Thefirsteditionoftheworkwhichachievedthisresultappearedanonymouslyin1798underthetitle——AnEssayonthe
　　PrincipleofPopulation，asitaffectsthefutureimprovementofSociety，withremarksonthespeculationsofMrGodwin，
　　M。Condorcet，andotherwriters。Thisbookaroseoutofcertainprivatecontroversiesofitsauthorwithhisfather，Daniel
　　Malthus，whohadbeenafriendofRousseau，andwasanardentbelieverinthedoctrineofhumanprogressaspreachedby
　　CondorcetandotherFrenchthinkersandbytheirEnglishdisciples。ThemostdistinguishedofthelatterwasWilliam
　　Godwin，whoseEnquiryconcerningPoliticalJusticehadbeenpublishedin1793。Theviewsputforwardinthatworkhad
　　beenrestatedbyitsauthorintheEnquirer（1797），anditwasontheessayinthisvolumeentitled"AvariceandProfusion"
　　thatthediscussionbetweenthefatherandthesonarose，"thegeneralquestionofthefutureimprovementofsociety"being
　　thusraisedbetweenthem——theelderMalthusdefendingthedoctrinesofGodwin，andtheyoungerassailingthem。Thelatter
　　"satdownwithanintentionofmerelystatinghisthoughtsonpaperinaclearermannerthanhethoughthecoulddoin
　　conversation，"andtheEssayonpopulationwastheresult。
　　ThesocialschemeofGodwinwasfoundedontheideathattheevilsofsocietyarisefromthevicesofhumaninstitutions。
　　Thereismorethanenoughofwealthavailableforall，butitisnotequallyshared:onehastoomuch，anotherhaslittleor
　　nothing。Letthiswealth，aswellasthelabourofproducingit，beequallydivided;theneveryonewillbymoderateexertion
　　obtainsufficientforplainliving;therewillbeabundantleisure，whichwillbespentinintellectualandmoral
　　self—improvement;reasonwilldeterminehumanactions;governmentandeverykindofforcewillbeunnecessary;and，in
　　time，bythepeacefulinfluenceoftruth，perfectionandhappinesswillbeestablishedonearth。Totheseglowinganticipations
　　Malthusopposesthefactsofthenecessityoffoodandthetendencyofmankindtoincreaseuptothelimitoftheavailable
　　supplyofit。Inastateofuniversalphysicalwell—being，thistendency，whichinreallifeisheldincheckbythedifficultyof
　　procuringasubsistence，wouldoperatewithoutrestraint。Scarcitywouldfollowtheincreaseofnumbers;theleisurewould
　　soonceasetoexist;theoldstruggleforlifewouldrecommence;andinequalitywouldreignoncemore。IfGodwin’sideal
　　system，therefore，couldbeestablished，thesingleforceottheprincipleofpopulation，Malthusmaintained，wouldsufficeto
　　breakitdown。
　　Itwillbeseenthattheessaywaswrittenwithapolemicalobject;itwasanoccasionalpamphletdirectedagainsttheutopias
　　oftheday，notatallasystematictreatiseonpopulationsuggestedbyapurelyscientificinterest。Asapolemic，itwas
　　decidedlysuccessful;itwasnodifficulttasktodisposeoftheschemeofequalitypropoundedbyGodwin。Already，in1761，
　　Dr。RobertWallacehadpublishedawork（whichwasamongstthoseusedbyMalthusinthecompositionofhisessay）
　　entitledVariousProspectsofMankind，Nature，andProvidence，inwhich，afterspeakingofacommunityofgoodsasa
　　remedyfortheillsofsociety，heconfessedthathesawonefatalobjectiontosuchasocialorganization，namely，"the
　　excessivepopulationthatwouldensue。"WithCondorcet’sextravagances，too，Malthuseasilydealt。Thateminentman，
　　amidstthetempestoftheFrenchRevolution，hadwritten，whilstinhidingfromhisenemies，hisEsquissed’untableau
