Therearelandlordswhodeemanystyegoodenoughfortheirlabourerandhisfamily，andwhoyetdonotdisdaintodrivewithhimthehardestpossiblebargainforrent。[104]Itmaybebutaruinousone—bedroomedhut，havingnofire—grate，noprivy，noopeningwindow，nowatersupplybuttheditch，nogarden？butthelabourerishelplessagainstthewrong……AndtheNuisancesRemovalActs……are……ameredeadletter……ingreatpartdependentfortheirworkingonsuchcottage—ownersastheonefromwhomhis（thelabourer’s）hovelisrented……Frombrighter，butexceptionalscenes，itisrequisiteintheinterestsofjustice，thatattentionshouldagainbedrawntotheoverwhelmingpreponderanceoffactswhichareareproachtothecivilisationofEngland。Lamentableindeed，mustbethecase，when，notwithstandingallthatisevidentwithregardtothequalityofthepresentaccommodation，itisthecommonconclusionofcompetentobserversthateventhegeneralbadnessofdwellingsisanevilinfinitelylessurgentthantheirmerenumericalinsufficiency。Foryearstheover—crowdingofrurallabourers’dwellingshasbeenamatterofdeepconcern，notonlytopersonswhocareforsanitarygood，buttopersonswhocarefordecentandmorallife。For，againandagaininphrasessouniformthattheyseemstereotyped，reportersonthespreadofepidemicdiseaseinruraldistricts，haveinsistedentheextremeimportanceofthatover—crowding，asaninfluencewhichrendersitaquitehopelesstask，toattemptthelimitingofanyinfectionwhichisintroduced。Andagainandagainithasbeenpointedoutthat，notwithstandingthemanysalubriousinfluenceswhichthereareincountrylife，thecrowdingwhichsofavourstheextensionofcontagiousdisease，alsofavourstheoriginationofdiseasewhichisnotcontagious。
Andthosewhohavedenouncedtheover—crowdedstateofourruralpopulationhavenotbeensilentastoafurthermischief。Evenwheretheirprimaryconcernhasbeenonlywiththeinjurytohealth，oftenalmostperforcetheyhavereferredtootherrelationsonthesubject。Inshowinghowfrequentlyithappensthatadultpersonsofbothsexes，marriedandunmarried，arehuddledtogetherinsinglesmallsleepingrooms，theirreportshavecarriedtheconvictionthat;underthecircumstancestheydescribe，decencymustalwaysbeoutraged，andmoralityalmostofnecessitymustsuffer。[105]Thus，forinstance，intheappendixofmylastannualreport，Dr。Ord，reportingonanoutbreakoffeveratWing，inBuckinghamshire，mentionshowayoungmanwhohadcomethitherfromWingravewithfever，"inthefirstdaysofhisillnesssleptinaroomwithnineotherpersons。
Withinafortnightseveralofthesepersonswereattacked，andinthecourseofafewweeksfiveoutoftheninehadfever，andonedied……"FromDr。
Harvey，ofSt。George’sHospital，who，onprivateprofessionalbusiness，visitedWingduringthetimeoftheepidemic，Ireceivedinformationexactlyinthesenseoftheabovereport……"Ayoungwomanhavingfever，layatnightinaroomoccupiedbyherfatherandmother，herbastardchild，twoyoungmen（herbrothers），andhertwosisters，eachwithabastardchild？10personsinall。Afewweeksago13personssleptinit。;[106]
Dr。Hunterinvestigated5，375cottagesofagriculturallabourers，notonlyinthepurelyagriculturaldistricts，butinallcountiesofEngland。
Ofthese，2，195hadonlyonebedroom（oftenatthesametimeusedasliving—room），2，930onlytwo，and250，morethantwo。Iwillgiveafewspecimensculledfromadozencounties。
（1。）BedfordshireWrestlingworth。Bedroomsabout12feetlongand10broad，althoughmanyaresmallerthanthis。Thesmall，one—storiedcotsareoftendividedbypartitionsintotwobedrooms，onebedfrequentlyinakitchen，5feet6inchesinheight。Rent，£3ayear。Thetenantshavetomaketheirownprivies，thelandlordonlysuppliesahole。Assoonasonehasmadeaprivy，itismadeuseofbythewholeneighbourhood。Onehouse，belongingtoafamilycalledRichardson，wasofquiteunapproachablebeauty。"Itsplasterwallsbulgedverylikealady’sdressinacurtsey。Onegableendwasconvex，theotherconcave，andonthislast，unfortunately，stoodthechimney，acurvedtubeofclayandwoodlikeanelephant’strunk。Alongstickservedasproptopreventthechimneyfromfalling。Thedoorwayandwindowwererhomboidal。"Of17housesvisited，only4hadmorethanonebedroom，andthosefourover—crowded。Thecotswithonebedroomsheltered3adultsand3children，amarriedcouplewith6children，&c。
