[16]H。Merivale。"LecturesonColonisationandColonies，"1841，Vol。I，p。
　　146。
　　[17]Malthus，"PrinciplesofPoliticalEconomy，"pp。215，319，320。Inthiswork，Malthusfinallydiscovers，withthehelpofSismondi，thebeautifulTrinityofcapitalisticproduction:over—production，over—population，over—consumption？threeverydelicatemonsters，indeed。Cf。F。Engels，"UmrissezueinerKritikderNationalökonomie，"l。c。，p，107，etseq。
　　[18]HarrietMartineau，"AManchesterStrike，"1832，p。101。
　　[19]Eveninthecottonfamineof1863wefind，inapamphletoftheoperativecottonspinnersofBlackburn，fiercedenunciationsofover—work。which，inconsequenceoftheFactoryActs，ofcourseonlyaffectedadultmalelabourers。"Theadultoperativesatthismillhavebeenaskedtoworkfrom12to13hoursperday，whiletherearehundredswhoarecompelledtobeidlewhowouldwillinglyworkpartialtime，inordertomaintaintheirfamiliesandsavetheirbrethrenfromaprematuregravethroughbeingoverworked……
　　We，"itgoesontosay，"wouldaskifthepracticeofworkingover—timebyanumberofhands，islikelytocreateagoodfeelingbetweenmastersandservants。Thosewhoareworkedover—timefeeltheinjusticeequallywiththosewhoarecondemnedtoforcedidleness。Thereisinthedistrictalmostsufficientworktogivetoallpartialemploymentiffairlydistributed。
　　Weareonlyaskingwhatisrightinrequestingthemastersgenerallytopursueasystemofshorthours，particularlyuntilabetterstateofthingsbeginstodawnuponus，ratherthantoworkaportionofthehandsover—time，whileothers，forwantofwork，arecompelledtoexistuponcharity。"（"ReportsofInsp。ofFact。，Oct。31，1863，"p。8。）Theauthorofthe"EssayonTradeandCommerce"graspstheeffectofarelativesurplus—populationontheemployedlabourerswithhisusualunerringbourgeoisinstinct。"Anothercauseofidlenessinthiskingdomisthewantofasufficientnumberoflabouringhands……Wheneverfromanextraordinarydemandformanufactures，labourgrowsscarce，thelabourersfeeltheirownconsequence，andwillmaketheirmastersfeelitlikewise？itisamazing;butsodepravedarethedispositionsofthesepeople，thatinsuchcasesasetofworkmenhavecombinedtodistresstheemployerbyidlingawholedaytogether。"（"Essay，&c。，"pp。27，28。）Thefellowsinfactwerehankeringafterariseinwages。
　　[20]Economist，Jan。21。1860。
　　[21]Whilstduringthelastsixmonthsof1866，80—90，000workingpeopleinLondonwerethrownoutofwork，theFactoryReportforthatsamehalfyearsays:"Itdoesnotappearabsolutelytruetosaythatdemandwillalwaysproducesupplyjustatthemomentwhenitisneeded。Ithasnotdonesowithlabour，formuchmachineryhasbeenidlelastyearforwantofhands。"
　　（"Rep。ofInsp。ofFact。，31stOct。，1866，"p。81。）
　　[22]OpeningaddresstotheSanitaryConference，Birmingham，January15th，1875，byJ。Chamberlain，Mayorofthetown，now（1883）PresidentoftheBoardofTrade。
　　[23]781townsgiveninthecensusfor1861forEnglandandWales"contained10，960，998inhabitants，whilethevillagesandcountryparishescontained9，105，226。In1851，580townsweredistinguished，andthepopulationinthemandinthesurroundingcountrywasnearlyequal。Butwhileinthesubsequenttenyearsthepopulationinthevillagesandthecountryincreasedhalfamillion，thepopulationinthe580townsincreasedbyamillionandahalf（1，554，067）。Theincreaseofthepopulationofthecountryparishesis6。5percent。，andofthetowns17。3percent。Thedifferenceintheratesofincreaseisduetothemigrationfromcountrytotown。Three—fourthsofthetotalincreaseofpopulationhastakenplaceinthetowns。"（"Census。