　　historiquedel’esprithumain。Thegeneralconceptionofthisbookmakesitsappearanceanepochinththistoryoftheriseof
　　sociology。Init，ifweexceptsomepartialsketchesbyTurgot，（36）isforthefirsttimeexplainedtheideaofatheoryofsocial
　　dynamicsfoundedonhistory;anditsauthorisonthisgroundrecognizedbyComteashisprincipalimmediatepredecessor。
　　ButintheexecutionofhisgreatprojectCondorcetfailed。Hisnegativemetaphysicspreventhisjustlyappreciatingthepast，
　　andheindulges，atthecloseofhiswork，invaguehypothesesrespectingtheperfectibilityofourrace，andinirrational
　　expectationsofanindefiniteextensionofthedurationofhumanlife。Malthusseemstohavelittlesenseofthenoblenessof
　　Condorcet’sattitude，andnoappreciationofthegrandeurofhisleadingidea。Butofhischimericalhopesheisabletomake
　　shortwork;hisgoodsense，ifsomewhatlimitedandprosaic，isatleasteffectualindetectingandexposingutopias。
　　Theprojectofaformalanddetailedtreatiseonpopulationwasanafter—thoughtofMalthus。Theessayinwhichhehad
　　studiedahypotheticfutureledhimtoexaminetheeffectsoftheprinciplehehadputforwardonthepastandpresentstateof
　　society;andheundertookanhistoricalexaminationoftheseeffects，andsoughttodrawsuchinferencesinrelationtothe
　　actualstateofthingsasexperienceseemedtowarrant。Theconsequenceofthiswassuchachangeinthenatureand
　　compositionoftheessayasmadeit，inhisownlanguage，"anewwork。"Thebook，soaltered，appearedin1803underthe
　　title，AnEssayonthePrincipleofPopulation，oraViewofitsPastandPresentEffectsonHumanHappiness;withan
　　Enquiryintoourprospectsrespectingthefutureremovalormitigationoftheevilswhichitoccasions。
　　Intheoriginalformoftheessayhehadspokenofnocheckstopopulationbutthosewhichcameundertheheadeitherof
　　viceorofmisery。Henowintroducesthenewelementofthepreventivechecksuppliedbywhathecalls"moralrestraint，"
　　andisthusenabled，ashehimselfsaid，to"softensomeoftheharshestconclusions"atwhichhehadbeforearrived。The
　　treatisepassedthroughfiveeditions（37）inhislifetime，andinallofthemheintroducedvariousadditionsandcorrections。
　　Thatof1817isthelasthefullyrevised，andpresentsthetextsubstantiallyasithassincebeenreprinted。
　　Notwithstandingthegreatdevelopmentwhichhegavetohiswork，andthealmostunprecedentedamountofdiscussionto
　　whichitgaverise，itremainsamatterofsomedifficultytodiscoverwhatsolidcontributionhehasmadetoourknowledge，
　　norisiteasytoascertainpreciselywhatpracticalprecepts，notalreadyfamiliar，hefoundedonhistheoreticprinciples。This
　　twofoldvaguenessiswellbroughtoutinhiscelebratedcorrespondencewithSenior，inthecourseofwhichitseemstobe
　　madeapparentthathisdoctrineisnewnotsomuchinitsessenceasinthephraseologyinwhichitiscouched。Hehimself
　　tellsusthatwhen，afterthepublicationoftheoriginalessay，themainargumentofwhichhehaddeducedfromHume，
　　Wallace，AdamSmith，andPrice，hebegantoinquiremorecloselyintothesubject，hefoundthat"muchmorehadbeen
　　done"uponit"thanhehadbeenawareof。"Ithad"beentreatedinsuchamannerbysomeoftheFrencheconomists，
　　occasionallybyMontesquieu，and，amongourownwriters，byDr。Franklin，SirJamesSteuart，Mr。ArthurYoung，andMr。
　　Townsend，astocreateanaturalsurprisethatithadnotexcitedmoreofthepublicattention。""Much，however，"hethought，