Dunton。Highrents，from£4to£5;weeklywagesoftheman，10s。Theyhopetopaytherentbythestraw—plaitingofthefamily。
Thehighertherent，thegreaterthenumberthatmustworktogethertopayit。Sixadults，livingwith4childreninonesleepingapartment，pay£310s。forit。ThecheapesthouseinDunton，15feetlongexternally，10broad，letfor£3。Onlyoneofthehousesinvestigatedhad2bedrooms。Alittleoutsidethevillage，ahousewhose"tenantsdungedagainstthehouse—side，"thelower9inchesofthedooreatenawaythroughsheerrottenness;thedoorway，asingleopeningclosedatnightbyafewbricks，ingeniouslypushedupaftershuttingandcoveredwithsomematting。Halfawindow，withglassandframe，hadgonethewayofallflesh。Here，withoutfurniture，huddledtogetherwere3adultsand5children。DuntonisnotworsethantherestofBiggleswadeUnion。
（2。）BerkshireBeenham。InJune，1864，aman，hiswifeand4childrenlivedinacot（one—storiedcottage）。Adaughtercamehomefromservicewithscarletfever。Shedied。Onechildsickenedanddied。ThemotherandonechildweredownwithtyphuswhenDr。Hunterwascalledin。Thefatherandonechildsleptoutside，butthedifficultyofsecuringisolationwasseenhere，forinthecrowdedmarketofthemiserablevillagelaythelinenofthefever—strickenhousehold，waitingforthewash。TherentofH。’shouse，1s。a—week;onebedroomforman，wife，and6children。Onehouseletfor8d。a—week，14feet6incheslong，7feetbroad，kitchen，6feethigh;thebedroomwithoutwindow，fire—place，door，oropening，exceptintothelobby;nogarden。Amanlivedhereforalittlewhile，withtwogrown—updaughtersandonegrown—upson;fatherandsonsleptonthebed，thegirlsinthepassage。Eachofthelatterhadachildwhilethefamilywaslivinghere，butonewenttotheworkhouseforherconfinementandthencamehome。
（3。）Buckinghamshire30cottages？on1，000acresofland？containedhereabout130—140
persons。TheparishofBradenhamcomprises1，000acres;itnumbered，in1851，36housesandapopulationof84malesand54females。Thisinequalityofthesexeswaspartlyremediedin1861，whentheynumbered98malesand87females;increasein10yearsof14menand33women。Meanwhile，thenumberofhouseswasoneless。
Winslow。Greatpartofthisnewlybuiltingoodstyle;demandforhousesappearsverymarked，sinceverymiserablecotsletat1s。to1s。3d。perweek。
WaterEaton。Herethelandlords，inviewoftheincreasingpopulation，havedestroyedabout20percent。oftheexistinghouses。Apoorlabourer，whohadtogoabout4milestohiswork，answeredthequestion，whetherhecouldnotfindacotnearer:"No;theyknowbetterthantotakeamaninwithmylargefamily。"
Tinker’sEnd，nearWinslow。Abedroominwhichwere4adultsand4children;11feetlong，9feetbroad，6feet5incheshighatitshighestpart;another11feet3inchesby9feet，5feet10incheshigh，sheltered6persons。Eachofthesefamilieshadlessspacethanisconsiderednecessaryforaconvict。Nohousehadmorethanonebedroom，notoneofthemaback—door;waterveryscarce;weeklyrentfrom1s。4d。to2s。In16ofthehousesvisited，only1manthatearned10s。a—week。Thequantityofairforeachpersonunderthecircumstancesjustdescribedcorrespondstothatwhichhewouldhaveifhewereshutupinaboxof4feetmeasuringeachway，thewholenight。Butthen，theancientdensaffordedacertainamountofunintentionalventilation。
（4。）CambridgeshireGamblingaybelongstoseverallandlords。Itcontainsthewretchedestcotstobefoundanywhere。Muchstraw—plaiting。"Adeadlylassitude，ahopelesssurrenderinguptofilth，"reignsinGamblingay。Theneglectinitscentre，becomesmortificationatitsextremities，northandsouth，wherethehousesarerottingtopieces。Theabsenteelandlordsbleedthispoorrookerytoofreely。Therentsareveryhigh;8or9personspackedinonesleepingapartment，in2cases6adults，eachwith1or2childreninonesmallbedroom。
