"Thegreatimprovementsmadeinmachinesofeverykindhaveraisedtheirproductivepowerverymuch。Withoutanydoubt，theshorteningofthehoursoflabour……gavetheimpulsetotheseimprovements。Thelatter，combinedwiththemoreintensestrainontheworkman，havehadtheeffect，thatatleastasmuchisproducedintheshortened（bytwohoursorone—sixth）
　　working—dayaswaspreviouslyproducedduringthelongerone。"[91]
　　Onefactissufficienttoshowhowgreatlythewealthofthemanufacturersincreasedalongwiththemoreintenseexploitationoflabour—power。From1838to1850，theaverageproportionalincreaseinEnglishcottonandotherfactorieswas32%，whilefrom1850to1856itamountedto86%。
　　ButhowevergreattheprogressofEnglishindustryhadbeenduringthe8yearsfrom1848to1856undertheinfluenceofaworking—dayof10hours，itwagfarsurpassedduringthenextperiodof6yearsfrom1856to1862。
　　Insilkfactories，forinstance，therewerein1856，spindles1，093，799;
　　in1862，1，388，544;in1856，looms9，260;in1862，10，709。Butthenumberofoperativeswas，in1856，56，131;in1862，52，429。Theincreaseinthespindleswastherefore26。9%andinthelooms15。6%，whilethenumberoftheoperativesdecreased7%。Intheyear1850therewereemployedinworstedmills875，830spindles;in1856，1，324，549（increase51。2%），andin1862，1，289，172（decrease2。7%）。Butifwedeductthedoublingspindlesthatfigureinthenumbersfor1856，butnotinthosefor1862，itwillbefoundthatafter1856thenumberofspindlesremainednearlystationary。Ontheotherhand，after1850，thespeedofthespindlesandloomswasinmanycasesdoubled。Thenumberofpower—loomsinworstedmillswas，in1850，32，617;in1856，38，956;in1862，43，048。Thenumberoftheoperativeswas，in1850，79，737;in1856，87，794;in1862，86，063;
　　includedinthese，however，thechildrenunder14yearsofagewere，in1850，9，956;in1856，11，228;in1862，13，178。Inspite，therefore，ofthegreatlyincreasednumberofloomsin1862，comparedwith1856，thetotalnumberoftheworkpeopleemployeddecreased，andthatofthechildrenexploitedincreased。[92]
　　Onthe27thApril，1863，Mr。FerrandsaidintheHouseofCommons:"I
　　havebeeninformedbydelegatesfrom16districtsofLancashireandCheshire，inwhosebehalfIspeak，thattheworkinthefactoriesis，inconsequenceoftheimprovementsinmachinery，constantlyontheincrease。Insteadofasformerlyonepersonwithtwohelpstentingtwolooms，onepersonnowtentsthreeloomswithouthelps，anditisnouncommonthingforonepersontotentfour。Twelvehours’work，asisevidentfromthefactsadduced，isnowcompressedintolessthan10hours。Itisthereforeself—evident，towhatanenormousextentthetoilofthefactoryoperativehasincreasedduringthelast10years。"[93]
　　Although，therefore，theFactoryInspectorsunceasinglyandwithjustice，commendtheresultsoftheActsof1844and1850，yettheyadmitthattheshorteningofthehoursoflabourhasalreadycalledforthsuchanintensificationofthelabourasisinjurioustothehealthoftheworkmanandtohiscapacityforwork。"Inmostofthecotton，worsted，andsilkmills，anexhaustingstateofexcitementnecessarytoenabletheworkerssatisfactorilytomindthemachinery，themotionofwhichhasbeengreatlyacceleratedwithinthelastfewyears，seemstomenotunlikelytobeoneofthecausesofthatexcessofmortalityfromlungdisease，whichDr。Greenhowhaspointedoutinhisrecentreportonthissubject。"[94]Therecannotbetheslightestdoubtthatthetendencythaturgescapital，sosoonasaprolongationofthehoursoflabourisonceforallforbidden，tocompensateitself，byasystematicheighteningoftheintensityoflabour，andtoconverteveryimprovementinmachineryintoamoreperfectmeansofexhaustingtheworkman，mustsoonleadtoastateofthingsinwhichareductionofthehoursoflabourwillagainbeinevitable。[95]Ontheotherhand，therapidadvanceofEnglishindustrybetween1848andthepresenttime，undertheinfluenceofadayof10hours，surpassestheadvancemadebetween1833and1847，whenthedaywas12hourslong，byfarmorethanthelattersurpassestheadvancemadeduringthehalfcenturyafterthefirstintroductionofthefactorysystem，whentheworking—daywaswithoutlimits。[96]
