onthecontrary，heisaleaderofindustrybecauseheisacapitalist。
Theleadershipofindustryisanattributeofcapital，justasinfeudaltimesthefunctionsofgeneralandjudge，wereattributesoflandedproperty。[18]
Thelaboureristheownerofhislabour—poweruntilhehasdonebargainingforitssalewiththecapitalist;andhecansellnomorethanwhathehasi。e。，hisindividual，isolatedlabour—power。Thisstateofthingsisinnowayalteredbythefactthatthecapitalist，insteadofbuyingthelabour—powerofoneman，buysthatof100，andentersintoseparatecontractswith100unconnectedmeninsteadofwithone。Heisatlibertytosetthe100mentowork，withoutlettingthemco—operate。Hepaysthemthevalueof100independentlabour—powers，buthedoesnotpayforthecombinedlabour—powerofthehundred。Beingindependentofeachother，thelabourersareisolatedpersons，whoenterintorelationswiththecapitalist，butnotwithoneanother。Thisco—operationbeginsonlywiththelabour—process，buttheyhavethenceasedtobelongtothemselves。Onenteringthatprocess，theybecomeincorporatedwithcapital。Asco—operators，asmembersofaworkingorganism，theyarebutspecialmodesofexistenceofcapital。Hence，theproductivepowerdevelopedbythelabourerwhenworkinginco—operation，istheproductivepowerofcapital。Thispowerisdevelopedgratuitously，whenevertheworkmenareplacedundergivenconditions，anditiscapitalthatplacesthemundersuchconditions。Becausethispowercostscapitalnothing，andbecause，ontheotherhand，thelabourerhimselfdoesnotdevelopitbeforehislabourbelongstocapital，itappearsasapowerwithwhichcapitalisendowedbyNatureaproductivepowerthatisimmanentincapital。
Thecolossaleffectsofsimpleco—operationaretobeseeninthegiganticstructuresoftheancientAsiatics，Egyptians，Etruscans，&c。"IthashappenedintimespastthattheseOrientalStates，aftersupplyingtheexpensesoftheircivilandmilitaryestablishments，havefoundthemselvesinpossessionofasurpluswhichtheycouldapplytoworksofmagnificenceorutilityandintheconstructionofthesetheircommandoverthehandsandarmsofalmosttheentirenon—agriculturalpopulationhasproducedstupendousmonumentswhichstillindicatetheirpower。TheteemingvalleyoftheNile……producedfoodforaswarmingnon—agriculturalpopulation，andthisfood，belongingtothemonarchandthepriesthood，affordedthemeansoferectingthemightymonumentswhichfilledtheland……Inmovingthecolossalstatuesandvastmassesofwhichthetransportcreateswonder，humanlabouralmostalone，wasprodigallyused……Thenumberofthelabourersandtheconcentrationoftheireffortssufficed。
Weseemightycoralreefsrisingfromthedepthsoftheoceanintoislandsandfirmland，yeteachindividualdepositorispuny，weak，andcontemptible。Thenon—agriculturallabourersofanAsiaticmonarchyhavelittlebuttheirindividualbodilyexertionstobringtothetask，buttheirnumberistheirstrength，andthepowerofdirectingthesemassesgaverisetothepalacesandtemples，thepyramids，andthearmiesofgiganticstatuesofwhichtheremainsastonishandperplexus。Itisthatconfinementoftherevenueswhichfeedthem，tooneorafewhands，whichmakessuchundertakingspossible。"[19]ThispowerofAsiaticandEgyptiankings，Etruscantheocrats，&c。，hasinmodernsocietybeentransferredtothecapitalist，whetherhebeanisolated，orasinjoint—stockcompanies，acollectivecapitalist。
Co—operation，suchaswefinditatthedawnofhumandevelopment，amongraceswholivebythechase，[20]or，say，intheagricultureofIndiancommunities，isbased，ontheonehand，onownershipincommonofthemeansofproduction，andontheotherhand，onthefact，thatinthosecases，eachindividualhasnomoretornhimselfofffromthenavel—stringofhistribeorcommunity，thaneachbeehasfreeditselffromconnexionwiththehive。Suchco—operationisdistinguishedfromcapitalisticco—operationbybothoftheabovecharacteristics。