　　"remainedyettobedone。Thecomparisonbetweentheincreaseofpopulationandfoodhadnot，perhaps，beenstatedwith
　　sufficientforceandprecision，"and"fewinquirieshadbeenmadeintothevariousmodesbywhichthelevel"between
　　populationandthemeansofsubsistence"iseffected。"Thefirstdesideratumherementioned——thewant，namely，ofan
　　accuratestatementoftherelationbetweentheincreaseofpopulationandthatoffood——Malthusdoubtlesssupposedto
　　havebeensuppliedbythecelebratedpropositionthat"populationincreasesinageometrical，foodinanarithmetical，ratio。"
　　Thisproposition，however，hasbeenconclusivelyshowntobeerroneous，therebeingnosuchdifferenceoflawbetweenthe
　　increaseofmanandthatoftheorganicbeingswhichformhisfood。J。S。MillisindignantwiththosewhocriticiseMalthus’s
　　formula，whichhegroundlesslydescribesasamere"passingremark，"because，ashethinks，thougherroneous，itsufficiently
　　suggestswhatistrue;butitissurelyimportanttodetectunrealscience，andtoteststrictlythefoundationsofbeliefs。When
　　theformulawhichwehavecitedisnotused，othersomewhatnebulousexpressionsarefrequentlyemployed，as，for
　　example，that"populationhasatendencytoincreasefasterthanfood，"asentenceinwhichbotharetreatedasiftheywere
　　spontaneousgrowths，andwhichonaccountoftheambiguityoftheword"tendency，"isadmittedlyconsistentwiththefact
　　assertedbySenior，thatfoodtendstoincreasefasterthanpopulation。Itmustalwayshavebeenperfectlywellknownthat
　　populationwillprobably（thoughnotnecessarily）increasewitheveryaugmentationofthesupplyofsubsistence，andmay，in
　　someinstances，inconvenientlypressupon，orevenforacertaintimeexceed，thenumberproperlycorrespondingtothat
　　supply。Norcoulditeverhavebeendoubtedthatwar，disease，poverty——thelasttwooftentheconsequencesofvice——are
　　causeswhichkeeppopulationdown。Infact，thewayinwhichabundance，increaseofnumbers，want，increaseofdeaths，
　　succeedeachotherinthenaturaleconomy，whenreasondoesnotintervene，hadbeenfullyexplainedbytheRev。Joseph
　　TownsendinhisDissertationonthePoorLaws（1786），which，wehaveseen，wasknowntoMalthus。Again，itissurely
　　plainenoughthattheapprehensionbyindividualsoftheevilsofpoverty，orasenseofdutytotheirpossibleoffspring，may
　　retardtheincreaseofpopulation，andhasinallcivilizedcommunitiesoperatedtoacertainextentinthatway。Itisonly
　　whensuchobvioustruthsareclothedinthetechnicalterminologyof"positive"and"preventivechecks"thattheyappear
　　novelandprofound;andyettheyappeartocontainthewholemessageofMalthustomankind。Thelaboriousapparatusof
　　historicalandstatisticalfactsrespectingtheseveralcountriesoftheglobe，adducedinthealteredformoftheessay，though
　　itcontainsagooddealthatiscuriousandinteresting，establishesnogeneralresultwhichwasnotpreviouslywellknown，
　　andisaccordinglyignoredbyJamesMillandothers，whorestthetheoryonfactspatenttouniversalobservation。Indeed，as
　　wehaveseen，theentirehistoricalinquirywasanafterthoughtofMalthus，who，beforeenteringonit，hadalready
　　announcedhisfundamentalprinciple。
　　Itwouldseem，then，thatwhathasbeenambitiouslycalledMalthus’stheoryofpopulation，insteadofbeingagreat
　　discovery，assomehaverepresentedit，orapoisonousnovelty，asothershaveconsideredit，isnomorethanaformal