　　SECTION4THEFACTORY
　　Atthecommencementofthischapterweconsideredthatwhichwemaycallthebodyofthefactory，i。e。，machineryorganisedintoasystem。
　　Wetheresawhowmachinery，byannexingthelabourofwomenandchildren，augmentsthenumberofhumanbeingswhoformthematerialforcapitalisticexploitation，howitconfiscatesthewholeoftheworkman’sdisposabletime，byimmoderateextensionofthehoursoflabour，andhowfinallyitsprogress，whichallowsofenormousincreaseofproductioninshorterandshorterperiods，servesasameansofsystematicallygettingmoreworkdoneinashortertime，orofexploitinglabour—powermoreintensely。Wenowturntothefactoryasawhole，andthatinitsmostperfectform。
　　Dr。Ure，thePindaroftheautomaticfactory，describesit，ontheonehand，as"Combinedco—operationofmanyordersofworkpeople，adultandyoung，intendingwithassiduousskill，asystemofproductivemachines，continuouslyimpelledbyacentralpower"（theprimemover）;ontheotherhand，as"avastautomaton，composedofvariousmechanicalandintellectualorgans，actinginuninterruptedconcertfortheproductionofacommonobject，allofthembeingsubordinatetoaself—regulatedmovingforce。"
　　Thesetwodescriptionsarefarfrombeingidentical。Inone，thecollectivelabourer，orsocialbodyoflabour，appearsasthedominantsubject，andthemechanicalautomatonastheobject;intheother，theautomatonitselfisthesubject，andtheworkmenaremerelyconsciousorgans，co—ordinatewiththeunconsciousorgansoftheautomaton，andtogetherwiththem，subordinatedtothecentralmoving—power。
　　Thefirstdescriptionisapplicabletoeverypossibleemploymentofmachineryonalargescale，thesecondischaracteristicofitsusebycapital，andthereforeofthemodernfactorysystem。Urepreferstherefore，todescribethecentralmachine，fromwhichthemotioncomes，notonlyasanautomaton，butasanautocrat。"Inthesespacioushallsthebenignantpowerofsteamsummonsaroundhimhismyriadsofwillingmenials。"[97]
　　Alongwiththetool，theskilloftheworkmaninhandlingitpassesovertothemachine。Thecapabilitiesofthetoolareemancipatedfromtherestraintsthatareinseparablefromhumanlabour—power。TherebythetechnicalfoundationonwhichisbasedthedivisionoflabourinManufacture，issweptaway。Hence，intheplaceofthehierarchyofspecialisedworkmenthatcharacterisesmanufacture，theresteps，intheautomaticfactory，atendencytoequaliseandreducetooneandthesameleveleverykindofworkthathastobedonebythemindersofthemachines;[98]intheplaceoftheartificiallyproduceddifferentiationsofthedetailworkmen，stepthenaturaldifferencesofageandsex。
　　Sofarasdivisionoflabourre—appearsinthefactory，itisprimarilyadistributionoftheworkmenamongthespecialisedmachines;andofmassesofworkmen，nothoweverorganisedintogroups，amongthevariousdepartmentsofthefactory，ineachofwhichtheyworkatanumberofsimilarmachinesplacedtogether;theirco—operation，therefore，isonlysimple。Theorganisedgroup，peculiartomanufacture，isreplacedbytheconnexionbetweentheheadworkmanandhisfewassistants。Theessentialdivisionis，intoworkmenwhoareactuallyemployedonthemachines（amongwhomareincludedafewwholookaftertheengine），andintomereattendants（almostexclusivelychildren）oftheseworkmen。Amongtheattendantsarereckonedmoreorlessall"Feeders"whosupplythemachineswiththematerialtobeworked。Inadditiontothesetwoprincipalclasses，thereisanumericallyunimportantclassofpersons，whoseoccupationitistolookafterthewholeofthemachineryandrepairitfromtimetotime;suchasengineers，mechanics，joiners，&c。Thisisasuperiorclassofworkmen，someofthemscientificallyeducated，othersbroughtuptoatrade;itisdistinctfromthefactoryoperativeclass，andmerelyaggregatedtoit。[99]Thisdivisionoflabourispurelytechnical。