Thesporadicapplicationofco—operationonalargescaleinancienttimes，inthemiddleages，andinmoderncolonies，reposesonrelationsofdominionandservitude，principallyonslavery。Thecapitalisticform，onthecontrary，pre—supposesfromfirsttolast，thefreewage—labourer，whosellshislabour—powertocapital。Historically，however，thisformisdevelopedinoppositiontopeasantagricultureandtothecarryingonofindependenthandicraftswhetheringuildsornot。[21]Fromthestandpointofthese，capitalisticco—operationdoesnotmanifestitselfasaparticularhistoricalformofco—operation，butco—operationitselfappearstobeahistoricalformpeculiarto，andspecificallydistinguishing，thecapitalistprocessofproduction。
Justasthesocialproductivepoweroflabourthatisdevelopedbyco—operation，appearstobetheproductivepowerofcapital，soco—operationitself，contrastedwiththeprocessofproductioncarriedonbyisolatedindependentlabourers，orevenbysmallemployers，appearstobeaspecificformofthecapitalistprocessofproduction。Itisthefirstchangeexperiencedbytheactuallabour—process，whensubjectedtocapital。Thischangetakesplacespontaneously。Thesimultaneousemploymentofalargenumberofwage—labourers，inoneandthesameprocess，whichisanecessaryconditionofthischange，alsoformsthestarting—pointofcapitalistproduction。Thispointcoincideswiththebirthofcapitalitself。Ifthen，ontheonehand，thecapitalistmodeofproductionpresentsitselftoushistorically，asanecessaryconditiontothetransformationofthelabour—processintoasocialprocess，so，ontheotherhand，thissocialformofthelabour—processpresentsitself，asamethodemployedbycapitalforthemoreprofitableexploitationoflabour，byincreasingthatlabour’sproductiveness。
Intheelementaryform，underwhichwehavehithertoviewedit，co—operationisanecessaryconcomitantofallproductiononalargescale，butitdoesnot，initself，representafixedformcharacteristicofaparticularepochinthedevelopmentofthecapitalistmodeofproduction。Atthemostitappearstodoso，andthatonlyapproximately，inthehandicraft—likebeginningsofmanufacture，[22]andinthatkindofagricultureonalargescale，whichcorrespondstotheepochofmanufacture，andisdistinguishedfrompeasantagriculture，mainlybythenumberofthelabourerssimultaneouslyemployed，andbythemassofthemeansofproductionconcentratedfortheiruse。Simpleco—operationisalwaystheprevailingform，inthosebranchesofproductioninwhichcapitaloperatesonalargescale，anddivisionoflabourandmachineryplaybutasubordinatepart。
Co—operationeverconstitutesthefundamentalformofthecapitalistmodeofproduction，neverthelesstheelementaryformofco—operationcontinuestosubsistasaparticularformofcapitalistproductionsidebysidewiththemoredevelopedformsofthatmodeofproduction。
Footnotes[1]"Unquestionably，thereisagooddealofdifferencebetweenthevalueofoneman’slabourandthatofanotherfromstrength，dexterity，andhonestapplication。ButIamquitesure，frommybestobservation，thatanygivenfivemenwill，intheirtotal，affordaproportionoflabourequaltoanyotherfivewithintheperiodsoflifeIhavestated;thatis，thatamongsuchfivementherewillbeonepossessingallthequalificationsofagoodworkman，onebad，andtheotherthreemiddling，andapproximatingtothefirst，andthelast。Sothatinsosmallaplatoonasthatofevenfive，youwillfindthefullcomplementofallthatfivemencanearn。"
（E。Burke，1。c。，pp。15，16。）CompareQuételetontheaverageindividual。
