l’échéancesanslafilerie;elleluioffreuneressource，enoccupantutilementsafemme，sesenfants，sesservants，sesvalets，etlui—même;maisquellepéniblevie，mêmeaidéedecesecours。Enété，iltravaillecommeunforcataulabourageetàlarécolte;ilsecoucheà9heuresetselèveàdeux，poursuffireauxtravaux;enhiverildevraitréparersesforcesparunplusgrandrepos;maisiimanqueradegrainspourlepainetlessemailles，s’ilsedéfaitdesdenréesqu’ilfaudraitvendrepourpayerlesimpôts。Ilautdoncfilerpoursuppléeràcevide……iifautyapporterlaplusgrandeassiduité。
Aussilepaysansecouche—t—iienhiveràminuit，uneheure，etselèveàcinqonsix;onbienilsecoucheàneuf，etselèveàdeux，etcelatonslesjoursdelaviesiccn’estledimanche。Cesexcésdeveilleetdetravailusentlanaturehumaine，etdelàvienqu’hommesetfemmesvieillissentbeaucoupplutôtdanslescampagnesquedanslesvilles。"（Mirabeau，l。c。，t。III。pp。212sqq。）
Notetothesecondedition。InApril1866，18yearsafterthepublicationoftheworkofRobertSomersquotedabove，ProfessorLeoneLevigavealecturebeforetheSocietyofArtsonthetransformationofsheep—walksintodeer—forest，inwhichhedepictstheadvanceinthedevastationoftheScottishHighlands。Hesays，withotherthings:"Depopulationandtransformationintosheep—walkswerethemostconvenientmeansforgettinganincomewithoutexpenditure……Adeer—forestinplaceofasheep—walkwasacommonchangeintheHighlands。Thelandownersturnedoutthesheepastheyonceturnedoutthemenfromtheirestates，andwelcomedthenewtenants—thewildbeastsandthefeatheredbirds……OnecanwalkfromtheEarlofDalhousie’sestatesinForfarshiretoJohno’Groats，withouteverleavingforestland……Inmanyofthesewoodsthefox，thewildcat，themarten，thepolecat，theweaselandtheAplineharearecommon;whilsttherabbit，thesquirrelandtherathavelatelymadetheirwayintothecountry。Immensetractsofland，muchofwhichisdescribedinthestatisticalaccountofScotlandashavingapasturageinrichnessandextentofverysuperiordescription，arethusshutoutfromallcultivationandimprovement，andaresolelydevotedtothesportofafewpersonsforaverybriefperiodoftheyear。"TheLondonEconomistofJune2，1866，says，"AmongsttheitemsofnewsinaScotchpaperoflastweek，weread……’OneofthefinestsheepfarmsinSutherlandshire，forwhicharentof£1，200
ayearwasrecentlyoffered，ontheexpiryoftheexistingleasethisyear，istobeconvertedintoadeer—forest。’Hereweseethemoderninstinctsoffeudalism……operatingprettymuchastheydidwhentheNormanConqueror……destroyed36villagestocreatetheNewForest……Twomillionsofacres……totallylaidwaste，embracingwithintheirareasomeofthemostfertilelandsofScotland。ThenaturalgrassofGlenTiltwasamongthemostnutritiveinthecountryofPerth。Thedeer—forestofBenAulderwasbyfarthebestgrazinggroundinthewidedistrictofBadenoch;apartoftheBlackMountforestwasthebestpastureforblack—facedsheepinScotland。SomeideaofthegroundlaidwasteforpurelysportingpurposesinScotlandmaybeformedfromthefactthatitembracedanarealargerthanthewholecountryofPerth。TheresourcesoftheforestofBenAuldermightgivesomeideaofthelosssustainedfromtheforceddesolations。
Thegroundwouldpasture15，000sheep，andasitwasnotmorethanone—thirtiethpartoftheoldforestgroundinScotland……itmight，&c……Allthatforestlandisastotallyunproductive……ItmightthusaswellhavebeensubmergedunderthewatersoftheGermanOcean……SuchextemporisedwildernessesordesertsoughttobeputdownbythedecidedinterferenceoftheLegislature。"