　　Toworkatamachine，theworkmanshouldbetaughtfromchildhood，inorderthathemaylearntoadapthisownmovementstotheuniformandunceasingmotionofanautomaton。Whenthemachinery，asawhole，formsasystemofmanifoldmachines，workingsimultaneouslyandinconcert，theco—operationbaseduponit，requiresthedistributionofvariousgroupsofworkmenamongthedifferentkindsofmachines。ButtheemploymentofmachinerydoesawaywiththenecessityofcrystallisingthisdistributionafterthemannerofManufacture，bytheconstantannexationofaparticularmantoaparticularfunction。[100]Sincethemotionofthewholesystemdoesnotproceedfromtheworkman，butfromthemachinery，achangeofpersonscantakeplaceatanytimewithoutaninterruptionofthework。Themoststrikingproofofthisisaffordedbytherelayssystem，putintooperationbythemanufacturersduringtheirrevoltfrom1848—1850。Lastly，thequicknesswithwhichmachineworkislearntbyyoungpeople，doesawaywiththenecessityofbringingupforexclusiveemploymentbymachinery，aspecialclassofoperatives。[101]Withregardtotheworkofthemereattendants，itcan，tosomeextent，bereplacedinthemillbymachines，[102]andowingtoitsextremesimplicity，itallowsofarapidandconstantchangeoftheindividualsburdenedwiththisdrudgery。
　　Althoughthen，technicallyspeaking，theoldsystemofdivisionoflabouristhrownoverboardbymachinery，ithangsoninthefactory，asatraditionalhabithandeddownfromManufacture，andisafterwardssystematicallyre—mouldedandestablishedinamorehideousformbycapital，asameansofexploitinglabour—power。Thelife—longspecialityofhandlingoneandthesametool，nowbecomesthelife—longspecialityofservingoneandthesamemachine。
　　Machineryisputtoawronguse，withtheobjectoftransformingtheworkman，fromhisverychildhood，intoapartofadetail—machine。[103]Inthisway，notonlyaretheexpensesofhisreproductionconsiderablylessened，butatthesametimehishelplessdependenceuponthefactoryasawhole，andthereforeuponthecapitalist，isrenderedcomplete。Hereaseverywhereelse，wemustdistinguishbetweentheincreasedproductivenessduetothedevelopmentofthesocialprocessofproduction，andthatduetothecapitalistexploitationofthatprocess。Inhandicraftsandmanufacture，theworkmanmakesuseofatool，inthefactory，themachinemakesuseofhim。Therethemovementsoftheinstrumentoflabourproceedfromhim，hereitisthemovementsofthemachinethathemustfollow。Inmanufacturetheworkmenarepartsofalivingmechanism。Inthefactorywehavealifelessmechanismindependentoftheworkman，whobecomesitsmerelivingappendage。"Themiserableroutineofendlessdrudgeryandtoilinwhichthesamemechanicalprocessisgonethroughoverandoveragain，islikethelabourofSisyphus。Theburdenoflabour，liketherock，keepseverfallingbackontheworn—outlabourer。"[104]Atthesametimethatfactoryworkexhauststhenervoussystemtotheuttermost，itdoesawaywiththemany—sidedplayofthemuscles，andconfiscateseveryatomoffreedom，bothinbodilyandintellectualactivity。[105]Thelighteningofthelabour，even，becomesasortoftorture，sincethemachinedoesnotfreethelabourerfromwork，butdeprivestheworkofallinterest。Everykindofcapitalistproduction，insofarasitisnotonlyalabour—process，butalsoaprocessofcreatingsurplus—value，hasthisincommon，thatitisnottheworkmanthatemploystheinstrumentsoflabour，buttheinstrumentsoflabourthatemploytheworkman。Butitisonlyinthefactorysystemthatthisinversionforthefirsttimeacquirestechnicalandpalpablereality。Bymeansofitsconversionintoanautomaton，theinstrumentoflabourconfrontsthelabourer，duringthelabour—process，intheshapeofcapital，ofdeadlabour，thatdominates，andpumpsdry，livinglabour—power。Theseparationoftheintellectualpowersofproductionfromthemanuallabour，andtheconversionofthosepowersintothemightofcapitaloverlabour，is，aswehavealreadyshown。
　　finallycompletedbymodernindustryerectedonthefoundationofmachinery。