（5。）EssexInthiscounty，diminutionsinthenumberofpersonsandofcottagesgo，inmanyparishes，handinhand。Innotlessthan22parishes，however，thedestructionofhouseshasnotpreventedincreaseofpopulation，orhasnotbroughtaboutthatexpulsionwhich，underthename"migrationtotowns，"generallyoccurs。InFingringhoe，aparishof3，443acres，werein1851，145houses;in1861，only110。Butthepeopledidnotwishtogoaway，andmanagedeventoincreaseunderthesecircumstances。In1851，252personsinhabited61houses，butin1861，262personsweresqueezedinto49houses。InBasilden，in1851，157personslivedon1，827acres，in35houses;attheendoftenyears，180personsin27houses。IntheparishesofFingringhoe，SouthFambridge，Widford，Basilden，andRamsdenCrags，in1851，1，392personswerelivingon8，449acresin316houses;
in1861，onthesamearea，1，473personsin249houses。
（6。）HerefordshireThislittlecountyhassufferedmorefromthe"eviction—spirit"thananyotherinEngland。AtNadby，over—crowdedcottagesgenerally，withonly2bedrooms，belongingforthemostparttothefarmers。Theyeasilyletthemfor£3or£4a—year，andpaidaweeklywageof9s。
（7）HuntingdonHartfordhad，in1851，87houses;shortlyafterthis，19cottagesweredestroyedinthissmallparishof1，720acres;populationin1831，452;in1852，832;andin1861，341。14cottages，eachwith1bedroom，werevisited。Inone，amarriedcouple，3grown—upsons，1grown—updaughter，4children？inall10inanother，3adults，6children。Oneoftheserooms，inwhich8peopleslept，was12feet10incheslong，12feet2inchesbroad，6feet9incheshigh:theaverage，withoutmakinganydeductionforprojectionsintotheapartment，gaveabout130cubicfeetperhead。Inthe14sleepingrooms，34adultsand33children。Thesecottagesareseldomprovidedwithgardens，butmanyoftheinmatesareabletofarmsmallallotmentsat10s。
or12s。perrood。Theseallotmentsareatadistancefromthehouses，whicharewithoutprivies。Thefamily"musteithergototheallotmenttodeposittheirordures，"or，ashappensinthisplace，savingyourpresence，"useaclosetwithatroughsetlikeadrawerinachestofdrawers，anddrawnoutweeklyandconveyedtotheallotmenttobeemptiedwhereitscontentswerewanted。"InJapan，thecircleoflife—conditionsmovesmoredecentlythanthis。
（8）LincolnshireLangtoft。Amanliveshere，inWright’shouse，withhiswife，hermother，and5children;thehousehasafrontkitchen，scullery，bedroomoverthefrontkitchen;frontkitchenandbedroom，12feet2inchesby9feet5inches;thewholegroundfloor，21feet2inchesby9feet5inches。
Thebedroomisagarret:thewallsruntogetherintotherooflikeasugar—loaf，adormer—windowopeninginfront。"Whydidhelivehere？Onaccountofthegarden？No;itisverysmall。Rent？High，1s。3d。perweek。Nearhiswork？No;6milesaway，sothathewalksdaily，toandfro，12miles。Helivedthere，becauseitwasatenantablecot，"andbecausehewantedtohaveacotforhimselfalone，anywhere，atanyprice，andinanyconditions。
Thefollowingarethestatisticsof12housesinLangtoft，with12bedrooms，38adults，and36children。
TWELVEHOUSESINLANGTOFT
HouseNo。1。No。2。No。3。No。4。No。5。No。6。No。7。No。8。No。9。No。10。No。11。No。12。
Bedrooms。111111111111
Adults。344525332232
Children。534423320334
NumberofPersons。878948652。566（9。）KentKennington，veryseriouslyover—populatedin1859，whendiphtheriaappeared，andtheparishdoctorinstitutedamedicalinquiryintotheconditionofthepoorerclasses。Hefoundthatinthislocality，wheremuchlabourisemployed，variouscotshadbeendestroyedandnonewonesbuilt。Inonedistrictstoodfourhouses，namedbirdcages;eachhad4roomsofthefollowingdimensionsinfeetandinches:
Kitchen:9ft。5by8ft。11by6ft。6
Scullery:8ft。6by4ft。6by6ft。6
Bedroom:8ft。5by5ft。10by6ft。3