　　&c。，"pp。11and12。）
　　[24]"Povertyseemsfavourabletogeneration。"（A。Smith。）ThisisevenaspeciallywisearrangementofGod，accordingtothegallantandwittyAbbé
　　Galiani"Iddioafchegliuominicheesercitanomestieridiprimautilitinasconoabbondantemente。"（Galiani，l。c。，p。78。）"Miseryuptotheextremepointoffamineandpestilence，insteadofchecking，tendstoincreasepopulation。"（S。Laing，"NationalDistress，"1844，p。69。）AfterLainghasillustratedthisbystatistics，hecontinues:"Ifthepeoplewereallineasycircumstances，theworldwouldsoonbedepopulated。"
　　[25]"Dejourenjourildeviantdoncplusclairquelesrapportsdeproductiondanslesquelssemeutlabourgeoisien’ontpasuncaractèreun，uncatactèresimple，maisuncaractèrededuplicité;
　　quedanslesmêmesrapportsdanslesquelsseproduitlarichesse，lamiséreseproduitaussi;quedanslesmêmesrapportsdanslesquelsilyadéveloppementdesforcesproductives，ilyauneforceproductivederépression;quecesrapportsneproduisentlarichessebourgeoise，c’est—à—direlarichessedelaclassebourgeoise，qu’enanéantissantcontinuellementlarichessedesmembresintégrantsdecetteclasseetenproduisantunprolétariattoujourscroissant。"
　　（KarlMarx:"MisèredelaPhilosophie，"p。116。）
　　[26]G。Ortes:"DeliaEconomiaNazionalelibrisei，1777，"inCustodi，ParteModerna，t。xxi，pp。6，9，22，25，etc。Ortessays，l。c。，p。32:"Inluocodiprogettarsistemiinutiliperlafelicitàde’popoli，milimiterò
　　ainvestigatelaregiondeltaloroinfelicità。"
　　[27]"ADissertationonthePoorLaws。ByaWell—wisherofMankind。（TheRev。
　　J。Townsend）1786，"republishedLond。1817，pp。15，39，41。This"delicate"
　　parson，fromwhoseworkjustquoted，aswellasfromhis"JourneythroughSpain，"Malthusoftencopieswholepages，himselfborrowedthegreaterpartofhisdoctrinefromSirJamesSteuart，whomhehoweveraltersintheborrowing。E。g。，whenSteuartsays:"Here，inslavery，wasaforciblemethodofmakingmankinddiligent，"[forthenon—workers]……
　　"Menwerethenforcedtowork"[i。e。，toworkgratisforothers]，"becausetheywereslavesofothers;menarenowforcedtowork"[i。e。，toworkgratisfornon—workers]"becausetheyaretheslavesoftheirnecessities，"
　　hedoesnotthenceconclude，likethefatholderofbenefices，thatthewage—labourermustalwaysgofasting。Hewishes，onthecontrary，toincreasetheirwantsandtomaketheincreasingnumberoftheirwantsastimulustotheirlabourforthe"moredelicate。"
　　[28]Storch，l。c。，t。iii，p。223。
　　[29]Sismondi，l。c。，pp。79，80，85。
　　[30]DestuttdeTracy，l。c。，p。231:"Lesnationspauvres，c’estlà
　　oùlepeupleestàsonaise;etlesnationsriches，c’estlàoùilestordinairementpauvre。"
　　[31]"TenthReportoftheCommissionersofH。M。InlandRevenue。"Lond。，1866。
　　p。38。
　　[32]lbidem。
　　[33]Thesefiguresaresufficientforcomparison，but，takenabsolutely，arefalse，since，perhaps，£100，000，000ofincomeareannuallynotdeclared。