　　Thespecialskillofeachindividualinsignificantfactoryoperativevanishesasaninfinitesimalquantitybeforethescience，thegiganticphysicalforces，andthemassoflabourthatareembodiedinthefactorymechanismand，togetherwiththatmechanism，constitutethepowerofthe"master。"This"master，"therefore，inwhosebrainthemachineryandhismonopolyofitareinseparablyunited，wheneverhefallsoutwithhis"hands，"contemptuouslytellsthem:"Thefactoryoperativesshouldkeepinwholesomeremembrancethefactthattheirsisreallyalowspeciesofskilledlabour;andthatthereisnonewhichismoreeasilyacquired，orofitsqualitymoreamplyremunerated，orwhichbyashorttrainingoftheleastexpertcanbemorequickly，aswellasabundantly，acquired……Themaster’smachineryreallyplaysafarmoreimportantpartinthebusinessofproductionthanthelabourandtheskilloftheoperative，whichsixmonths’educationcanteach，andacommonlabourercanlearn。"[106]Thetechnicalsubordinationoftheworkmantotheuniformmotionoftheinstrumentsoflabour，andthepeculiarcompositionofthebodyofworkpeople，consistingasitdoesofindividualsofbothsexesandofallages，giverisetoabarrackdiscipline，whichiselaboratedintoacompletesysteminthefactory，andwhichfullydevelopsthebeforementionedlabourofoverlooking，therebydividingtheworkpeopleintooperativesandoverlookers，intoprivatesoldiersandsergeantsofanindustrialarmy。"Themaindifficulty[intheautomaticfactory]……lay……aboveallintraininghumanbeingstorenouncetheirdesultoryhabitsofwork，andtoidentifythemselveswiththeunvaryingregularityofthecomplexautomaton。Todeviseandadministerasuccessfulcodeoffactorydiscipline，suitedtothenecessitiesoffactorydiligence，wastheHerculeanenterprise，thenobleachievementofArkwright！Evenatthepresentday，whenthesystemisperfectlyorganisedanditslabourlightenedtotheutmost，itisfoundnearlyimpossibletoconvertpersonspasttheageofpuberty，intousefulfactoryhands。"[107]Thefactorycodeinwhichcapitalformulates，likeaprivatelegislator，andathisowngoodwill，hisautocracyoverhisworkpeople，unaccompaniedbythatdivisionofresponsibility，inothermatterssomuchapprovedofbythebourgeoisie，andunaccompaniedbythestillmoreapprovedrepresentativesystem，thiscodeisbutthecapitalisticcaricatureofthatsocialregulationofthelabour—processwhichbecomesrequisiteinco—operationonagreatscale，andintheemploymentincommon，ofinstrumentsoflabourandespeciallyofmachinery。Theplaceoftheslave—driver’slashistakenbytheoverlooker’sbookofpenalties。Allpunishmentsnaturallyresolvethemselvesintofinesanddeductionsfromwages，andthelaw—givingtalentofthefactoryLycurgussoarrangesmatters，thataviolationofhislawsis，ifpossible，moreprofitabletohimthanthekeepingofthem。[108]Weshallheremerelyalludetothematerialconditionsunderwhichfactorylabouriscarriedon。Everyorganofsenseisinjuredinanequaldegreebyartificialelevationofthetemperature，bythedust—ladenatmosphere，bythedeafeningnoise，nottomentiondangertolifeandlimbamongthethicklycrowdedmachinery，which，withtheregularityoftheseasons，issuesitslistofthekilledandwoundedintheindustrialbattle。[109]Economyofthesocialmeansofproduction，maturedandforcedasinahothousebythefactorysystem，isturned，inthehandsofcapital，intosystematicrobberyofwhatisnecessaryforthelifeoftheworkmanwhileheisatwork，robberyofspace，light，air，andofprotectiontohispersonagainstthedangerousandunwholesomeaccompanimentsoftheproductiveprocess，nottomentiontherobberyofappliancesforthecomfortoftheworkman。[110]IsFourierwrongwhenhecallsfactories"temperedbagnos"？[111]
　　SECTION5THESTRIFEBETWEENWORKMANANDMACHINE
　　Thecontestbetweenthecapitalistandthewage—labourerdatesbacktotheveryoriginofcapital。Itragedonthroughoutthewholemanufacturingperiod。[112]Butonlysincetheintroductionofmachineryhastheworkmanfoughtagainsttheinstrumentoflabouritself，thematerialembodimentofcapital。Herevoltsagainstthisparticularformofthemeansofproduction，asbeingthematerialbasisofthecapitalistmodeofproduction。