[2]ProfessorRoscherclaimstohavediscoveredthatoneneedlewomanemployedbyMrs。Roscherduringtwodays，doesmoreworkthantwoneedlewomenemployedtogetherduringoneday。Thelearnedprofessorshouldnotstudythecapitalistprocessofproductioninthenursery，norundercircumstanceswheretheprincipalpersonage，thecapitalist，iswanting。
[3]"Concoursdeforces。"（DestuttdeTracy，l。c。，p。80。）
[4]Therearenumerousoperationsofsosimpleakindasnottoadmitadivisionintoparts，whichcannotbeperformedwithouttheco—operationofmanypairsofhands。Iwouldinstancetheliftingofalargetreeontoawain……，everything，inshort，whichcannotbedoneunlessagreatmanypairsofhandshelpeachotherinthesameundividedemploymentandatthesametime。"（E。G。Wakefield:"AViewoftheArtofColonisation。"London，1849，p。168。）
[5]"Asonemancannot，andtenmenmuststraintoliftatonofweight，yet100mencandoitonlybythestrengthofafingerofeachofthem。"（JohnBetters:"ProposalsforRaisingaColledgeofIndustry。"London，1696，p。21。）
[6]"Thereisalso"（whenthesamenumberofmenareemployedbyonefarmeron300acres，insteadofbytenfarmerswith30acresapiece）"anadvantageintheproportionofservants，whichwillnotsoeasilybeunderstoodbutbypracticalmen;foritisnaturaltosay，as1isto4，soare3to12;
butthiswillnotholdgoodinpractice;forinharvesttimeandmanyotheroperationswhichrequirethatkindofdespatchbythethrowingmanyhandstogether，theworkisbetterandmoreexpeditiouslydone:fi。inharvest，2drivers，2loaders，2pitchers，2rakers，andtherestattherick，orinthebarn，willdespatchdoubletheworkthatthesamenumberofhandswoulddoifdividedintodifferentgangsondifferentfarms。"（"AnInquiryintotheConnexionbetweenthePresentPriceofProvisionsandtheSizeofFarms。"ByaFarmer。London，1773，pp。7，8。）
[7]Strictly，Aristotle’sdefinitionisthatmanisbynatureatown—citizen。
ThisisquiteascharacteristicofancientclassicalsocietyasFranklin’sdefinitionofman，asatool—makinganimal，ischaracteristicofYankeedom。
[8]"Ondoitencoreremarquerquecettedivisionpartielledetravailpeutsefairequandmêmelesouvrierssontoccupesd’unemêmebesogne。
Desmaçonsparexemple，occupésàfairepasserdemainsenmainsdesbriquesàunéchafaudagesupérieur，fonttouslamêmebesogne，etpourtantilexisteparmieuxuneespècededivisiondetravail，quiconsisteencequechacund’euxfaitpasserlabriqueparunespacedonné，etquetousensemblelafontparvenirbeaucouppluspromptementàl’endroitmarquequ’ilsneleferaientsichacund’euxportaitsabriqueséparémentjusqu’à
l’échafaudagesupérieur。"（F。Skarbek:"Théoriedesrichessessociales。"Paris，1839，t。I，pp。97，98。）
[9]"Est—ilquestiond’exécuteruntravailcompliqué，plusieurschosesdoiventêtrefaitessimultanément。L’unenfaitunependantquel’autreenfaituneautre，ettouscontribuentàl’effetqu’unsenthommen’auraitpuproduire。L’unramependantqueI’autretientlegouvernail，etqu’untroisièmejettelefiletonharponnelepoisson，etlapêcheaunsuccèsimpossiblesansceconcours。"
（DestuttdeTracy，l。c。）
[10]"Thedoingofit（agriculturalwork）atthecriticaljunctureisofsomuchthegreaterconsequence。"（"AnInquiryintotheConnexionbetweenthePresentPrice，"&c。，p。9。）"Inagriculture，thereisnomoreimportantfactorthanthatoftime。"（Liebig:"UeberTheorieundPraxisinderLandwirtschaft。"
1856，p。23。）
[11]"Thenextevilisonewhichonewouldscarcelyexpecttofindinacountrywhichexportsmorelabourthananyotherintheworld，withtheexception，perhaps，ofChinaandEnglandtheimpossibilityofprocuringasufficientnumberofhandstocleanthecotton。Theconsequenceofthisisthatlargequantitiesofthecropareleftunpicked，whileanotherportionisgatheredfromthegroundwhenithasfallen，andisofcoursediscolouredandpartiallyrotted，sothatforwantoflabourattheproperseasonthecultivatorisactuallyforcedtosubmittothelossofalargepartofthatcropforwhichEnglandissoanxiouslylooking。"（"BengalHurkaru。"Bi—MonthlyOverlandSummaryofNews，22ndJuly，1861。）