Bedroom:8ft。3by8ft。4by6ft。3（10。）NorthamptonshireBrinworth，PickfordandFloore:inthesevillagesinthewinter2030menwereloungingaboutthestreetsfromwantofwork。Thefarmersdonotalwaystillsufficientlythecornandturniplands，andthelandlordhasfounditbesttothrowallhisfarmstogetherinto2or3。Hencewantofemployment。Whilstononesideofthewall，thelandcallsforlabour，ontheothersidethedefraudedlabourersarecastingatitlongingglances。
Feverishlyover—workedinsummer，andhalf—starvedinwinter，itisnowonderiftheysayintheirpeculiardialect，"theparsonandgentlefolkseemfrittodeathatthem。"
AtFloore，instances，inonebedroomofthesmallestsize，ofcoupleswith4，5，6children;3adultswith5children;acouplewithgrandfatherand6childrendownwithscarletfever，&c。;intwohouseswithtwobedrooms，twofamiliesof8and9adultsrespectively。
（11。）WiltshireStratton。31housesvisited，8withonlyonebedroom。Pentill，inthesameparish:acotletatIs。3d。weeklywith4adultsand4children，hadnothinggoodaboutit，exceptthewalls，fromthefloorofrough—hewnpiecesofstonestotheroofofworn—outthatch。
（12。）WorcestershireHouse—destructionherenotquitesoexcessive;yetfrom1851to1861，thenumberofinhabitantstoeachhouseontheaverage，hasrisenfrom4。2to4。6。
Badsey。Manycotsandlittlegardenshere。Someofthefarmersdeclarethatthecotsare"agreatnuisancehere，becausetheybringthepoor。"Onthestatementofonegentleman:"Thepoorarenonethebetterforthem;ifyoubuild500theywillletfastenough，infact，themoreyoubuild，themoretheywant"（accordingtohimthehousesgivebirthtotheinhabitants，whothenbyalawofNaturepresson"themeansofhousing"）。Dr。Hunterremarks:"Nowthesepoormustcomefromsomewhere，andasthereisnoparticularattraction，suchasdoles，atBadsey，itmustberepulsionfromsomeotherunfitplace，whichwillsendthemhere。
Ifeachcouldfindanallotmentnearhiswork，hewouldnotpreferBadsey，wherehepaysforhisscrapofgroundtwiceasmuchasthefarmerpaysforhis。"
Thecontinualemigrationtothetowns，thecontinualformationofsurplus—populationinthecountrythroughtheconcentrationoffarms，conversionofarablelandintopasture，machinery，&c。，andthecontinualevictionoftheagriculturalpopulationbythedestructionoftheircottages，gohandinhand。Themoreemptythedistrictisofmen，thegreaterisits"relativesurplus—population，"thegreateristheirpressureonthemeansofemployment，thegreateristheabsoluteexcessoftheagriculturalpopulationoverthemeansforhousingit，thegreater，therefore，inthevillagesisthelocalsurplus—populationandthemostpestilentialpackingtogetherofhumanbeings。Thepackingtogetherofknotsofmeninscatteredlittlevillagesandsmallcountrytownscorrespondstotheforcibledrainingofmenfromthesurfaceoftheland。Thecontinuoussupersedingoftheagriculturallabourers，inspiteoftheirdiminishingnumberandtheincreasingmassoftheirproducts，givesbirthtotheirpauperism。Theirpauperismisultimatelyamotivetotheirevictionandthechiefsourceoftheirmiserablehousingwhichbreaksdowntheirlastpowerofresistance。andmakesthemmoreslavesofthelandedproprietorsandthefarmers。[107]ThustheminimumofwagesbecomesalawofNaturetothem。Ontheotherhand，theland，inspiteofitsconstant"relativesurplus—population，"
isatthesametimeunder—populated。Thisisseen，notonlylocallyatthepointswheretheeffluxofmentotowns，mines，railroad—making，&c。，ismostmarked。Itistobeseeneverywhere，inharvest—timeaswellasinspringandsummer，atthosefrequentlyrecurringtimeswhenEnglishagriculture，socarefulandintensive，wantsextrahands。Therearealwaystoomanyagriculturallabourersfortheordinary，andalwaystoofewfortheexceptionalortemporaryneedsofthecultivationofthesoil。[108]"Hencewefindintheofficialdocumentscontradictorycomplaintsfromthesameplacesofdeficiencyandexcessoflaboursimultaneously。