　　enunciationofobvious，thoughsometimesneglected，facts。Thepretentiouslanguageoftenappliedtoitbyeconomistsis
　　objectionable，asbeingapttomakeusforgetthatthewholesubjectwithwhichitdealsisasyetveryimperfectlyunderstood
　　——thecauseswhichmodifytheforceofthesexualinstinct，andthosewhichleadtovariationsinfecundity，stillawaitinga
　　completeinvestigation。（38）
　　Itisthelawofdiminishingreturnsfromland（ofwhichmorewillbesaidhereafter），involvingasitdoes——thoughonly
　　hypothetically——theprospectofacontinuouslyincreasingdifficultyinobtainingthenecessarysustenanceforallthe
　　membersofasociety，thatgivestheprincipalimportancetopopulationasaneconomicfactor。Itis，infact，theconfluenceof
　　theMalthusianideaswiththetheoriesofRicardo，especiallywiththecorollarieswhichthelatter，asweshallsee，deduced
　　fromthedoctrineofrent（thoughthesewerenotacceptedbyMalthus），thathasledtotheintroductionofpopulationasan
　　elementinthediscussionofsomanyeconomicquestionsinrecenttimes。
　　Malthushadundoubtedlythegreatmeritofhavingcalledpublicattentioninastrikingandimpressivewaytoasubjectwhich
　　hadneithertheoreticallynorpracticallybeensufficientlyconsidered。Butheandhisfollowersappeartohavegreatly
　　exaggeratedboththemagnitudeandtheurgencyofthedangerstowhichtheypointed。（39）Intheirconceptionsasinglesocial
　　imperfectionassumedsuchportentousdimensionsthanitseemedtoovercloudthewholeheavenandthreatentheworld
　　withruin。Thisdoubtlessarosefromhishavingatfirstomittedaltogetherfromhisviewofthequestionthegreat
　　counteractingagencyofmoralrestraint。Becauseaforceexists，capable，ifunchecked，ofproducingcertainresults，itdoes
　　notfollowthatthoseresultsareimminentorevenpossibleinthesphereofexperience。Abodythrownfromthehandwould，
　　underthesingleimpulseofprojection，moveforeverinastraightline;butitwouldnotbereasonabletotakespecialaction
　　forthepreventionofthisresult，ignoringthefactthatitwillbesufficientlycounteractedbytheotherforceswhichwillcome
　　intoplay。Andsuchotherforcesexistinthecaseweareconsidering。Iftheinherentenergyoftheprincipleofpopulation
　　（supposedeverywherethesame）ismeasuredbytherateatwhichnumbersincreaseunderthemostfavourable
　　circumstances，surelytheforceoflessfavourablecircumstances，actingthroughprudentialoraltruisticmotives，ismeasured
　　bythegreatdifferencebetweenthismaximumrateandthosewhichareobservedtoprevailinmostEuropeancountries。
　　Underarationalsystemofinstitutions，theadaptationofnumberstothemeansavailablefortheirsupportiseffectedbythe
　　feltoranticipatedpressureofcircumstancesandthefearofsocialdegradation，withinatolerabledegreeofapproximationto
　　whatisdesirable。Tobringtheresultnearertothejuststandard，ahighermeasureofpopularenlightenmentandmore
　　serioushabitsofmoralreflectionoughtindeedtobeencouraged。Butitisthedutyoftheindividualtohisactualorpossible
　　offspring，andnotanyvaguenotionsastothepressureofthenationalpopulationonsubsistence，thatwillbeadequateto
　　influenceconduct。
　　TheonlyobligationonwhichMalthusinsistsisthatofabstinencefrommarriagesolongasthenecessaryprovisionfora
　　familyhasnotbeenacquiredorcannotbereasonablyanticipated。Theideaofpost—nuptialcontinence，whichhassincebeen