[12]Intheprogressofculture"all，andperhapsmorethanall，thecapitalandlabourwhichoncelooselyoccupied500acres，arenowconcentratedforthemorecompletetillageof100。"Although"relativelytotheamountofcapitalandlabouremployed，spaceisconcentrated，itisanenlargedsphereofproduction，ascomparedtothesphereofproductionformerlyoccupiedorworkeduponbyonesingleindependentagentofproduction。"
（R。Jones:"AnEssayontheDistributionofWealth，"partI。OnRent。London，1831。p。191。）
[13]"Laforzadiciascunouomoèminima，malariunionedelleminimeforzeformaunaforzatotalemaggioreanchedellasommadelleforzemedesimefinoacheleforzeperessereriunitepossonodiminuereiltempoedaccrescerelospaziodellaloroazione。"（G。R。Carli，NotetoP。Verri，l。c。，t。
xv。，p。196。）
[14]"Profits……isthesoleendoftrade。"（J。Vanderlint，l。c。，p。11。）
[15]ThatPhilistinepaper，theSpectator，statesthataftertheintroductionofasortofpartnershipbetweencapitalistandworkmeninthe"WireworkCompanyofManchester，""thefirstresultwasasuddendecreaseinwaste，themennotseeingwhytheyshouldwastetheirownpropertyanymorethananyothermaster’s，andwasteis，perhaps，nexttobaddebts，thegreatestsourceofmanufacturingloss。"ThesamepaperfindsthatthemaindefectintheRochdaleco—operativeexperimentsisthis:"Theyshowedthatassociationsofworkmencouldmanageshops，mills，andalmostallformsofindustrywithsuccess，andtheyimmediatelyimprovedtheconditionofthemen;butthentheydidnotleaveaclearplaceformasters。"Quellehorreur！
[16]ProfessorCairnes，afterstatingthatthesuperintendenceoflabourisaleadingfeatureofproductionbyslavesintheSouthernStatesofNorthAmerica，continues:"Thepeasantproprietor（oftheNorth），appropriatingthewholeproduceofhistoil，needsnootherstimulustoexertion。Superintendenceisherecompletelydispensedwith。"（Cairnes，l。c。，pp。48，49。）
[17]SirJamesSteuart，awriteraltogetherremarkableforhisquickeyeforthecharacteristicsocialdistinctionsbetweendifferentmodesofproduction，says:"Whydolargeundertakingsinthemanufacturingwayruinprivateindustry，butbycomingnearertothesimplicityofslaves？"（"Prin。ofPol。Econ。，"London，1767，v。I。，pp。167，168。）
[18]AugusteComteandhisschoolmightthereforehaveshownthatfeudallordsareaneternalnecessityinthesamewaythattheyhavedoneinthecaseofthelordsofcapital。
[19]R。Jones。"TextbookofLectures，"&c。，pp。77，78。TheancientAssyrian，Egyptian，andothercollectionsinLondon，andinotherEuropeancapitals，makeuseye—witnessesofthemodesofcarryingonthatco—operativelabour。
[20]Linguetisimprobablyright，wheninhis"ThéoriedesLoisCiviles，"
hedeclareshuntingtobethefirstformofco—operation，andman—hunting（war）oneoftheearliestformsofhunting。
[21]Peasantagricultureonasmallscale，andthecarryingonofindependenthandicrafts，whichtogetherformthebasisofthefeudalmodeofproduction，andafterthedissolutionofthatsystem，continuesidebysidewiththecapitalistmode，alsoformtheeconomicfoundationoftheclassicalcommunitiesattheirbest，aftertheprimitiveformofownershipoflandincommonhaddisappeared，andbeforeslaveryhadseizedonproductioninearnest。
[22]"Whethertheunitedskill，industry，andemulationofmanytogetheronthesameworkbenotthewaytoadvanceit？AndwhetherithadbeenotherwisepossibleforEngland，tohavecarriedonherWoollenManufacturetosogreataperfection？"（Berkeley。"TheQuerist。"London，1751，p。56，par。
521。）
ChapterFourteenKarlMarxCapitalVolumeOnePartIV:
DivisionofLabourandManufactureCHAPTERFOURTEEN:
DIVISIONOFLABOURANDMANUFACTURE
ContentsSection1—Two—foldOriginofManufactureSection2—TheDetailLabourerandhisImplementsSection3—TheTwoFundamentalFormsofManufacture:
HeterogeneousManufacture，SerialManufactureSection4—DivisionofLabourinManufacture，andDivisionofLabourinSocietySection5—TheCapitalisticCharacterofManufactureSECTION1TWO—FOLDORIGINOFMANUFACTURE
Thatco—operationwhichisbasedondivisionoflabour，assumesitstypicalforminmanufacture，andistheprevalentcharacteristicformofthecapitalistprocessofproductionthroughoutthemanufacturingperiodproperlysocalled。Thatperiod，roughlyspeaking，extendsfromthemiddleofthe16thtothelastthirdofthe18thcentury。
Manufacturetakesitsriseintwoways:
（1。）Bytheassemblage，inoneworkshopunderthecontrolofasinglecapitalist，oflabourersbelongingtovariousindependenthandicrafts，butthroughwhosehandsagivenarticlemustpassonitswaytocompletion。
Acarriage，forexample，wasformerlytheproductofthelabourofagreatnumberofindependentartificers，suchaswheelwrigths，harness—makers，tailors，locksmiths，upholsterers，turners，fringe—makers，glaziers，painters，polishers，gilders，&c。Inthemanufactureofcarriages，however，allthesedifferentartificersareassembledinonebuildingwheretheyworkintooneanother’shands。Itistruethatacarriagecannotbegiltbeforeithasbeenmade。Butifanumberofcarriagesarebeingmadesimultaneously，somemaybeinthehandsofthegilderswhileothersaregoingthroughanearlierprocess。Sofar，wearestillinthedomainofsimpleco—operation，whichfindsitsmaterialsreadytohandintheshapeofmenandthings。Butverysoonanimportantchangetakesplace。Thetailor，thelocksmith，andtheotherartificers，beingnowexclusivelyoccupiedincarriage—making，eachgraduallyloses，throughwantofpractice，theabilitytocarryon，toitsfullextent，hisoldhandicraft。But，ontheotherhand，hisactivitynowconfinedinonegroove，assumestheformbestadaptedtothenarrowedsphereofaction。Atfirst，carriagemanufactureisacombinationofvariousindependenthandicrafts。Bydegrees，itbecomesthesplittingupofcarriage—makingintoitsvariousdetailprocesses，eachofwhichcrystallisesintotheexclusivefunctionofaparticularworkman，themanufacture，asawhole，beingcarriedonbythemeninconjunction。Inthesameway，clothmanufacture，asalsoawholeseriesofothermanufactures，arosebycombiningdifferenthandicraftstogetherunderthecontrolofasinglecapitalist。[1]
（2。）Manufacturealsoarisesinawayexactlythereverseofthisnamely，byonecapitalistemployingsimultaneouslyinoneworkshopanumberofartificers，whoalldothesame，orthesamekindofwork，suchasmakingpaper，type，orneedles。Thisisco—operationinitsmostelementaryform。
Eachoftheseartificers（withthehelp，perhaps，ofoneortwoapprentices），makestheentirecommodity，andheconsequentlyperformsinsuccessionalltheoperationsnecessaryforitsproduction。Hestillworksinhisoldhandicraft—likeway。Butverysoonexternalcircumstancescauseadifferentusetobemadeoftheconcentrationoftheworkmenononespot，andofthesimultaneousnessoftheirwork。Anincreasedquantityofthearticlehasperhapstobedeliveredwithinagiventime。Theworkisthereforere—distributed。Insteadofeachmanbeingallowedtoperformallthevariousoperationsinsuccession，theseoperationsarechangedintodisconnected，isolatedones，carriedonsidebyside;eachisassignedtoadifferentartificer，andthewholeofthemtogetherareperformedsimultaneouslybytheco—operatingworkmen。Thisaccidentalrepartitiongetsrepeated，developsadvantagesofitsown，andgraduallyossifiesintoasystematicdivisionoflabour。Thecommodity，frombeingtheindividualproductofanindependentartificer，becomesthesocialproductofaunionofartificers，eachofwhomperformsone，andonlyone，oftheconstituentpartialoperations。