Thetemporaryorlocalwantoflabourbringsaboutnoriseinwages，butaforcingofthewomenandchildrenintothefields，andexploitationatanageconstantlylowered。Assoonastheexploitationofthewomenandchildrentakesplaceonalargerscale，itbecomesinturnanewmeansofmakingasurplus—populationofthemaleagriculturallabourerandofkeepingdownhiswage。IntheeastofEnglandthrivesabeautifulfruitofthisviciouscircle？theso—calledgang—system，towhichImustbrieflyreturnhere;[109]
Thegang—systemobtainsalmostexclusivelyinthecountiesofLincoln，Huntingdon，Cambridge，Norfolk，Suffolk，andNottingham，hereandthereintheneighbouringcountiesofNorthampton，Bedford，andRutland。Lincolnshirewillserveusasanexample。Alargepartofthiscountyisnewland，marshformerly，oreven，asinothersoftheeasterncountiesjustnamed，wonlatelyfromthesea。Thesteam—enginehasworkedwondersinthewayofdrainage。Whatwereoncefensandsandbanks，bearnowaluxuriantseaofcornandthehighestofrents。Thesamethingholdsofthealluviallandswonbyhumanendeavour，asintheislandofAxholmeandotherparishesonthebanksoftheTrent。Inproportionasthenewfarmsarose，notonlywerenonewcottagesbuilt:oldonesweredemolished，andthesupplyoflabourhadtocomefromopenvillages，milesaway，bylongroadsthatwoundalongthesidesofthehills。Therealonehadthepopulationformerlyfoundshelterfromtheincessantfloodsofthewinter—time。Thelabourersthatdwellonthefarmsof400—1，000acres（theyarecalled"confinedlabourers"）aresolelyemployedonsuchkindsofagriculturalworkasispermanent，difficult，andcarriedonbyaidofhorses。Forevery100acresthereis，onanaverage，scarcelyonecottage。Afenfarmer，e。g。，gaveevidencebeforetheCommissionofInquiry:"Ifarm320acres，allarableland。Ihavenotonecottageonmyfarm。Ihaveonlyonelaboureronmyfarmnow。Ihavefourhorsemenlodgingabout。Wegetlightworkdonebygangs。"[110]Thesoilrequiresmuchlightfieldlabour，suchasweeding，hoeing，certainprocessesofmanuring，removingofstones，&c。Thisisdonebythegangs，ororganisedbandsthatdwellintheopenvillages。
Thegangconsistsof10to40or50persons，women，youngpersonsofbothsexes（13—18yearsofage，althoughtheboysareforthemostparteliminatedattheageof13），andchildrenofbothsexes（6—13yearsofage）。Attheheadisthegang—master，alwaysanordinaryagriculturallabourer，generallywhatiscalledabadlot，ascapegrace，unsteady，drunken，butwithadashofenterpriseandsavoir—faire。Heistherecruiting—sergeantforthegang，whichworksunderhim，notunderthefarmer。Hegenerallyarrangeswiththelatterforpiece—work，andhisincome，whichontheaverageisnotverymuchabovethatofanordinaryagriculturallabourer，[111]dependsalmostentirelyuponthedexteritywithwhichhemanagestoextractwithintheshortesttimethegreatestpossibleamountoflabourfromhisgang。Thefarmershavediscoveredthatwomenworksteadilyonlyunderthedirectionofmen，butthatwomenandchildren，oncesetgoing，impetuouslyspendtheirlife—force？asFourierknew？
whiletheadultmalelabourerisshrewdenoughtoeconomisehisasmuchashecan。Thegang—mastergoesfromonefarmtoanother，andthusemployshisgangfrom6to8monthsintheyear。Employmentbyhimis，therefore，muchmorelucrativeandmorecertainforthelabouringfamilies，thanemploymentbytheindividualfarmer，whoonlyemployschildrenoccasionally。Thiscircumstancesocompletelyrivetshisinfluenceintheopenvillagesthatchildrenaregenerallyonlytobehiredthroughhisinstrumentality。Thelendingoutoftheseindividually，independentlyofthegang，ishissecondtradp;
The"drawbacks"ofthesystemaretheover—workofthechildrenandyoungpersons，theenormousmarchesthattheymakedailytoandfromthefarms，5，6，andsometimes7milesdistant，finally，thedemoralisationof—thegang。Althoughthegang—master，who，insomedistrictsiscalled"thedriver，"isarmedwithalongstick，heusesitbutseldom，andcomplaintsofbrutaltreatmentareexceptional。Heisademocratic。emperor，orakindofPiedPiperofHamelin。Hemustthereforebepopularwithhissubjects，andhebindsthemtohimselfbythecharmsofthegipsylifeunderhisdirection。Coarsefreedom，anoisyjollity，andobscenestimpudencegiveattractionstothegang。Generallythegangmasterpaysupinapublichouse;