　　putforwardbyJ。S。Millandothers，isforeigntohisview。Heevensuggeststhatanallowancemightbemadefromthe
　　pubicfundsforeverychildinafamilybeyondthenumberofsix，onthegroundthat，whenamanmarries，hecannottellhow
　　manychildrenheshallhave，andthatthereieffromanunlooked—fordistressaffordedbysuchagrantwouldnotoperateas
　　anencouragementtomarriage。Thedutyofeconomicprudenceinenteringonthemarriedstateisplain;butinthecaseof
　　workingmentheideaofasecuredprovisionmustnotbeundulypressed，anditmustalsoberememberedthattheproper
　　ageformarriageinanyclassdependsonthedurationoflifeinthatclass。Still，tooearlymarriagesarecertainlynot
　　unfrequent，andtheyareattendedwithotherthaneconomicevils，sothatpossiblyevenlegalmeasuresmightwithadvantage
　　beresortedtoforpreventingtheminallranksbysomewhatpostponingtheageoffullcivilcompetence——achange，
　　however，whichwouldnotbewithoutitsdangers。Ontheotherhand，theMalthusiansoftenspeaktoolightlyofinvoluntary
　　celibacy，notrecognisingsufficientlythatitisadeplorablenecessity。Theydonotadequatelyestimatethevalueofdomestic
　　lifeasaschoolofthecivicvirtues，andthesocialimportance（evenapartfrompersonalhappiness）ofthemutualaffective
　　educationarisingfromtherelationsofthesexesinawell—constitutedunion。
　　Malthusfurtherinfersfromhisprinciplesthatstatesshouldnotartificiallystimulatepopulation，andinparticularthat
　　poor—lawsshouldnotbeestablished，and，wheretheyexist，shouldbeabolished。Thefirstpartofthispropositioncannotbe
　　acceptedasapplyingtoeverysocialphase，foritisevidentthatinacaselikethatofancientRome，wherecontinuous
　　conquestwasthechiefoccupationofthenationalactivity，orinotherperiodswhenprotractedwarsthreatenedthe
　　independenceorsecurityofnations，statesmenmightwiselytakespecialactionofthekinddeprecatedbyMalthus。In
　　relationtomodernindustrialcommunitiesheisdoubtlessingeneralright，thoughthepromotionofimmigrationinnew
　　statesissimilarinprincipletotheencouragementofpopulationThequestionofpoor—lawsinvolvesotherconsiderations。
　　TheEnglishsystemofhisdaywas，indeed，aviciousone，thoughactinginsomedegreeasacorrectiveofotherevilsinour
　　socialinstitutions;andeffortsforitsamendmenttendedtothepublicgood。Buttheproposalofabolitionisonefromwhich
　　statesmenhaverecoiled，andwhichgeneralopinionhasneveradopted。Itisdifficulttobelievethatthepresentsystemwill
　　bepermanent;itistoomechanicalandundiscriminating;onsomesidestoolax，itisoftenundulyrigorousinthetreatmentof
　　theworthypoorwhoarethevictimsofmisfortune;and，initsordinarymodesofdealingwiththeyoung，itisopentograve
　　objection。Butitwouldcertainlyberashtoabolishit;itisoneofseveralinstitutionswhichwillmorewiselyberetaineduntil
　　thewholesubjectofthelifeoftheworkingclasseshasbeenmorethoroughly，andalsomoresympathetically，studied。The
　　positionofMalthuswithrespecttothereliefofdestitutionissubjecttothisgeneralcriticism，that，firstprovingtoomuch，
　　hethenshrinksfromtheconsequencesofhisownlogic。itfollowsfromhisarguments，andisindeedexplicitlystatedina
　　celebratedpassageofhisoriginalessay，thathewhohasbroughtchildrenintotheworldwithoutadequateprovisionfor
　　themshouldbelefttothepunishmentofNature，that"itisamiserableambitiontowishtosnatchtherodfromherhand，"