Thesameoperationswhich，inthecaseofapapermakerbelongingtoaGermanGuild，mergedoneintotheotherasthesuccessiveactsofoneartificer，becameintheDutchpapermanufacturesomanypartialoperationscarriedonsidebysidebynumerousco—operatinglabourers。TheneedlemakeroftheNurembergGuildwasthecornerstoneonwhichtheEnglishneedlemanufacturewasraised。ButwhileinNurembergthatsingleartificerperformedaseriesofperhaps20operationsoneafteranother，inEnglanditwasnotlongbeforetherewere20needlemakerssidebyside，eachperformingonealoneofthose20operations，andinconsequenceoffurtherexperience，eachofthose20operationswasagainsplitup，isolated，andmadetheexclusivefunctionofaseparateworkman。
Themodeinwhichmanufacturearises，itsgrowthoutofhandicrafts，isthereforetwo—fold。Ontheonehand，itarisesfromtheunionofvariousindependenthandicrafts，whichbecomestrippedoftheirindependenceandspecialisedtosuchanextentastobereducedtomeresupplementarypartialprocessesintheproductionofoneparticularcommodity。Ontheotherhand，itarisesfromtheco—operationofartificersofonehandicraft;itsplitsupthatparticularhandicraftintoitsvariousdetailoperations，isolating，andmakingtheseoperationsindependentofoneanotheruptothepointwhereeachbecomestheexclusivefunctionofaparticularlabourer。Ontheonehand，therefore，manufactureeitherintroducesdiversionoflabourintoaprocessofproduction，orfurtherdevelopsthatdivision;ontheotherhand，itunitestogetherhandicraftsthatwereformerlyseparate。
Butwhatevermayhavebeenitsparticularstarting—point，itsfinalformisinvariablythesameaproductivemechanismwhosepartsarehumanbeings。
Foraproperunderstandingofthedivisionoflabourinmanufacture，itisessentialthatthefollowingpointsbefirmlygrasped。First，thedecompositionofaprocessofproductionintoitsvarioussuccessivestepscoincides，here，strictlywiththeresolutionofahandicraftintoitssuccessivemanualoperations。Whethercomplexorsimple，eachoperationhastobedonebyhand，retainsthecharacterofahandicraft，andisthereforedependentonthestrength，skill，quickness，andsureness，oftheindividualworkmaninhandlinghistools。Thehandicraftcontinuestobethebasis。
Thisnarrowtechnicalbasisexcludesareallyscientificanalysisofanydefiniteprocessofindustrialproduction，sinceitisstillaconditionthateachdetailprocessgonethroughbytheproductmustbecapableofbeingdonebyhandandofforming，initsway，aseparatehandicraft。Itisjustbecausehandicraftskillcontinues，inthisway，tobethefoundationoftheprocessofproduction，thateachworkmanbecomesexclusivelyassignedtoapartialfunction，andthatfortherestofhislife，hislabour—poweristurnedintotheorganofthisdetailfunction。
Secondly，thisdivisionoflabourisaparticularsortofco—operation，andmanyofitsdisadvantagesspringfromthegeneralcharacterofco—operation，andnotfromthisparticularformofit。
SECTION2THEDETAILLABOURERANDHISIMPLEMENTS