ChapterTwenty—EigthKarlMarxCapitalVolumeOnePartVIII:
PrimativeAccumulationCHAPTERTWENTY—EIGHT:
BLOODYLEGISLATIONAGAINSTTHEEXPROPRIATED，FROMTHEENDOFTHE15THCENTURY。
FORCINGDOWNOFWAGESBYACTSOFPARLIAMENT
Theproletariatcreatedbythebreakingup。ofthebandsoffeudalretainersandbytheforcibleexpropriationofthepeoplefromthesoil，this"free"
proletariatcouldnotpossiblybeabsorbedbythenascentmanufacturesasfastasitwasthrownupontheworld。Ontheotherhand，thesemen，suddenlydraggedfromtheirwontedmodeoflife，couldnotassuddenlyadaptthemselvestothedisciplineoftheirnewcondition。Theywereturnedenmasseintobeggars，robbers，vagabonds，partlyfrominclination，inmostcasesfromstressofcircumstances。Henceattheendofthe15thandduringthewholeofthe16thcentury，throughoutWesternEuropeabloodylegislationagainstvagabondage。Thefathersofthepresentworking—classwerechastisedfortheirenforcedtransformationintovagabondsandpaupers。
Legislationtreatedthemas"voluntary"criminals，andassumedthatitdependedontheirowngoodwilltogoonworkingundertheoldconditionsthatnolongerexisted。
InEnglandthislegislationbeganunderHenryVII。
HenryVIII。1530:Beggarsoldandunabletoworkreceiveabeggar’slicence。Ontheotherhand，whippingandimprisonmentforsturdyvagabonds。
Theyaretobetiedtothecart—tailandwhippeduntilthebloodstreamsfromtheirbodies，thentoswearanoathtogobacktotheirbirthplaceortowheretheyhavelivedthelastthreeyearsandto"putthemselvestolabour。"Whatgrimirony！In27HenryVIII。theformerstatuteisrepeated，butstrengthenedwithnewclauses。Forthesecondarrestforvagabondagethewhippingistoberepeatedandhalftheearslicedoff;butforthethirdrelapsetheoffenderistobeexecutedasahardenedcriminalandenemyofthecommonweal。
EdwardVI。:Astatuteofthefirstyearofhisreign，1547，ordainsthatifanyonerefusestowork，heshallbecondemnedasaslavetothepersonwhohasdenouncedhimasanidler。Themastershallfeedhisslaveonbreadandwater，weakbrothandsuchrefusemeatashethinksfit。Hehastherighttoforcehimtodoanywork，nomatterhowdisgusting，withwhipandchains。Iftheslaveisabsentafortnight，heiscondemnedtoslaveryforlifeandistobebrandedonforeheadorbackwiththeletterS;ifherunsawaythrice，heistobeexecutedasafelon。Themastercansellhim，bequeathhim，lethimoutonhireasaslave，justasanyotherpersonalchattelorcattle。Iftheslavesattemptanythingagainstthemasters，theyarealsotobeexecuted。Justicesofthepeace，oninformation，aretohunttherascalsdown。Ifithappensthatavagabondhasbeenidlingaboutforthreedays，heistobetakentohisbirthplace，brandedwithared—hotironwiththeletterVonthebreastandbesettowork，inchains，inthestreetsoratsomeotherlabour。Ifthevagabondgivesafalsebirthplace，heisthentobecometheslaveforlifeofthisplace，ofitsinhabitants，oritscorporation，andtobebrandedwithanS。Allpersonshavetherighttotakeawaythechildrenofthevagabondsandtokeepthemasapprentices，theyoungmenuntilthe24thyear，thegirlsuntilthe20th。Iftheyrunaway，theyaretobecomeuptothisagetheslavesoftheirmasters，whocanputtheminirons，whipthem，&c。，iftheylike。Everymastermayputanironringroundtheneck，armsorlegsofhisslave，bywhichtoknowhimmoreeasilyandtobemorecertainofhim。[1]Thelastpartofthisstatuteprovides，thatcertainpoorpeoplemaybeemployedbyaplaceorbypersons，whoarewillingtogivethemfoodanddrinkandtofindthemwork。Thiskindofparish—slaveswaskeptupinEnglanduntilfarintothe19thcenturyunderthenameof"roundsmen。"