　　ThecomplaintsoftheInlandRevenueCommissionersofsystematicfraud，especiallyonthepartofthecommercialandindustrialclasses，arerepeatedineachoftheirreports。Soe。g。，"AJoint—stockcompanyreturns£6，000asassessableprofits，thesurveyorraisestheamountto£88，000，anduponthatsumdutyisultimatelypaid。Anothercompanywhichreturns£190，000isfinallycompelledtoadmitthatthetruereturnshouldbe£250，000。"（Ibid。，p，42。）
　　[34]"Census，&c。，"l。c。，p。29。JohnBright’sassertionthat150landlordsownhalfofEngland，and12halftheScotchsoil，hasneverbeenrefuted。
　　[35]"FourthReport，&c。，ofInlandRevenue。"Lond。，1860，p。17。
　　[36]Thesearethenetincomesaftercertainlegallyauthorisedabatements。
　　[37]Atthismoment，March，1867，theIndianandChinesemarketisagainoverstockedbytheconsignmentsoftheBritishcottonmanufacturers。In1866areductioninwagesof5percent。tookplaceamongstthecottonoperatives。In1867，asconsequenceofasimilaroperation，therewasastrikeof20，000menatPreston。[Addedinthe4thGermanedition。？Thatwasthepreludetothecrisiswhichbrokeoutimmediatelyafterwards。？F。E。]
　　[38]"Census，&C。，"l。c。，P。11。
　　[39]GladstoneintheHouseofCommons，Feb。13th，1843。Times，Feb。
　　14th，1843？"Itisoneofthemostmelancholyfeaturesinthesocialstateofthiscountrythatwesee，beyondthepossibilityofdenial，thatwhilethereisatthismomentadecreaseintheconsumingpowersofthepeople，anincreaseofthepressureofprivationsanddistress;thereisatthesametimeaconstantaccumulationofwealthintheupperclasses，anincreaseoftheluxuriousnessoftheirhabits，andoftheirmeansofenjoyment。"
　　（Hansard，13thFeb。）
　　[40]GladstoneintheHouseofCommons，April16th，1863。MorningStar，April17th。
　　[41]SeetheofficialaccountsintheBluebook:"MiscellaneousStatisticsoftheUnitedKingdom，"Partvi。，London，1866，pp。260—273，passim。Insteadofthestatisticsoforphanasylums，&c。，thedeclamationsoftheministerialjournalsinrecommendingdowriesfortheRoyalchildrenmightalsoserve。
　　Thegreaterdearnessofthemeansofsubsistenceisneverforgottenthere。
　　[42]Gladstone，HouseofCommons，7thApril，1864。？"TheHansardversionruns:
　　’Again，andyetmoreatlarge？whatishumanlife，but，inthemajorityofcases，astruggleforexistence。’ThecontinualcryingcontradictionsinGladstone’sBudgetspeechesof1863and1864werecharacterisedbyanEnglishwriterbythefollowingquotationfromBoileau:"VoilàI’hommeeneffet。Ilvadublancaunoir，Ilcondamneaumatinsessentimentsdusoir。
　　Importunàtoutautre，àsoi—mêmeincommode，Ilchangeàtoutmomentd’espritcommedemode。"（"TheTheoryofExchanges，&c。，"London，1864，p。135。）
　　[43]H。Fawcett，l。c。，pp。67—82。Astotheincreasingdependenceoflabourersontheretailshopkeepers，thisistheconsequenceofthefrequentoscillationsandinterruptionsoftheiremployment。
　　[44]WaleshereisalwaysincludedinEngland。
　　[45]ApeculiarlightisthrowmontheadvancemadesincethetimeofAdamSmith，bythefactthatbyhimtheword"workhouse"isstilloccasionallyusedassynonymouswith"manufactory";e。g。，theopeningofhischapteronthedivisionoflabour;"thoseemployedineverydifferentbranchoftheworkcanoftenbecollectedintothesameworkhouse。"
　　[46]"PublicHealth。SixthReport，1864，"p。13。
　　[47]l。c。，p。17。
　　[48]l。c。，p。13。
　　[49]l。c。，Appendix，p。232。