　　andtodefeattheactionofherlaws，whicharethelawsofGod，andwhich"havedoomedhimandhisfamilytosuffer。"
　　Thoughhistheoryleadshimtothisconclusion，hecouldnot，asaChristianclergyman，maintainthedoctrinethat，seeingour
　　brotherinneed，weoughttoshutupourbowelsofcompassionfromhim;andthusheisinvolvedintheradical
　　inconsequenceofadmittingthelawfulness，ifnottheduty，ofrelievingdistressincaseswhereheyetmustregardtheactas
　　doingmischieftosociety。Buckle，whowasimposedonbymorethanoneoftheexaggerationsoftheeconomists，accepts
　　thelogicalinferencewhichMalthusevaded。Heallegesthattheonlygroundonwhichwearejustifiedinrelievingdestitution
　　istheessentiallyself—regardingone，thatbyremainingdeaftotheappealofthesuffererweshouldprobablyblunttheedgeof
　　ourownfinersensibilities。
　　ItcanscarcelybedoubtedthatthefavourwhichwasatonceaccordedtotheviewsofMalthusincertaincircleswasduein
　　parttoanimpression，verywelcometothehigherranksofsociety，thattheytendedtorelievetherichandpowerfulof
　　responsibilityfortheconditionoftheworkingclasses，byshowingthatthelatterhadchieflythemselvestoblame，andnot
　　eitherthenegligenceoftheirsuperiorsortheinstitutionsofthecountry。Theapplicationofhisdoctrines，too，madebysome
　　ofhissuccessorshadtheeffectofdiscouragingallactiveeffortforsocialimprovement。ThusChalmers"reviewsseriatim，
　　andgravelysetsasidealltheschemesusuallyproposedfortheameliorationoftheeconomicconditionofthepeople"onthe
　　groundthatanincreaseofcomfortwillleadtoanincreaseofnumbers，andsothelaststateofthingswillbeworsethanthe
　　first。
　　Malthushasinmorerecenttimesderivedacertaindegreeofreflectedlustrefromtheriseandwideacceptanceofthe
　　Darwinianhypothesis。Itsauthorhimself，intracingitsfiliation，pointstothephrase"struggleiorexistence"usedbyMalthus
　　inrelationtothesocialcompetition。Darwinbelievesthatmanhasadvancedtohispresentrelativelyhighconditionthrough
　　suchastruggle，consequentonhisrapidmultiplication。Heregards，itistrue，theagencyofthiscausefortheimprovement
　　ofourraceaslargelysupersededbymoralinfluencesinthemoreadvancedsocialstages。Yetheconsidersit，eveninthese
　　stages，ofsomuchimportancetowardsthatend，thatnotwithstandingtheindividualsufferingarisingfromthestrugglefor
　　life，hedeprecatesanygreatreductioninthenatural，bywhichheseemstomeantheordinary，rateofincrease。
　　Therehasbeenoflateexhibitedinsomequartersatendencytoapplythedoctrineofthe"survivalofthefittest"tohuman
　　societyinsuchawayastointensifytheharsherfeaturesofMalthus’sexpositionbyencouragingtheideathatwhatever
　　cannotsustainitselfisfated，andmustbeallowed，todisappear。Butwhatisrepellentinthisconceptionisremovedbya
　　wideviewoftheinfluenceofhumanity，asadisposingpower，alikeonvitalandonsocialconditions。Asinthegeneral
　　animaldomainthesupremacyofmanintroducesanewforceconsciouslycontrollingandultimatelydeterminingthedestinies
　　ofthesubordinatespecies，sohumanprovidenceinthesocialspherecanintervenefortheprotectionoftheweak，modifying
　　byitsdeliberateactionwhatwouldotherwisebeamerecontestofcomparativestrengthsinspiredbyselfishinstincts。（40）
　　DavidRicardo（1772—1823）isessentiallyoftheschoolofSmith，whosedoctrinesheinthemainaccepts，whilstheseeksto