Elizabeth，1572:Unlicensedbeggarsabove14yearsofagearetobeseverelyfloggedandbrandedontheleftearunlesssomeonewilltakethemintoservicefortwoyears;incaseofarepetitionoftheoffence，iftheyareover18，theyaretobeexecuted，unlesssomeonewilltakethemintoservicefortwoyears;butforthethirdoffencetheyaretobeexecutedwithoutmercyasfelons。Similarstatutes:18Elizabeth，c。
13，andanotherof1597。[2]
James1:Anyonewanderingaboutandbeggingisdeclaredarogueandavagabond。Justicesofthepeaceinpettysessionsareauthorisedtohavethempubliclywhippedandforthefirstoffencetoimprisonthemfor6months，forthesecondfor2years。Whilstinprisontheyaretobewhippedasmuchandasoftenasthejusticesofthepeacethinkfit……IncorrigibleanddangerousroguesaretobebrandedwithanRontheleftshoulderandsettohardlabour，andiftheyarecaughtbeggingagain，tobeexecutedwithoutmercy。Thesestatutes，legallybindinguntilthebeginningofthe18thcentury，wereonlyrepealedby12Anne，c。23。
SimilarlawsinFrance，wherebythemiddleofthe17thcenturyakingdomofvagabonds（truands）wasestablishedinParis。EvenatthebeginningofLouisXVI。’sreign（OrdinanceofJuly13th，1777）everymaningoodhealthfrom16to60yearsofage，ifwithoutmeansofsubsistenceandnotpractisingatrade，istobesenttothegalleys。OfthesamenaturearethestatuteofCharlesV。fortheNetherlands（October，1537），thefirstedictoftheStatesandTownsofHolland（March10，1614），the"Plakaat"
oftheUnitedProvinces（June26，1649），&c。
Thusweretheagriculturalpeople，firstforciblyexpropriatedfromthesoil，drivenfromtheirhomes，turnedintovagabonds，andthenwhipped，branded，torturedbylawsgrotesquelyterrible，intothedisciplinenecessaryforthewagesystemItisnotenoughthattheconditionsoflabourareconcentratedinamass，intheshapeofcapital，attheonepoleofsociety，whileattheotheraregroupedmassesofmen，whohavenothingtosellbuttheirlabour—power。Neitherisitenoughthattheyarecompelledtosellitvoluntarily。Theadvanceofcapitalistproductiondevelopsaworking—class，whichbyeducation，tradition，habit，looksupontheconditionsofthatmodeofproductionasself—evidentlawsofNature。Theorganisationofthecapitalistprocessofproduction，oncefullydeveloped，breaksdownall，resistance。Theconstantgenerationofarelativesurplus—populationkeepsthelawofsupplyanddemandoflabour，andthereforekeepswages，inarutthatcorrespondswiththewantsofcapital。Thedullcompulsionofeconomicrelationscompletesthesubjectionofthelabourertothecapitalist。
Directforce，outsideeconomicconditions，isofcoursestillused，butonlyexceptionally。Intheordinaryrunofthings，thelabourercanbelefttothe"naturallawsofproduction，"i。e。，tohisdependenceoncapital，adependencespringingfrom，andguaranteedinperpetuityby，theconditionsofproductionthemselves’。Itisotherwiseduringthehistoricgenesisofcapitalistproduction。Thebourgeoisie，atitsrise，wantsandusesthepowerofthestateto"regulate"wages，i。e。，toforcethemwithinthelimitssuitableforsurplus—valuemaking，tolengthentheworking—dayandtokeepthelabourerhimselfinthenormaldegreeofdependence。Thisisanessentialelementoftheso—calledprimitiveaccumulation。
Theclassofwage—labourers，whicharoseinthelatterhalfofthe14thcentury，formedthenandinthefollowingcenturyonlyaverysmallpartofthepopulation，wellprotectedinitspositionbytheindependentpeasantproprietaryinthecountryandtheguild—organisationinthetown。Incountryandtownmasterandworkmenstoodclosetogethersocially。Thesubordinationoflabourtocapitalwasonlyformal？i。e。，themodeofproductionitselfhadasyetnospecificcapitalisticcharacter。Variablecapitalpreponderatedgreatlyoverconstant。Thedemandforwage—labourgrew’。