　　Inthe17thcenturynearlyallEuropeexperiencedrevoltsoftheworkpeopleagainsttheribbon—loom，amachineforweavingribbonsandtrimmings，calledinGermanyBandmühle，Schnurmühle，andMühlenstuhl。ThesemachineswereinventedinGermany。AbbéLancellotti，inaworkthatappearedinVenicein1636，butwhichwaswrittenin1579，saysasfollows:
　　"AnthonyMüllerofDanzigsawabout50yearsagointhattown，averyingeniousmachine，whichweaves4to6piecesatonce。ButtheMayorbeingapprehensivethatthisinventionmightthrowalargenumberofworkmenonthestreets，causedtheinventortobesecretlystrangledordrowned。"
　　InLeyden，thismachinewasnotusedtill1629;theretheriotsoftheribbon—weaversatlengthcompelledtheTownCounciltoprohibitit。"Inhacurbe，"saysBoxhorn（Inst。Pol。，1663），referringtotheintroductionofthismachineintoLeyden，"antehosviginticirciterannosinstrumentumquidaminvenerunttextorium，quosoluspluspannietfaciliusconficerepoterat，quanpluresaequalitempore。Hincturbaeortaeetquerulaetextorum，tandemqueusushujusinstrumentiamagistratuprohibitusest。"Aftermakingvariousdecreesmoreorlessprohibitiveagainstthisloomin1632，1639，&c。，theStatesGeneralofHollandatlengthpermittedittobeused，undercertainconditions，bythedecreeofthe15thDecember，1661。ItwasalsoprohibitedinColognein1676，atthesametimethatitsintroductionintoEnglandwascausingdisturbancesamongtheworkpeople。ByanimperialEdictof19thFeb。，1685，itsusewasforbiddenthroughoutallGermany。
　　InHamburgitwasburntinpublicbyorderoftheSenate。TheEmperorCharlesVI。，on9thFeb。，1719，renewedtheedictof1685，andnottill1765wasitsuseopenlyallowedintheElectorateofSaxony。Thismachine，whichshookEuropetoitsfoundations，wasinfacttheprecursorofthemuleandthepower—loom，andoftheindustrialrevolutionofthe18thcentury。
　　Itenabledatotallyinexperiencedboy，tosetthewholeloomwithallitsshuttlesinmotion，bysimplymovingarodbackwardsandforwards，andinitsimprovedformproducedfrom40to50piecesatonce。
　　About1630，awind—sawmill，erectednearLondonbyaDutchman，succumbedtotheexcessesofthepopulace。Evenaslateasthebeginningofthe18thcentury，sawmillsdrivenbywaterovercametheoppositionofthepeople，supportedasitwasbyParliament，onlywithgreatdifficulty。NosoonerhadEveretin1758erectedthefirstwool—shearingmachinethatwasdrivenbywater—power，thanitwassetonfireby100，000peoplewhohadbeenthrownoutofwork。Fiftythousandworkpeople，whohadpreviouslylivedbycardingwool，petitionedParliamentagainstArkwright’sscribblingmillsandcardingengines。TheenormousdestructionofmachinerythatoccurredintheEnglishmanufacturingdistrictsduringthefirst15yearsofthiscentury，chieflycausedbytheemploymentofthepower—loom，andknownastheLudditemovement，gavetheanti—JacobingovernmentsofaSidmouth，aCastlereagh，andthelike，apretextforthemostreactionaryandforciblemeasures。Ittookbothtimeandexperiencebeforetheworkpeoplelearnttodistinguishbetweenmachineryanditsemploymentbycapital，andtodirecttheirattacks，notagainstthematerialinstrumentsofproduction，butagainstthemodeinwhichtheyareused。[113]
　　ThecontestsaboutwagesinManufacture，pre—supposemanufacture，andareinnosensedirectedagainstitsexistence。Theoppositionagainsttheestablishmentofnewmanufactures，proceedsfromtheguildsandprivilegedtowns，notfromtheworkpeople。Hencethewritersofthemanufacturingperiodtreatthedivisionoflabourchieflyasameansofvirtuallysupplyingadeficiencyoflabourers，andnotasameansofactuallydisplacingthoseinwork。Thisdistinctionisself—evident。Ifitbesaidthat100millionsofpeoplewouldberequiredinEnglandtospinwiththeoldspinning—wheelthecottonthatisnowspunwithmulesby500，000people，thisdoesnotmeanthatthemulestooktheplaceofthosemillionswhoneverexisted。