　　[50]l。c。，pp。232，233。
　　[51]l。c。，pp。14，15。
　　[52]"Innoparticularhavetherightsofpersonsbeensoavowedlyandshamefullysacrificedtotherightsofpropertyasinregardtothelodgingofthelabouringclass。Everylargetownmaybelookeduponasaplaceofhumansacrifice，ashrinewherethousandspassyearlythroughthefireasofferingstothemolochofavarice，"S。Laing，l。c。，p。150。
　　[53]"PublicHealth，EighthReport。1866。"p。14，note。
　　[54]l。c。，p。89。Withreferencetothechildreninthesecolonies，Dr。Huntersays:"Peoplearenotnowalivetotellushowchildrenwerebroughtupbeforethisageofdenseagglomerationsofpoorbegan，andhewouldbeamshprophetwhoshouldtelluswhatfuturebehaviouristobeexpectedfromthepresentgrowthofchildren，who，undercircumstancesprobablyneverbeforeparalleledinthiscountry，arenowcompletingtheireducationforfuturepractice，as’dangerousclasses’bysittinguphalfthenightwithpersonsofeveryage，halfnaked，drunken，obscene，andquarrelsome。"
　　（l。c。，p。56。）
　　[55]l。c。，p。62。
　　[56]"ReportoftheOfficerofHealthofSt。Martins—in—the—Fields，1865。
　　[57]PublicHealth，EighthReport，1866，"p。91。
　　[58]l。c。，p。88。
　　[59]l。c。，p。88。
　　[60]l。c。，p。89。
　　[61]l。c。，p。55and56。
　　[62]l。c。，p。149。
　　[63]l。c。，p。50。
　　[64]棗棗棗棗棗棗棗棗棗棗棗棗棗棗
　　COLLECTINGAGENTSLIST（BRADFORD）。
　　棗棗棗棗棗棗棗棗棗棗棗棗棗棗
　　HousesVulcanStreet，No。122……1room16personsLumievStreet，No。13……1room11personsBowerStreet，No。41……1room11personsPortlandStreet。No。112……1room10personsHardyStreet，No。17……1room10personsNorthStreet，No。18……1room16personsNorthStreet，No。17……1room13personsWymerStreet，No。19……1room8adultsJowettStreet，No。56……1room12personsGeorgeStreet，No。150……1room3familiesRifleCourtMarygate，No。11……1room11personsMarshallStreet，No。28……1room10personsMarshallStreet，No。49……1room3familiesGeorgeStreet，No。128……1room18personsGeorgeStreet，No。130……1room16personsEdwardStreet，No。4……1room17personsGeorgeStreet，No。49……1room2familiesYorkStreet，No。34，……1room2familiesSaltPieStreet（bottom）……2room26personsCellarsRegentSquare……1cellar8personsAcreStreet……1cellar7persons33RobertsCourt……1cellar7personsBackPrattStreet……1cellar7personsusedasabrazier’sshop27EbenezerStreet……1cellar6personsl。c。，p。111。（nomaleabove18）。
　　棗棗棗棗棗棗棗棗棗棗棗棗棗棗[65]l。c。，p。114。
　　[66]l。c。，p。50。
　　[67]"PublicHealth。SeventhReport。1865，"p。18。
　　[68]l。c。，p。165。
　　[69]l。c。，p。18，Note。？TheRelievingOfficeroftheChapel—en—le—FrithUnionreportedtotheRegistar—Generalasfollows:？"AtDoveholes，anumberofsmallexcavationshavebeenmadeintoalargehillockoflimeashes（therefuseoflime—kilns），andwhichareusedasdwellings，andoccupiedbylabourersandothersemployedintheconstructionofarailwaynowincourseofconstructionthroughthatneighbourhood。Theexcavationsaresmallanddamp，andhavenodrainsorpriviesaboutthem，andnottheslightestmeansofventilationexceptupaholepulledthroughthetop，andusedforachimney。Inconsequenceofthisdefect，small—poxhasbeenragingforsometime，andsomedeaths[amongstthetroglodytes]havebeencausedbyit。"（l。c。，note2。）
　　[70]ThedetailsgivenattheendofPartIV。referespeciallytothelabourersincoalmines。Onthestillworseconditioninmetalmines，seetheveryconscientiousReportoftheRoyalCommissionof1864。