therefore，rapidlywitheveryaccumulationofcapital，whilstthesupplyofwage—labourfollowedbutslowly。Alargepartofthenationalproduct，changedlaterintoafundofcapitalistaccumulation，thenstillenteredintotheconsumption—fundofthelabourer。
Legislationonwage—labour（fromthefirst，aimedattheexploitationofthelabourerand，asitadvanced，alwaysequallyhostiletohim），[3]isstartedinEnglandbytheStatuteofLabourers，ofEdwardIII。，1349。
Theordinanceof1350inFrance，issuedinthenameofKingJohn，correspondswithit。EnglishandFrenchlegislationrunparallelandareidenticalinpurport。Sofarasthelabour—statutesaimatcompulsoryextensionoftheworking—day，Idonotreturntothem，asthispointwastreatedearlier（Chap。X。，Section5）。
TheStatuteofLabourerswaspassedattheurgentinstanceoftheHouseofCommons。ATorysaysnaively:"Formerlythepoordemandedsuchhighwagesastothreatenindustryandwealth。Next，theirwagesaresolowastothreatenindustryandwealthequallyandperhapsmore，butinanotherway。"[4]Atariff@fwageswasfixedbylawfortownandcountry，forpiece—workandday—work。
Theagriculturallabourersweretohirethemselvesoutbytheyear，thetownones"inopenmarket。"Itwasforbidden，underpainofimprisonment，topayhigherwagesthanthosefixedbythestatute，butthetakingofhigherwageswasmoreseverelypunishedthanthegivingthem。[SoalsoinSections18and19oftheStatuteofApprenticesofElizabeth，tendays’
imprisonmentisdecreedforhimthatpaysthehigherwages，buttwenty—onedaysforhimthatreceivesthem。]Astatuteof1360increasedthepenaltiesandauthorisedthemasterstoextortlabouratthelegalrateofwagesbycorporalpunishment。Allcombinations，contracts，oaths，&c……bywhichmasonsandcarpentersreciprocallyboundthemselves，weredeclarednullandvoid。Coalitionofthelabourersistreatedasaheinouscrimefromthe14thcenturyto1825，theyearoftherepealofthelawsagainstTrades’Unions。ThespiritoftheStatuteofLabourersof1349andofitsoffshoots，comesoutclearlyinthefact，thatindeedamaximumofwagesisdictatedbytheState，butonnoaccountaminimum。
Inthe16thcentury，theconditionofthelabourershad，asweknow，becomemuchworse。Themoneywagerose，butnotinproportiontothedepreciationofmoneyandthecorrespondingriseinthepricesofcommodities。Wages，therefore，inrealityfell。Nevertheless，thelawsforkeepingthemdownremainedinforce，togetherwiththeear—clippingandbrandingofthose"whomnoonewaswillingtotakeintoservice。"BytheStatuteofApprentices5Elizabeth，c。3，thejusticesofthepeacewereempoweredtofixcertainwagesandtomodifythemaccordingtothetimeoftheyearandthepriceofcommodities。James1。extendedtheseregulationsoflabouralsotoweavers，spinners，andallpossiblecategoriesofworkers。[5]GeorgeII。extendedthelawsagainstcoalitionsoflabourerstomanufacturers。Inthemanufacturingperiodparexcellence，thecapitalistmodeofproductionhadbecomesufficientlystrongtorenderlegalregulationofwagesasimpracticableasitwasunnecessary;buttherulingclasseswereunwillingincaseofnecessitytobewithouttheweaponsoftheoldarsenal。Still，8GeorgeII。forbadeahigherday’swagethan2s。71/2d。forjourneymentailorsinandaroundLondon，exceptincasesofgeneralmourning;still，13GeorgeIll。，c。