　　Itmeansonlythis，thatmanymillionsofworkpeoplewouldberequiredtoreplacethespinningmachinery。If，ontheotherhand，wesay，thatinEnglandthepower—loomthrew800，000weaversonthestreets，wedonotrefertoexistingmachinery，thatwouldhavetobereplacedbyadefinitenumberofworkpeople，buttoanumberofweaversinexistencewhowereactuallyreplacedordisplacedbythelooms。Duringthemanufacturingperiod，handicraftlabour，alteredthoughitwasbydivisionoflabour，was。yetthebasis。Thedemandsofthenewcolonialmarketscouldnotbesatisfiedowingtotherelativelysmallnumberoftownoperativeshandeddownfromthemiddleages，andthemanufacturesproperopenedoutnewfieldsofproductiontotheruralpopulation，drivenfromthelandbythedissolutionofthefeudalsystem。Atthattime，therefore，divisionoflabourandco—operationintheworkshops，wereviewedmorefromthepositiveaspect，thattheymadetheworkpeoplemoreproductive。[114]LongbeforetheperiodofModernIndustry，co—operationandtheconcentrationoftheinstrumentsoflabourinthehandsofafew，gaverise，innumerouscountrieswherethesemethodswereappliedinagriculture，togreat，suddenandforciblerevolutionsinthemodesofproduction，andconsequentially，intheconditionsofexistence，andthemeansofemploymentoftheruralpopulations。Butthiscontestatfirsttakesplacemorebetweenthelargeandthesmalllandedproprietors，thanbetweencapitalandwage—labour;
　　ontheotherhand，whenthelabourersaredisplacedbytheinstrumentsoflabour，bysheep，horses，&c。，inthiscaseforceisdirectlyresortedtointhefirstinstanceasthepreludetotheindustrialrevolution。Thelabourersarefirstdrivenfromtheland，andthencomethesheep。Landgrabbingonagreatscale，suchaswasperpetratedinEngland，isthefirststepincreatingafieldfortheestablishmentofagricultureonagreatscale。[115]Hencethissubversionofagricultureputson，atfirst，moretheappearanceofapoliticalrevolution。
　　Theinstrumentoflabour，whenittakestheformofamachine，immediatelybecomesacompetitoroftheworkmanhimself。[116]Theself—expansionofcapitalbymeansofmachineryisthenceforwarddirectlyproportionaltothenumberoftheworkpeople，whosemeansoflivelihoodhavebeendestroyedbythatmachinery。Thewholesystemofcapitalistproductionisbasedonthefactthattheworkmansellshislabour—powerasacommodity。Divisionoflabourspecialisesthislabour—power，byreducingittoskillinhandlingaparticulartool。Sosoonasthehandlingofthistoolbecomestheworkofamachine，then，withtheuse—value，theexchange—valuetoo，oftheworkman’slabour—powervanishes;theworkmanbecomesunsaleable，likepapermoneythrownoutofcurrencybylegalenactment。Thatportionoftheworking—class，thusbymachineryrenderedsuperfluous，i。e。，nolongerimmediatelynecessaryfortheself—expansionofcapital，eithergoestothewallintheunequalcontestoftheoldhandicraftsandmanufactureswithmachinery，orelsefloodsallthemoreeasilyaccessiblebranchesofindustry，swampsthelabour—market，andsinksthepriceoflabour—powerbelowitsvalue。Itisimpressedupontheworkpeople，asagreatconsolation，first，thattheirsufferingsareonlytemporary（"atemporaryinconvenience"），secondly，thatmachineryacquiresthemasteryoverthewholeofagivenfieldofproduction，onlybydegrees，sothattheextentandintensityofitsdestructiveeffectisdiminished。Thefirstconsolationneutralisesthesecond。Whenmachineryseizesonanindustrybydegrees，itproduceschronicmiseryamongtheoperativeswhocompetewithit。Wherethetransitionisrapid，theeffectisacuteandfeltbygreatmasses。HistorydisclosesnotragedymorehorriblethanthegradualextinctionoftheEnglishhand—loomweavers，anextinctionthatwasspreadoverseveraldecades，andfinallysealedin1838。Manyofthemdiedofstarvation，manywithfamiliesvegetatedforalongtimeon21/2d。aday。[117]Ontheotherhand，theEnglishcottonmachineryproducedanacuteeffectinIndia。TheGovernorGeneralreported1834—35:"Themiseryhardlyfindsaparallelinthehistoryofcommerce。Thebonesofthecotton—weaversarebleachingtheplainsofIndia。"Nodoubt，inturningthemoutofthis"temporal"world，themachinerycausedthemnomorethan"atemporaryinconvenience。"Fortherest，sincemachineryiscontinuallyseizinguponnewfieldsofproduction，itstemporaryeffectisreallypermanent。