Ifwenowgomoreintodetail，itis，inthefirstplace，clearthatalabourerwhoallhislifeperformsoneandthesamesimpleoperation，convertshiswholebodyintotheautomatic，specialisedimplementofthatoperation。Consequently，hetakeslesstimeindoingit，thantheartificerwhoperformsawholeseriesofoperationsinsuccession。Butthecollectivelabourer，whoconstitutesthelivingmechanismofmanufacture，ismadeupsolelyofsuchspecialiseddetaillabourers。Hence，incomparisonwiththeindependenthandicraft，moreisproducedinagiventime，ortheproductivepoweroflabourisincreased。[2]Moreover，whenoncethisfractionalworkisestablishedastheexclusivefunctionofoneperson，themethodsitemploysbecomeperfected。Theworkman’scontinuedrepetitionofthesamesimpleact，andtheconcentrationofhisattentiononit，teachhimbyexperiencehowtoattainthedesiredeffectwiththeminimumofexertion。Butsincetherearealwaysseveralgenerationsoflabourerslivingatonetime，andworkingtogetheratthemanufactureofagivenarticle，thetechnicalskill，thetricksofthetradethusacquired，becomeestablished，andareaccumulatedandhandeddown。[3]
Manufacture，infact，producestheskillofthedetaillabourer，byreproducing，andsystematicallydrivingtoanextremewithintheworkshop，thenaturallydevelopeddifferentiationoftradeswhichitfoundreadytohandinsocietyatlarge。Ontheotherhand，theconversionoffractionalworkintothelife—callingofoneman，correspondstothetendencyshownbyearliersocieties，tomaketradeshereditary;eithertopetrifythemintocastes，orwheneverdefinitehistoricalconditionsbegetintheindividualatendencytovaryinamannerincompatiblewiththenatureofcastes，toossifythemintoguilds。Castesandguildsarisefromtheactionofthesamenaturallaw，thatregulatesthedifferentiationofplantsandanimalsintospeciesandvarieties，exceptthat，whenacertaindegreeofdevelopmenthasbeenreached，theheredityofcastesandtheexclusivenessofguildsareordainedasalawofsociety。[4]
"ThemuslinsofDakkainfineness，thecalicoesandotherpiecegoodsofCoromandelinbrilliantanddurablecolours，haveneverbeensurpassed。Yettheyareproducedwithoutcapital，machinery，divisionoflabour，oranyofthosemeanswhichgivesuchfacilitiestothemanufacturinginterestofEurope。Theweaverismerelyadetachedindividual，workingawebwhenorderedofacustomer，andwithaloomoftherudestconstruction，consistingsometimesofafewbranchesorbarsofwood，putroughlytogether。Thereisevennoexpedientforrollingupthewarp;theloommustthereforebekeptstretchedtoitsfulllength，andbecomessoinconvenientlylarge，thatitcannotbecontainedwithinthehutofthemanufacturer，whoisthereforecompelledtoplyhistradeintheopenair，whereitisinterruptedbyeveryvicissitudeoftheweather。"[5]Itisonlythespecialskillaccumulatedfromgenerationtogeneration，andtransmittedfromfathertoson，thatgivestotheHindu，asitdoestothespider，thisproficiency。AndyettheworkofsuchaHinduweaverisverycomplicated，comparedwiththatofamanufacturinglabourer。
Anartificer，whoperformsoneafteranotherthevariousfractionaloperationsintheproductionofafinishedarticle，mustatonetimechangehisplace，atanotherhistools。Thetransitionfromoneoperationtoanotherinterruptstheflowofhislabour，andcreates，sotosay，gapsinhisworking—day。Thesegapscloseupsosoonasheistiedtooneandthesameoperationalldaylong;theyvanishinproportionasthechangesinhisworkdiminish。Theresultingincreasedproductivepowerisowingeithertoanincreasedexpenditureoflabour—powerinagiventimei。e。，toincreasedintensityoflabourortoadecreaseintheamountoflabour—powerunproductivelyconsumed。Theextraexpenditureofpower，demandedbyeverytransitionfromresttomotion，ismadeupforbyprolongingthedurationofthenormalvelocitywhenonceacquired。Ontheotherhand，constantlabourofoneuniformkinddisturbstheintensityandflowofaman’sanimalspirits，whichfindrecreationanddelightinmerechangeofactivity。