thenheretumshomeattheheadoftheprocessionreelingdrunk，proppeduprightandleftbyastalwartvirago，whilechildrenandyoungpersonsbringuptherear，boisterous，andsingingchaffingandbawdysongs。OnthereturnjourneywhatFouriercalls"phanerogamie，"istheorderoftheday。Thegettingwithchildofgirlsof13and14bytheirmalecompanionsofthesameage，iscommon。Theopenvillageswhichsupplythecontingentofthegang，becomeSodomsandGomorrahs，[112]andhavetwiceashigharateofillegitimatebirthsastherestofthekingdom。Themoralcharacterofgirlsbredintheseschools，whenmarriedwomen，wasshownabove。Theirchildren，whenopiumdoesnotgivethemthefinishingstroke，arebornrecruitsofthegang。
Theganginitsclassicalformjustdescribed，iscalledthepublic，common，ortrampinggang。Fortherearealsoprivategangs。Thesearemadeupinthesamewayasthecommongang，butcountfewermembers，andwork，notunderagang—master，butundersomeoldfarmservant，whomthefarmerdoesnotknowhowtoemployinanybetterway。Thegipsyfunhasvanishedhere，butaccordingtoallwitnesses，thepaymentandtreatmentofthechildrenisworse。
Thegang—system，whichduringthelastyearshassteadilyincreased，[113]clearlydoesnotexistforthesakeofthegang—master。itexistsfortheenrichmentofthelargefarmers，[114]andindirectlyofthelandlords。[115]Forthefarmerthereisnomoreingeniousmethodofkeepinghislabourerswellbelowthenormallevel，andyetofalwayshavinganextrahandreadyforextrawork，ofextractingthegreatestpossibleamountoflabourwiththeleastpossibleamountofmoney[116]andofmakingadultmalelabour"redundant。"Fromtheexpositionalreadymade，itwillbeunderstoodwhy，ontheonehand，agreaterorlesslackofemploymentfortheagriculturallabourerisadmitted，whileontheother，thegang—systemisatthesametimedeclared"necessary"onaccountofthewantofadultmalelabouranditsmigrationtothetowns。[117]Thecleanlyweededland，andtheuncleanlyhumanweeds，ofLincolnshire，arepoleandcounterpoleofcapitalisticproduction。[118]
F。IrelandInconcludingthissection，wemusttravelforamomenttoIreland。First，themainfactsofthecase。
ThepopulationofIrelandhad，in1841，reached8，222，664;in1851，ithaddwindledto6，623，985;in1861，to5，850，309;in1866，to51/2
millions，nearlytoitslevelin1801。Thediminutionbeganwiththefamineyear，1846，sothatIreland，inlessthantwentyyears，lostmorethan5/16thsofitspeople。[119]ItstotalemigrationfromMay，1851，toJuly，1865，numbered1，591，487:
theemigrationduringtheyears1861—1865wasmorethanhalf—a—million。
Thenumberofinhabitedhousesfell，from1851—1861，by52，990。From1851—1861，thenumberofholdingsof15to30acresincreased61，000，thatofholdingsover30acres，109，000，whilstthetotalnumberofallfarmsfell120，000，afall，therefore，solelyduetothesuppressionoffarmsunder15acres？i。e。，totheircentralisation。
TableA
LIVE—STOCK
YearHorsesCattleSheepPigsTotalNumberDecreaseTotalNumberDecreaseIncreaseTotalNumberDecreaseIncreaseTotalNumberDecreaseIncrease1860619，811？nbsp;3，606，374？nbsp;？nbsp;3，542，080？nbsp;？nbsp;1，271，072？nbsp;？nbsp;
1861614，2325，5793，471，688134，686？nbsp;3，556，050？nbsp;13，9701，102，042169，030？nbsp;
1862602，89411，3383，254，890216，798？nbsp;3，456，13299，918？nbsp;1，154，324？nbsp;52，282
1863579，97822，9163，144，231110，659？nbsp;3，308，204147，982？nbsp;1，067，45886，866？nbsp;
1864562，15817，8203，262，294？nbsp;118，0633，366，941？nbsp;58，7371，058，4808，978？nbsp;
1865547，86714，2913，493，414？nbsp;231，1203，688，742？nbsp;321，8011，299，893？nbsp;241，413Thedecreaseofthepopulationwasnaturallyaccompaniedbyadecreaseinthemassofproducts。Forourpurpose，itsufficestoconsiderthe5