　　Hence，thecharacterofindependenceandestrangementwhichthecapitalistmodeofproductionasawholegivestotheinstrumentsoflabourandtotheproduct，asagainsttheworkman，isdevelopedbymeansofmachineryintoathoroughantagonism。[118]Therefore，itiswiththeadventofmachinery，thattheworkmanforthefirsttimebrutallyrevoltsagainsttheinstrumentsoflabour。
　　Theinstrumentoflabourstrikesdownthelabourer。Thisdirectantagonismbetweenthetwocomesoutmoststrongly，whenevernewlyintroducedmachinerycompeteswithhandicraftsormanufactures，handeddownfromformertimes。
　　ButeveninModernIndustrythecontinualimprovementofmachinery，andthedevelopmentoftheautomaticsystem，hasananalogouseffect。"Theobjectofimprovedmachineryistodiminishmanuallabour，toprovidefortheperformanceofaprocessorthecompletionofalinkinamanufacturebytheaidofanironinsteadofthehumanapparatus。"[119]"Theadaptationofpowertomachineryheretoforemovedbyhand，isalmostofdailyoccurrence……theminorimprovementsinmachineryhavingfortheirobjecteconomyofpower，theproductionofbetterwork，theturningoffmoreworkinthesametime，orinsupplyingtheplaceofachild，afemale，oraman，areconstant，andalthoughsometimesapparentlyofnogreatmoment，havesomewhatimportantresults。"[120]"Wheneveraprocessrequirespeculiardexterityandsteadinessofhand，itiswithdrawn，assoonaspossible，fromthecunningworkman，whoispronetoirregularitiesofmanykinds，anditist）lacedinchargeofapeculiarmechanism，soself—regulatingthatachildcansuperintendit。"[121]"Ontheautomaticplanskilledlabourgetsprogressivelysuperseded。"[122]"Theeffectofimprovementsinmachinery，notmerelyinsupersedingthenecessityfortheemploymentofthesamequantityofadultlabourasbefore，inordertoproduceagivenresult，butinsubstitutingonedescriptionofhumanlabourforanother，thelessskilledforthemoreskilled，juvenileforadult，femaleformale，causesafreshdisturbanceintherateofwages。"[123]"Theeffectofsubstitutingtheself—actingmuleforthecommonmule，istodischargethegreaterpartofthemenspinners，andtoretainadolescentsandchildren。"[124]Theextraordinarypowerofexpansionofthefactorysystemowingtoaccumulatedpracticalexperience，tothemechanicalmeansathand，andtoconstanttechnicalprogress，wasprovedtousbythegiantstridesofthatsystemunderthepressureofashortenedworking—day。Butwho，in1860，theZenithyearoftheEnglishcottonindustry，wouldhavedreamtofthegallopingimprovementsinmachinery，andthecorrespondingdisplacementofworkingpeople，calledintobeingduringthefollowing3years，underthestimulusoftheAmericanCivilWar？AcoupleofexamplesfromtheReportsoftheInspectorsofFactorieswillsufficeonthispoint。AManchestermanufacturerstates:"Weformerlyhad75cardingengines，nowwehave12，doingthesamequantityofwork……Wearedoingwithfewerhandsby14，atasavinginwagesof£10a—week。Ourestimatedsavinginwasteisabout10%
　　inthequantityofcottonconsumed。""Inanotherfine—spinningmillinManchester，Iwasinformedthatthroughincreasedspeedandtheadoptionofsomeself—actingprocesses，areductionhadbeenmade，innumber，ofafourthinonedepartment，andofabovehalfinanother，andthattheintroductionofthecombingmachineinplaceofthesecondcarding，hadconsiderablyreduced，thenumberofhandsformerlyemployedinthecarding—room。"
　　Anotherspinning—millisestimatedtoeffectasavingoflabourof10%。