　　[71]l。c。，pp。180，182。
　　[72]l。c。，pp。515，517。
　　[73]l。c。，p。16。
　　[74]"WholesalestarvationoftheLondonPoor……WithinthelastfewdaysthewallsofLondonhavebeenplacardedwithlargeposters，bearingthefollowingremarkableannouncement:？’Fatoxen！Starvingmen！Thefatoxenfromtheirpalaceofglasshavegonetofeedtherichintheirluxuriousabode，whilethestarvingmenarelefttorotanddieintheirwretcheddens。’Theplacardsbearingtheseominouswordsareputupatcertainintervals。Nosoonerhasonesetbeendefacedorcoveredover，thanafreshsetisplacardedintheformer，orsomeequallypublicplace……This……remindsoneofthesecretrevolutionaryassociationswhichpreparedtheFrenchpeoplefortheeventsof1789……Atthismoment，whileEnglishworkmenwiththeirwivesandchildrenaredyingofcoldandhunger，therearemillionsofEnglishgold？theproduceofEnglishlabour？beinginvestedinRussian，Spanish，Italian，andotherforeignenterprises。"？Reynolds’Newspaper，January20th，1867。
　　[75]JamesE。ThoroldRogers。（Prof。ofPolit。Econ。intheUniversityofOxford。）
　　"AHistoryofAgricultureandPricesinEngland。"Oxford，1866，v。1，p。
　　690。Thiswork，thefruitofpatientanddiligentlabour，containsinthetwovolumesthathavesofarappeared，onlytheperiodfrom1259to1400。
　　Thesecondvolumecontainssimplystatistics。Itisthefirstauthentic"HistoryofPrices"ofthetimethatwepossess。
　　[76]"ReasonsfortheLateIncreaseofthePoor—Rates:oracomparativeviewofthepricesoflabourandprovisions。"Lond。，1777，pp。5，11。
　　[77]Dr。RichardPrice:"ObservationsonReversionaryPayments，"6thEd。ByW。Morgan，Lond。，1803，v。11。，pp。158，159。Priceremarksonp。159:
　　"Thenominalpriceofdaylabourisatpresentnomorethanaboutfourtimes，or，atmost，fivetimeshigherthanitwasintheyear1514。Butthepriceofcornisseventimes，andofflesh—meatandraimentaboutfifteentimeshigher。Sofar，therefore，hasthepriceoflabourbeenevenfromadvancinginproportiontotheincreaseintheexpensesofliving，thatitdoesnotappearthatitbearsnowhalftheproportiontothoseexpensesthatitdidbear。"
　　[78]Barton，l。c。，p。26。Fortheendofthe18thcenturycf。Eden，l。c。
　　[79]Parry，l。c。，p。86。
　　[80]id。，p。213。
　　[81]S。Laing，l。c。，p。62。
　　[82]"EnglandandAmerica。"Lond。，1833，Vol。1，p。47。
　　[83]Thelandedaristocracyadvancedthemselvestothisend，ofcourseperParliament，fundsfromtheStateTreasury，ataverylowrateofinterest，whichthefarmershavetomakegoodatamuchhigherrate。
　　[84]LondonEconomist，May29th，1845，p。290。
　　[85]Thedecreaseofthemiddle—classfarmerscanbeseenespeciallyinthecensuscategory:"Farmer’sson，grandson，brother，nephew，daughter，granddaughter，sister，niece";inaword，themembersofhisownfamily，employedbythefarmer。Thiscategorynumbered，in1851，216，851persons;in1861，only176，151。From1851to1871，thefarmsunder20acresfellbymorethan900innumber;thosebetween50and75acresfellfrom8，253to6，370;
　　thesamethingoccurredwithallotherfarmsunder100acres。Ontheotherhand，duringthesametwentyyears，thenumberoflargefarmsincreased;
　　thoseof300—500acresrosefrom7，771to8，410，thoseofmorethan500
　　acresfrom2，755to3，914，thoseofmorethan1，000acresfrom492to582。