　　developthem，andtocorrectthemincertainparticulars。ButhismodeoftreatmentisverydifferentfromSmith’s。Thelatter
　　aimsatkeepingclosetotherealitiesoflifeashefindsthem，——atrepresentingtheconditionsandrelationsofmenandthings
　　astheyare;and，asHumeremarkedonfirstreadinghisgreatwork，hisprinciplesareeverywhereexemplifiedandillustrated
　　withcuriousfacts。QuiteunlikethisisthewayinwhichRicardoproceeds。Hemovesinaworldofabstractions。Hesetsout
　　frommoreorlessarbitraryassumptions，reasonsdeductivelyfromthese，andannounceshisconclusionsastrue，without
　　allowingforthepartialunrealityoftheconditionsassumedorconfrontinghisresultswithexperience。Whenheseeksto
　　illustratehisdoctrines，itisfromhypotheticalcases，——hisfavouritedevicebeingthatofimaginingtwocontractingsavages，
　　andconsideringhowtheywouldbelikelytoact。Hedoesnotexplain——probablyhehadnotsystematicallyexamined，
　　perhapswasnotcompetenttoexamine——theappropriatemethodofpoliticaleconomy;andthetheoreticdefenceofhis
　　modeofproceedingwaslefttobeelaboratedbyJ。S。MillandCairnes。Buthisexamplehadagreateffectindeterminingthe
　　practiceofhissuccessors。Therewassomethinghighlyattractivetotheambitioustheoristinthesweepingmarchoflogic
　　whichseemedinRicardo’shandstoemulatethecertaintyandcomprehensivenessofmathematicalproof，andintheportable
　　andpregnantformulaewhichweresoconvenientinargument，andgaveaprompt，ifoftenamoreapparentthanreal，
　　solutionofdifficultproblems。WhatevertherewasoffalseornarrowinthefundamentalpositionsofSmithhadbeenina
　　greatdegreecorrectedbyhispracticalsenseandstronginstinctforreality，butwasbroughtoutinitsfulldimensionsand
　　evenexaggeratedintheabstracttheoremsofRicardoandhisfollowers。
　　Thedangersinherentinhismethodwereaggravatedbytheextremeloosenessofhisphraseology。Seniorpronounceshim
　　"themostincorrectwriterwhoeverattainedphilosophicaleminence。"Hismostardentadmirersfindhimfluctuatingand
　　uncertainintheuseofwords，andgenerallytracehiserrorstoaconfusionbetweentheordinaryemploymentofatermand
　　somespecialapplicationofitwhichhehashimselfdevised。
　　ThemostcompleteexpositionofhissystemistobefoundinhisPrinciplesofPoliticalEconomyandTaxation（1817）。This
　　workisnotacompletetreatiseonthescience，butaratherlooselyconnectedseriesofdisquisitionsonvalueandprice，rent，
　　wages，andprofits，taxes，trade，moneyandbanking。Yet，thoughtheconnectionofthepartsisloose，thesamefundamental
　　ideasrecurcontinually，anddeterminethecharacteroftheentirescheme。
　　Theprincipalproblemtowhichheaddresseshimselfinthisworkisthatofdistribution，——thatistosay，theproportionsof
　　thewholeproduceofthecountrywhichwillbeallottedtotheproprietorofland，tothecapitalist，andtothelabourer。（41）Anditisimportanttoobservethatitisespeciallythevariationsintheirrespectiveportionswhichtakeplaceintheprogress
　　ofsocietythatheprofessestostudy，——oneofthemostunhistoricalofwritersthusindicatingasenseofthenecessityofa
　　doctrineofeconomicdynamics——adoctrinewhich，fromhispointofview，itwasimpossibletosupply。
　　Theprinciplewhichheputsfirstinorder，andwhichisindeedthekeytothewhole，isthis——thattheexchangevalueofany