　　TheMessrs。Gilmour，spinnersatManchester，state:"Inourblowing—roomdepartmentweconsiderourexpensewithnewmachineryisfullyone—thirdlessinwagesandhands……inthejack—frameanddrawing—frameroom，aboutone—thirdlessinexpense，andlikewiseone—thirdlessinhands;inthespinningroomaboutone—thirdlessinexpenses。Butthisisnotall;whenouryarngoestothemanufacturers，itissomuchbetterbytheapplicationofournewmachinery，thattheywillproduceagreaterquantityofcloth，andcheaperthanfromtheyarnproducedbyoldmachinery。"[125]Mr。RedgravefurtherremarksinthesameReport:"Thereductionofhandsagainstincreasedproductionis，infact，constantlytakingplace，inwoollenmillsthereductioncommencedsometimesince，andiscontinuing;afewdayssince，themasterofaschoolintheneighbourhoodofRochdalesaidtome，thatthegreatfallingoffinthegirls’schoolisnotonlycausedbythedistress，butbythechangesofmachineryinthewoollenmills，inconsequenceofwhichareductionof70short—timershadtakenplace。"[126]
　　ThefollowingtableshowsthetotalresultofthemechanicalimprovementsintheEnglishcottonindustryduetotheAmericanCivilWar。
　　NumberofFactories185718611868
　　EnglandandWales2，0462，7152，405
　　Scotland152163131
　　Ireland12913
　　UnitedKingdom2，2102，8872，549
　　NumberofPowerLooms185718611868
　　EnglandandWales275，590368，125344，719
　　Scotland21，62430，11031，864
　　Ireland1，6331，7572，746
　　UnitedKingdom298，847399，992379，329
　　NumberofSpindles185718611868
　　EnglandandWales25，818，57628，352，12530，478，228
　　Scotland2，041，1291，915，3981，397，546
　　Ireland150，512119，944124，240
　　UnitedKingdom28，010，21730，387，46732，000，014
　　NumberofPersonsEmployed185718611868
　　EnglandandWales341，170407，598357，052
　　Scotland34，69841，23739，809
　　Ireland3，3452，7344，203
　　UnitedKingdom379，213452，569401，064Hence，between1861and1868，338cottonfactoriesdisappeared，inotherwordsmoreproductivemachineryonalargerscalewasconcentratedinthehandsofasmallernumberofcapitalists。Thenumberofpower—loomsdecreasedby20，663;butsincetheirproductincreasedinthesameperiod，animprovedloommusthaveyieldedmorethananoldone。Lastlythenumberofspindlesincreasedby1，612，541，whilethenumberofoperativesdecreasedby50，505。
　　The"temporary"miseryinflictedontheworkpeoplebythecotton—crisis，washeightened，andfrombeingtemporarymadepermanent，bytherapidandpersistentprogressofmachinery。
　　Butmachinerynotonlyactsasacompetitorwhogetsthebetteroftheworkman，andisconstantlyonthepointofmakinghimsuperfluous。Itisalsoapowerinimicaltohim，andassuchcapitalproclaimsitfromtherooftopsandassuchmakesuseofit。Itisthemostpowerfulweaponforrepressingstrikes，thoseperiodicalrevoltsoftheworking—classagainsttheautocracyofcapital。[127]AccordingtoGaskell，thesteam—enginewasfromtheveryfirstanantagonistofhumanpower，anantagonistthatenabledthecapitalisttotreadunderfootthegrowingclaimsoftheworkmen，whothreatenedthenewlybornfactorysystemwithacrisis。[128]itwouldbepossibletowritequiteahistoryoftheinventions，madesince1830，forthesolepurposeofsupplyingcapitalwithweaponsagainsttherevoltsoftheworking—class。Attheheadoftheseinimportance，standstheself—actingmule，becauseitopenedupanewepochintheautomaticsystem。[129]
　　Nasmyth，theinventorofthesteam—hammer，givesthefollowingevidencebeforetheTrades’UnionCommission，withregardtotheimprovementsmadebyhiminmachineryandintroducedinconsequenceofthewide—spreadandlongstrikesoftheengineersin1851。"Thecharacteristicfeatureofourmodernmechanicalimprovements，istheintroductionofself—actingtoolmachinery。Whateverymechanicalworkmanhasnowtodo，andwhateveryboycando，isnottoworkhimselfbuttosuperintendthebeautifullabourofthemachine。Thewholeclassofworkmenthatdependexclusivelyontheirskill，isnowdoneawaywith。Formerly，Iemployedfourboystoeverymechanic。
　　Thankstothesenewmechanicalcombinations，Ihavereducedthenumberofgrown—upmenfrom1，500to750。Theresultwasaconsiderableincreaseinmyprofits。"
　　Uresaysofamachineusedincalicoprinting:"Atlengthcapitalistssoughtdeliverancefromthisintolerablebondage"[namelythe，intheireyes，burdensometermsoftheircontractswiththeworkmen]"intheresourcesofscience，andwerespeedilyre—instatedintheirlegitimaterule，thatoftheheadovertheinferiormembers。"