　　[86]Thenumberofshepherdsincreasedfrom12，517to25，559。
　　[87]Census，l。c。，p。36。
　　[88]Rogers，l。c。，p。693，p。10。Mr。RogersbelongstotheLiberalSchool，isapersonalfriendofCobdenandBright，andthereforenolaudatortemporisacti。
　　[89]"PublicHealth。SeventhReport，"1865，p。242。Itisthereforenothingunusualeitherforthelandlordtoraisealabourer’srentassoonashehearsthatheisearnitigalittlemore，orforthefarmertolowerthewageofthelabourer，"becausehiswifehasfoundatrade，"l。c。
　　[90]l。c。，p。135。
　　[91]l。c。，p。134。
　　[92]"ReportoftheCommissioners……relatingtoTransportationandPenalServitude，"
　　Lond。，1863，pp。42，50。
　　[93]l。c。，p。77。"MemorandumbytheLordChiefJustice。"
　　[94]l。c。，Vol。11，MinutesofEvidence。
　　[95]l。c。，Vol。1。Appendix，p。280。
　　[96]l。c。，pp。274，275。
　　[97]"PublicHealth，SixthReport，"1864，pp。238，249，261，262。
　　[98]l。c。，p。262。
　　[99]l。c。，p。17。TheEnglishagriculturallabourerreceivesonly1/4asmuchmilk，and1/2asmuchbreadastheIrish。ArthurYounginhis"TourinIreland，"atthebeginningofthiscentury，alreadynoticedthebetternourishmentofthelatter。Thereasonissimplythis，thatthepoorIrishfarmerisincomparablymorehumanethantherichEnglish。AsregardsWales，thatwhichissaidinthetextholdsonlyforthesouthwest。Allthedoctorsthereagreethattheincreaseofthedeath—ratethroughtuberculosis，scrofula，etc。，increasesinintensitywiththedeteriorationofthephysicalconditionofthepopulation，andallascribethisdeteriorationtopoverty。"His（thefarmlabourer’s）keepisreckonedataboutfivepenceaday，butinmanydistrictsitwassaidtobeofmuchlesscosttothefarmer"[himselfverypoor]……"Amorselofthesaltmeatorbacon，……saltedanddriedtothetextureofmahogany，andhardlyworththedifficultprocessofassimilation……isusedtoflavouralargequantityofbrothorgruel，ofmealandleeks，anddayafterdaythisisthelabourer’sdinner。"Theadvanceofindustryresultedforhim，inthisharshanddampclimate，in"theabandonmentofthesolidhomespunclothinginfavourofthecheapandso—calledcottongoods，"andofstrongerdrinksforso—calledtea。"Theagriculturist，afterseveralhours’exposuretowindandrain，pinshiscottagetositbyafireofpeatorofballsofclayandsmallcoalkneadedtogether，fromwhichvolumesofcarbonicandsulphurousacidsarepouredforth。Hiswallsareofmudandstones，hisfloorthebareearthwhichwastherebeforethehutwasbuilt，hisroofamassoflooseandsoddenthatch。Everycreviceistoppedtomaintainwarmth，andinanatmosphereofdiabolicodour，withamudfioor，withhisonlyclothesdryingonhisback，heoftensupsandsleepswithhiswifeandchildren。Obstetricianswhohavepassedpartsofthenightinsuchcibinshavedescribedhowtheyfoundtheirfeetsinkinginthemudofthefloor，andtheywereforced（easytask）todrillaholethroughthewalltoeffectalittleprivaterespiration。Itwasattestedbynumerouswitnessesinvariousgradesoflife，thattotheseinsanitaryinfluences，andmanymore，theunderfedpeasantwasnightlyexposed，andoftheresult，adebilitatedandscrofulouspeople，therewasnowantofevidence……ThestatementsoftherelievingofficersofCarmarthenshireandCardiganshireshowinastrikingwaythesamestateofthings。Thereisbesides"aplaguemorehorriblestill，thegreatnumberofidiots。"