　　commoditythesupplyofwhichcanbeincreasedatwillisregulated，underarégimeoffreecompetition，bythelabour
　　necessaryforitsproduction。SimilarpropositionsaretobefoundintheWealthofNations，nottospeakofearlierEnglish
　　writings。Smithhadsaidthat，"intheearlyandrudestateofsocietywhichprecedesboththeaccumulationofstockandthe
　　appropriationofland，theproportionbetweenthequantitiesoflabournecessaryforacquiringdifferentobjectsseemstobe
　　theonlycircumstancewhichcanaffordanyruleiorexchangingthemwithoneanother。"Buthewaversinhisconception，
　　andpresentsasthemeasureofvaluesometimesthequantityoflabournecessaryfortheproductionoftheobject，sometimes
　　thequantityoflabourwhichtheobjectwouldcommandinthemarket，whichwouldbeidenticalonlyforagiventimeand
　　place。Thetheoremrequirescorrectionforadevelopedsocialsystembytheintroductionoftheconsiderationofcapital，and
　　takestheforminwhichitiselsewherequotedfromMalthusbyRicardo，thattherealpriceofacommodity"dependsonthe
　　greaterorlessquantityofcapitalandlabourwhichmustbeemployedtoproduceit。"（Theexpression"quantityofcapital"is
　　lax，theelementoitimebeingomitted，butthemeaningisobvious。）Ricardo，however，constantlytakesnonoticeofcapital，
　　mentioninglabouraloneinhisstatementofthisprinciple，andseekstojustifyhispracticebytreatingcapitalas"accumulated
　　labour;"butthisartificialwayofviewingthefactsobscuresthenatureoftheco—operationofcapitalinproduction，andby
　　keepingthenecessityofthisco—operationoutofsighthasencouragedsomesocialisticerrors。Ricardodoesnotsufficiently
　　distinguishbetweenthecauseordeterminantandthemeasureofvalue;nordoeshecarrybacktheprincipleofcostof
　　productionasregulatorofvaluetoitsfoundationintheeffectofthatcostonthelimitationofsupply。Itisthe"naturalprice"
　　ofacommoditythatisfixedbythetheoremwehavestated;themarketpricewillbesubjecttoaccidentalandtemporary
　　variationsfromthisstandard，dependingonchangesindemandandsupply;butthepricewillpermanentlyandinthelong
　　run，dependoncostofproductiondefinedasabove。OnthisbasisRicardogoesontoexplainthelawsaccordingtowhich
　　theproduceofthelandandthelabourofthecountryisdistributedamongsttheseveralclasseswhichtakepartin
　　production。
　　Thetheoryofrent，withwhichhebegins，thoughcommonlyassociatedwithhisname，andthoughitcertainlyformsthemost
　　vitalpartofhisgeneraleconomicscheme，wasnotreallyhis，nordidhelayclaimtoit。Hedistinctlystatesintheprefaceto
　　thePrinciples，that"in1815Mr。Malthus，inhisInquiryintotheNatureandProgressofRent，andafellowofUniversity
　　College，Oxford，inhisEssayontheApplicationofCapitaltoLand，presentedtotheworld，nearlyatthesamemoment，the
　　truedoctrineofrent。"ThesecondwriterherereferredtowasSirEdwardWest，afterwardsajudgeofthesupremecourtof
　　Bombay。StillearlierthanthetimeofMalthusandWest，asM’Cullochhaspointedout，thisdoctrinehadbeenclearly
　　conceivedandfullystatedbyDr。JamesAndersoninhisEnquiryintotheNatureofCorn—Laws，publishedatEdinburghin
　　1777。（42）ThatthistractwasunknowntoMalthusandWestwehaveeveryreasontobelieve;butthetheoryiscertainlyas
　　distinctlyenunciatedandassatisfactorilysupportedinitasintheirtreatises;andthewholewayinwhichitisputforwardby
　　AndersonstrikinglyresemblestheforminwhichitispresentedbyRicardo。