yearsfrom1861—1865duringwhichoverhalf—a—millionemigrated，andtheabsolutenumberofpeoplesankbymorethan1ofamillion。Fromtheabovetableitresults:？
HorsesCattleSheepPigsAbsoluteDecreaseAbsoluteDecreaseAbsoluteIncreaseAbsoluteIncrease71，944112，960146，66228，8211[120]
Letusnowturntoagriculture，whichyieldsthemeansofsubsistenceforcattleandformen。Inthefollowingtableiscalculatedthedecreaseorincreaseforeachseparateyear，ascomparedwithitsimmediatepredecessor。
TheCerealCropsincludewheat，oats，barley，rye，beans，andpeas;theGreenCrops，potatoes，turnips，marigolds，beet—root，cabbages，carrots，parsnips，vetches。&c。
TableB
INCREASEORDECREASEINTHEAREAUNDERCROPSANDGRASS
INACREAGE
YearCerealCropGreenCropGrassandCloverFlaxTotalCultivatedLandDecrease（Acres）Decrease（Acres）Increase（Acres）Decrease（Acres）Increase（Acres）Decrease（Acres）Increase（Acres）Decrease（Acres）Increase（Acres）
186115，70136，974？nbsp;47，969？nbsp;？nbsp;19，27181，373？nbsp;
186272，73474，785？nbsp;？nbsp;6，623？nbsp;2，055138，841？nbsp;
1863144，71919，358？nbsp;？nbsp;7，724？nbsp;63，92292，431？nbsp;
1864122，4372，317？nbsp;？nbsp;47，486？nbsp;87，761？nbsp;10，493
186572，450？nbsp;25，241？nbsp;68，97050，159？nbsp;28，398？nbsp;
1861—65428，041108，193？nbsp;？nbsp;82，834？nbsp;122，8501330，350？nbsp;Intheyear1865，127，470additionalacrescameundertheheading"grassland，"chieflybecausetheareaundertheheadingof"bogandwasteunoccupied，"
decreasedby101，543acres。Ifwecompare1865with1864，thereisadecreaseincerealsof246，667qrs。，ofwhich48，999werewheat，160，605oats，29，892barley，&c。:thedecreaseinpotatoeswas446，398tons，althoughtheareaoftheircultivationincreasedin1865。
FromthemovementofpopulationandtheagriculturalproduceofIreland，wepasstothemovementinthepurseofitslandlords，largerfarmers，andindustrialcapitalists。ItisreflectedintheriseandfalloftheIncome—tax。ItmayberememberedthatScheduleD。（profitswiththeexceptionofthoseoffarmers），includesalsotheso—called，"professional"profits？i。e。，theincomesoflawyers，doctors，&c。;andtheSchedulesC。andE。，inwhichnospecialdetailsaregiven，includetheincomesofemployees，officers，Statesinecurists，Statefundholders，&c。
TableC[121]
INCREASEORDECREASEINTHEAREAUNDERCULTIVATION，PRODUCTPERACRE，ANDTOTALPRODUCTOF1865COMPAREDWITH1864
ProductAcresofCultivatedLandProductperAcreTotalProduct18641865IncreaseorDecrease，186518641865IncreaseorDecrease，186518641865IncreaseorDecrease，1865
Wheat276，483266，989？nbsp;9，494cwt。，13。313。0？nbsp;0。3875，782Qrs。826，783Qrs。？nbsp;48，999Qrs。
Oats1，814，8861，745，228？nbsp;69，658cwt。，12。112。30。2？nbsp;7，826，332Qrs。7，659，727Qrs。？nbsp;166，605Qrs。
Barley172，700177，1024，402？nbsp;cwt。，15。914。9？nbsp;1。0761，909Qrs。732，017Qrs。？nbsp;29，892Qrs。
Bere8，89410，0911，197？nbsp;cwt。，16。414。8？nbsp;1。615，160Qrs。13，989Qrs。？nbsp;1，171Qrs。
Ryecwt。，8。510。41。9？nbsp;12，680Qrs。18，314Qrs。5，684Qrs。？nbsp;
Potatoes1，039，7241，066，26026，536？nbsp;tons，4。13。6？nbsp;0。54，312，388ts。3，865，990ts。？nbsp;446，398ts。
Turnips337，355334，212？nbsp;3，143tons，10。39。9？nbsp;0。43，467，659ts。3，301，683ts。？nbsp;165，976ts。
Mangold—
wurzel14，07314，389316？nbsp;tons，10。513。32。8？nbsp;147，284ts。191，937ts。44，653ts。？nbsp;
Cabbages31，82133，6221，801？nbsp;tons，9。310。41。1？nbsp;297，375ts。350，252ts。52，877ts。？nbsp;
Flax301，693251，433？nbsp;50，260st。（14lb。）34。225。2？nbsp;9。064，506st。39，561st。？nbsp;24，945st。
Hay1，609，5691，678，49368，9241？nbsp;tons，1。61。80。2？nbsp;2，607，153ts。3，068，707ts。461，554ts。？nbsp;TableD
THEINCOME—TAXONTHESUBJOINEDINCOMESINPOUNDSSTERLING
（TenthReportoftheCommissionersofInlandRevenue，Lond。1866。）
186018611862186318641865
ScheduleA。
RentofLand13，893，82913，003，55413，398，93813，494，09113，470，70013，801，616
ScheduleB。