Theproductivenessoflabourdependsnotonlyontheproficiencyoftheworkman，butontheperfectionofhistools。Toolsofthesamekind，suchasknives，drills，gimlets。hammers，&c。，maybeemployedindifferentprocesses;andthesametoolmayservevariouspurposesinasingleprocess。Butsosoonasthedifferentoperationsofalabour—processaredisconnectedtheonefromtheother，andeachfractionaloperationacquiresinthehandsofthedetaillabourerasuitableandpeculiarform，alterationsbecomenecessaryintheimplementsthatpreviouslyservedmorethanonepurpose。Thedirectiontakenbythischangeisdeterminedbythedifficultiesexperiencedinconsequenceoftheunchangedformoftheimplement。Manufactureischaracterisedbythedifferentiationoftheinstrumentsoflabouradifferentiationwherebyimplementsofagivensortacquirefixedshapes，adaptedtoeachparticularapplication，andbythespecialisationofthoseinstruments，givingtoeachspecialimplementitsfullplayonlyinthehandsofaspecificdetaillabourer。InBirminghamalone500varietiesofhammersareproduced，andnotonlyiseachadaptedtooneparticularprocess，butseveralvarietiesoftenserveexclusivelyforthedifferentoperationsinoneandthesameprocess。Themanufacturingperiodsimplifies，improves，andmultipliestheimplementsoflabour，byadaptingthemtotheexclusivelyspecialfunctionsofeachdetaillabourer。[6]Itthuscreatesatthesametimeoneofthematerialconditionsfortheexistenceofmachinery，whichconsistsofacombinationofsimpleinstruments。
Thedetaillabourerandhisimplementsarethesimplestelementsofmanufacture。Letusnowturntoitsaspectasawhole。
SECTION3THETWOFUNDAMENTALFORMSOFMANUFACTURE:HETEROGENEOUSMANUFACTURE，SERIAL
MANUFACTURE
Theorganisationofmanufacturehastwofundamentalformswhich，inspiteofoccasionalblending，areessentiallydifferentinkind，and，moreover，playverydistinctpartsinthesubsequenttransformationofmanufactureintomodernindustrycarriedonbymachinery。Thisdoublecharacterarisesfromthenatureofthearticleproduced。Thisarticleeitherresultsfromthemeremechanicalfittingtogetherofpartialproductsmadeindependently，orowesitscompletedshapetoaseriesofconnectedprocessesandmanipulations。
Alocomotive，forinstance，consistsofmorethan5，000independentparts。Itcannot，however，serveasanexampleofthefirstkindofgenuinemanufacture，foritisastructureproducedbymodernmechanicalindustry。Butawatchcan;andWilliamPettyusedittoillustratethedivisionoflabourinmanufacture。FormerlytheindividualworkofaNurembergartificer，thewatchhasbeentransformedintothesocialproductofanimmensenumberofdetaillabourers，suchasmainspringmakers，dialmakers，spiralspringmakers，jewelledholemakers，rubylevermakers，handmakers，casemakers，screwmakers，gilders，withnumeroussubdivisions，suchaswheelmakers（brassandsteelseparate），pinmakers，movementmakers，acheveurdepignon（fixesthewheelsontheaxles，polishesthefacets，&c。），pivotmakers，planteurdefinissage（putsthewheelsandspringsintheworks），finisseurdebarillet（cutsteethinthewheels，makestheholesoftherightsize，&c。），escapementmakers，cylindermakersforcylinderescapements，escapementwheelmakers，balancewheelmakers，raquettemakers（apparatusforregulatingthewatch），theplanteurd’échappement（escapementmakerproper）;thentherepasseurdebarillet（finishestheboxforthespring，&c。），steelpolishers，wheelpolishers，screwpolishers，figurepainters，dialenamellers（melttheenamelonthecopper），fabricantdependants（makestheringbywhichthecaseishung），finisseurdecharnière（putsthebrasshingeinthecover，&c。），faiseurdesecret（putsinthespringsthatopenthecase），graveur，ciseleur，polisseurdeboite，&c。，&c。，andlastofalltherepasseur，whofitstogetherthewholewatchandhandsitoverinagoingstate。Onlyafewpartsofthewatchpassthroughseveralhands;andallthesemembradisjectacometogetherforthefirsttimeinthehandthatbindsthemintoonemechanicalwhole。