　　Nowawordontheclimaticconditions。"Astrongsouth—westwindblowsoverthewholecountryfor8or9monthsintheyear，bringingwithittorrentsofrain，whichdischargeprincipallyuponthewesternslopesofthehills。Treesarerare，exceptinshelteredplaces，andwherenotprotected，areblownoutofallshape。Thecottagesgenerallycrouchundersomebank，orofteninaravineorquarry，andnonebutthesmallestsheepandnativecattlecanliveonthepastures……TheyoungpeoplemigratetotheeasternminingdistrictsofGlamorganandMonmouth。Carmarthenshireisthebreedinggroundoftheminingpopulationandtheirhospital。Thepopulationcanthereforebarelymaintainitsnumbers。"ThusinCardiganshire:18511861棗棗棗？;Males……45，15;44，446;Females……52，45;52，955;棗棗棗？p;97，6p;97，401Dr。Hunter’sReportin"PublicHealth，SeventhReport。1865，"pp。498—502，passim。
　　[100]In1865thislawwasimprovedtosomeextent。Itwillsoonbelearntfromexperiencethattinkeringofthissortisofnouse。
　　[101]Inordertounderstandthatwhichfollows，wemustrememberthat"CloseVillages"arethosewhoseownersareoneortwolargelandlords。"Openvillages，"thosewhosesoilbelongstomanysmallerlandlords。Itisinthelatterthatbuildingspeculatorscanbuildcottagesandlodging—houses。
　　[102]Ashow—villageofthiskindlooksverynice，butisasunrealasthevillagesthatCatherineII。sawonherjourneytotheCrimea。Inrecenttimestheshepherd，alsohasoftenbeenbanishedfromtheseshow—villages;e。g。，nearMarketHarboroissheep—farmofabout500acres，whichonlyemploysthelabourofoneman。Toreducethelongtrudgesoverthesewideplains，thebeautifulpasturesofLeicesterandNorthampton，theshepherdusedtogetacottageonthefarm。Nowtheygivehimathirteenthshillingaweekforlodging，thathemustfindfarawayinanopenvillage。
　　[103]"Thelabourers’houses（intheopenvillages，which，ofcourse，arealwaysovercrowded）areusuallyinrows，builtwiththeirbacksagainsttheextremeedgeoftheplotoflandwhichthebuildercouldcallhis，andonthisaccountarenotallowedlightandair，exceptfromthefront。"（Dr。Hunter’sReport，l。c。，p。135。）Veryoftenthebeersellerorgrocerofthevillageisatthesametimetheletterofitshouses。Inthiscasetheagriculturallabourerfindsinhimasecondmaster，besidesthefarmer。Hemustbehiscustomeraswellashistenant。"Thehindwithhis10s。aweek，minusarentof£4ayear……isobligedtobuyattheseller’sownterms，hismodicumoftea，sugar，flour，soap，candies，andbeer。"（l。c。，p。
　　132。）Theseopenvillagesform，infact，the"penalsettlements"oftheEnglishagriculturalproletariat。Manyofthecottagesaresimplylodging—houses，throughwhichalltherabbleoftheneighbourhoodpasses。Thecountrylabourerandhisfamilywhohadoften，inawaytrulywonderful，preserved，underthefoulestconditions，athoroughnessandpurityofcharacter，go，inthese，utterlytothedevil。Itis，ofcourse，thefashionamongstthearistocraticshylockstoshrugtheirshoulderspharisaicallyatthebuildingspeculators，thesmalllandlords，andtheopenvillages。Theyknowwellenoughthattheir"closevillages"and"show—villages"arethebirth—placesoftheopenvillages，andcouldnotexistwithoutthem。"Thelabourers……wereitnotforthesmallowners，would，forbyfarthemostpart，havetosleepunderthetreesofthefarmsonwhichtheywork。"（l。c。，p。135。）Thesystemof"open"and"closed"villagesobtainsinalltheMidlandcountiesandthroughouttheEastofEngland。