Farmers’Profits。2，765，3872，773，6442，937，8992，938，9232，930，8742，946，072
ScheduleD。
Industrial，&c。，Profits4，891，6524，836，2034，858，8004，846，4974，546，1474，850，199
TotalSchedulesAtoE22，962，88522，998，39423，597，57423，658，63123，236，29823，930，340UnderScheduleD。，theaverageannualincreaseofincomefrom1853—1864
wasonly0。93;whilst，inthesameperiod，inGreatBritain，itwas4。58。
Thefollowingtableshowsthedistributionoftheprofits（withtheexceptionofthoseoffarmers）fortheyears1864and1865:？
TableE[122]
SCHEDULED。
INCOMEFROMPROFITS（OVER£6O）INIRELAND
1864
£1865
£
Totalyearlyincomeof4，368，610dividedamong17，467persons。4，669，979dividedamong18，081persons。
Yearlyincomeover£60
andunder£100238，726dividedamong5，015persons。222，575dividedamong4，703persons。
Oftheyearlytotalincome1，979，066dividedamong11，321persons。2，028，571dividedamong12，184persons。
Remainderofthetotalyearlyincome2，150，818dividedamong1，131persons。2，418，833dividedamong1，194persons。
Ofthese1，073，906dividedamong1，010persons。1，097，927dividedamong1，044persons。
1，076，912dividedamong121persons。1，320，906dividedamong150persons。
430，535dividedamong95persons。584，458dividedamong2persons。
646，377dividedamong26736，448dividedamong28
262，819dividedamong3274，528dividedamong3England，acountrywithfullydevelopedcapitalistproduction，andpre—eminentlyindustrial，wouldhavebledtodeathwithsuchadrainofpopulationasIrelandhassuffered。ButIrelandisatpresentonlyanagriculturaldistrictofEngland，markedoffbyawidechannelfromthecountrytowhichityieldscorn，wool，cattle，industrialandmilitaryrecruits。
ThedepopulationofIrelandhasthrownmuchofthelandoutofcultivation，hasgreatlydiminishedtheproduceofthesoil，[123]and，inspiteofthegreaterareadevotedtocattlebreeding，hasbroughtabout，insomeofitsbranches，anabsolutediminution，inothers，anadvancescarcelyworthyofmention，andconstantlyinterruptedbyretrogressions。
Nevertheless，withthefallinnumbersofthepopulation，rentsandfarmers’
profitsrose，althoughthelatternotassteadilyastheformer。Thereasonofthisiseasilycomprehensible。Ontheonehand，withthethrowingofsmallholdingsintolargeones，andthechangeofarableintopastureland，alargerpartofthewholeproducewastransformedintosurplus—produce。
Thesurplus—produceincreased，althoughthetotalproduce，ofwhichitformedafraction，decreased。Ontheotherhand，themoney—valueofthissurplus—produceincreasedyetmorerapidlythanitsmass，inconsequenceoftheriseintheEnglishmarket—priceofmeat，wool，&c。，duringthelast20，andespeciallyduringthelast10，years。
Thescatteredmeansofproductionthatservetheproducersthemselvesasmeansofemploymentandofsubsistence，withoutexpandingtheirownvaluebytheincorporationofthelabourofothers，arenomorecapitalthanaproductconsumedbyitsownproducerisacommodity。If，withthemassofthepopulation，thatofthemeansofproductionemployedinagriculturealsodiminished，themassofthecapitalemployedinagricultureincreased，becauseapartofthemeansofproductionthatwereformerlyscattered，wasconcentratedandturnedintocapital。
ThetotalcapitalofIrelandoutsideagriculture，employedinindustryandtrade，accumulatedduringthelasttwodecadesslowly，andwithgreatandconstantlyrecurringfluctuations;somuchthemorerapidlydidtheconcentrationofitsindividualconstituentsdevelop。And，howeversmallitsabsoluteincrease，inproportiontothedwindlingpopulationithadincreasedlargely。
Here，then，underourowneyesandonalargescale，aprocessisrevealed，thanwhichnothingmoreexcellentcouldbewishedforbyorthodoxeconomyforthesupportofitsdogma:thatmiseryspringsfromabsolutesurplus—population，andthatequilibriumisre—establishedbydepopulation。Thisisafarmoreimportantexperimentthanwastheplagueinthemiddleofthe14thcenturysobelaudedofMalthusians。Notefurther:Ifonlythenaïveté