,itisanabsurdity。
　　AcannotmakeawilltotakefromBthepropertyofB,andgiveittoC;
　　yetthisisthemannerinwhich（whatiscalled）hereditarysuccessionbylawoperates。Acertainformergenerationmadeawill,totakeawaytherightsofthecommencinggeneration,andallfutureones,andconveythoserightstoathirdperson,whoafterwardscomesforward,andtellsthem,inMr。Burke'slanguage,thattheyhavenorights,thattheirrightsarealreadybequeathedtohimandthathewillgovernincontemptofthem。
　　Fromsuchprinciples,andsuchignorance,goodLorddelivertheworld！
　　But,afterall,whatisthismetaphorcalledacrown,orratherwhatismonarchy？Isitathing,orisitaname,orisitafraud？Isita"contrivanceofhumanwisdom,"orofhumancrafttoobtainmoneyfromanationunderspeciouspretences？Isitathingnecessarytoanation？Ifitis,inwhatdoesthatnecessityconsist,whatservicedoesitperform,whatisitsbusiness,andwhatareitsmerits？Doesthevirtueconsistinthemetaphor,orintheman？Doththegoldsmiththatmakesthecrown,makethevirtuealso？DothitoperatelikeFortunatus'swishing—cap,orHarlequin'swoodensword？Dothitmakeamanaconjurer？Infine,whatisit？Itappearstobesomethinggoingmuchoutoffashion,fallingintoridicule,andrejectedinsomecountries,bothasunnecessaryandexpensive。
　　InAmericaitisconsideredasanabsurdity;andinFranceithassofardeclined,thatthegoodnessoftheman,andtherespectforhispersonalcharacter,aretheonlythingsthatpreservetheappearanceofitsexistence。
　　IfgovernmentbewhatMr。Burkedescribesit,"acontrivanceofhumanwisdom"Imightaskhim,ifwisdomwasatsuchalowebbinEngland,thatitwasbecomenecessarytoimportitfromHollandandfromHanover？ButIwilldothecountrythejusticetosay,thatwasnotthecase;andevenifitwasitmistookthecargo。Thewisdomofeverycountry,whenproperlyexerted,issufficientforallitspurposes;andtherecouldexistnomorerealoccasioninEnglandtohavesentforaDutchStadtholder,oraGermanElector,thantherewasinAmericatohavedoneasimilarthing。Ifacountrydoesnotunderstanditsownaffairs,howisaforeignertounderstandthem,whoknowsneitheritslaws,itsmanners,noritslanguage？Ifthereexistedamansotranscendentlywiseaboveallothers,thathiswisdomwasnecessarytoinstructanation,somereasonmightbeofferedformonarchy;butwhenwecastoureyesaboutacountry,andobservehoweverypartunderstandsitsownaffairs;andwhenwelookaroundtheworld,andseethatofallmeninit,theraceofkingsarethemostinsignificantincapacity,ourreasoncannotfailtoaskus—Whatarethosemenkeptfor？
　　IfthereisanythinginmonarchywhichwepeopleofAmericadonotunderstand,IwishMr。Burkewouldbesokindastoinformus。IseeinAmerica,agovernmentextendingoveracountrytentimesaslargeasEngland,andconductedwithregularity,forafortiethpartoftheexpensewhichGovernmentcostsinEngland。IfIaskamaninAmericaifhewantsaKing,heretorts,andasksmeifItakehimforanidiot？Howisitthatthisdifferencehappens？arewemoreorlesswisethanothers？IseeinAmericathegeneralityofpeoplelivinginastyleofplentyunknowninmonarchicalcountries;
　　andIseethattheprincipleofitsgovernment,whichisthatoftheequalRightsofMan,ismakingarapidprogressintheworld。
　　Ifmonarchyisauselessthing,whyisitkeptupanywhere？andifanecessarything,howcanitbedispensedwith？Thatcivilgovernmentisnecessary,allcivilizednationswillagree;butcivilgovernmentisrepublicangovernment。AllthatpartofthegovernmentofEnglandwhichbeginswiththeofficeofconstable,andproceedsthroughthedepartmentofmagistrate,quarter—sessions,andgeneralassize,includingtrialbyjury,isrepublicangovernment。Nothingofmonarchyappearsinanypartofit,exceptinthenamewhichWilliamtheConquerorimposedupontheEnglish,thatofobligingthemtocallhim"TheirSovereignLordtheKing。"
　　Itiseasytoconceivethatabandofinterestedmen,suchasPlacemen,Pensioners,Lordsofthebed—chamber,Lordsofthekitchen,Lordsofthenecessary—house,andtheLordknowswhatbesides,canfindasmanyreasonsformonarchyastheirsalaries,paidattheexpenseofthecountry,amountto;butifIaskthefarmer,themanufacturer,themerchant,thetradesman,anddownthroughalltheoccupationsoflifetothecommonlabourer,whatservicemonarchyistohim？hecangivemenoanswer。IfIaskhimwhatmonarchyis,hebelievesitissomethinglikeasinecure。