　　[104]"Theemployer……is……directlyorindirectlysecuringtohimselftheprofitonamanemployedat10s。aweek，andreceivingfromthispoorhind£4or£5annualrentforhousesnotworth£20inareallyfreemarket，butmaintainedattheirartificialvaluebythepoweroftheownertosay’Usemyhouse，orgoseekahiringelsewherewithoutacharacterfromme……’Doesamanwishtobetterhimself，togoasaplate—layerontherailway，ortobeginquarry—work，thesamepowerisreadywith’Workformeatthislowrateofwagesorbegoneataweek’snotice;takeyourpigwithyou，andgetwhatyoucanforthepotatoesgrowinginyourgarden。’
　　Shouldhisinterestappeartobebetterservedbyit，anenhancedrentissometimespreferredinthesecasesbytheowner（i。e。，thefarmer）
　　asthepenaltyforleavinghisservice。"（Dr。Hunter，l。c。，p。132。）
　　[105]"Newmarriedcouplesarenoedifyingstudyforgrown—upbrothersandsisters:
　　andthoughinstancesmustnotberecorded，sufficientdataarerememberedtowarranttheremark，thatgreatdepressionandsometimesdeatharethelotofthefemaleparticipatorintheoffenceofincest。"（Dr。Hunter，l。c。，p。137。）AmemberoftheruralpolicewhohadformanyyearsbeenadetectiveintheworstquartersofLondon，saysofthegirlsofhisvillage:
　　"theirboldnessandshamelessnessIneversawequalledduringsomeyearsofpolicelifeanddetectivedutyintheworstpartsofLondon……Theylivelikepigs，greatboysandgirls，mothersandfathers，allsleepinginoneroom，inmanyinstances。"（"Child。Empl。Com。SixthReport，1867，"
　　p。77sq。155。）
　　[106]"PublicHealth。SeventhReport，1865，"pp。9，14passim。
　　[107]"Theheaven—bomemploymentofthehindgivesdignityeventohisposition。
　　Heisnotaslave，butasoldierofpeace，anddeserveshisplaceinmarriedmen’squarterstobeprovidedbythelandlord，whohasclaimedapowerofenforcedlaboursimilartothatthecountrydemandsofthesoldier。
　　Henomotereceivesmarket—priceforhisworkthandoesthesoldier。Likethesoldierheiscaughtyoung，ignorant，knowingonlyhisowntrade，andhisownlocality。Earlymarriageand。theoperationofthevariouslawsofsettlementaffecttheoneasenlistmentandtheMutinyActaffecttheother。"（Dr。Hunter，l。c。，p。132。）Sometimesanexceptionallysoft—heartedlandlordrelentsasthesolitudehehascreated。"Itisamelancholythingtostandaloneinone’scountry，"saidLordLeicester，whencomplimentedonthecompletionofHookham。"Ilookaroundandnotahouseistobeseenbutmine。IamthegiantofGiantCastle，andhaveeatupallmyneighhours。"
　　[108]AsimilarmovementisseenduringthelasttenyearsinFrance;inproportionascapitalistproductiontheretakespossessionofagriculture，itdrivesthe"surplus"agriculturalpopulationintothetowns。Herealsowefinddeteriorationinthehousingandotherconditionsatthesourceofthesurplus—population。Onthespecial"prolétariatfoncier，"towhichthissystemofparcellingoutthelandhasgivenrise，see，amongothers，theworkofColins，alreadyquoted，andKarlMarx"DerAchtzehnteBrumairedesLouisBonaparte。"2ndedition。Hamburg，1869，pp。56，&c。In1846，thetownpopulationinFrancewasrepresentedby24。42，theagriculturalby75。58;in1861，thetownby28。86，theagriculturalby71。14percent。