68，gavetheregulationofthewagesofsilk—weaverstothejusticesofthepeace;still，in1706，itrequiredtwojudgmentsofthehighercourtstodecide，whetherthemandatesofjusticesofthepeaceastowagesheldgoodalsofornon—agriculturallabourers;still，in1799，anactofParliamentorderedthatthewagesoftheScotchminersshouldcontinuetoberegulatedbyastatuteofElizabethandtwoScotchactsof1661and1671。Howcompletelyinthemeantimecircumstanceshadchanged，isprovedbyanoccurrenceunheard—ofbeforeintheEnglishLowerHouse。Inthatplace，whereformorethan400yearslawshadbeenmadeforthemaximum，beyondwhichwagesabsolutelymustnotrise，Whitbreadin1796proposedalegalminimumwageforagriculturallabourers。Pittopposedthis，butconfessedthatthe"conditionofthepoorwascruel。"
Finally，in1813，thelawsfortheregulationofwageswererepealed。Theywereanabsurdanomaly，sincethecapitalistregulatedhisfactorybyhisprivatelegislation，。andcouldbythepoor—ratesmakeupthewageoftheagriculturallabourertotheindispensableminimum。Theprovisionsofthelabourstatutesastocontractsbetweenmasterandworkman，astogivingnoticeandthelike，whichonlyallowofacivilactionagainstthecontract—breakingmaster，butonthecontrarypermitacriminalactionagainstthecontract—breakingworkman，aretothishour（1873）infullforce。ThebarbarouslawsagainstTrades’Unionsfell。in1825beforethethreateningbearingoftheproletariat。
Despitethis，theyfellonlyinpart。Certainbeautifulfragmentsoftheoldstatutevanishedonlyin1859。Finally，theactofParliamentofJune29，1871，madeapretenceofremovingthelasttracesofthisclassoflegislationbylegalrecognitionofTrades’Unions。
ButanactofParliamentofthesamedate（anacttoamendthecriminallawrelatingtoviolence，threats，andmolestation），re—established，inpointoffact，theformerstateofthingsinanewshape。BythisParliamentaryescamotagethemeanswhichthelabourerscoulduseinastrikeorlock—outwerewithdrawnfromthelawscommontoallcitizens，andplacedunderexceptionalpenallegislation，theinterpretationofwhichfelltothemastersthemselvesintheircapacityasjusticesofthepeace。Twoyearsearlier，thesameHouseofCommonsandthesameMr。Gladstoneinthewell—knownstraightforwardfashionbroughtinabillfortheabolitionofallexceptionalpenallegislationagainsttheworking—class。Butthiswasneverallowedtogobeyondthesecondreading，andthematterwasthusprotracteduntilatlastthe"greatLiberal’party，"byanalliancewiththeTories，foundcouragetoturnagainsttheveryproletariatthathadcarrieditintopower。Notcontentwiththistreachery，the"greatLiberalparty"allowedtheEnglishjudges，evercomplaisantintheserviceoftherulingclasses，todigupagaintheearlierlawsagainst"conspiracy，"andtoapplythemtocoalitionsoflabourers。WeseethatonlyagainstitswillandunderthepressureofthemassesdidtheEnglishParliamentgiveupthelawsagainstStrikesandTrades’Unions，afterithaditself，for500years，held，withshamelessegoism，thepositionofapermanentTrades’Unionofthecapitalistsagainstthelabourers。
Duringtheveryfirststormsoftherevolution，theFrenchbourgeoisiedaredtotakeawayfromtheworkerstherightofassociationbutjustacquired。
ByadecreeofJune14，1791，theydeclaredallcoalitionoftheworkersas"anattemptagainstlibertyandthedeclarationoftherightsofman，"
punishablebyafineof500livres，togetherwithdeprivationoftherightsofanactivecitizenforoneyear。[6]Thislawwhich，bymeansofStatecompulsion，confinedthestrugglebetweencapitalandlabourwithinlimitscomfortableforcapital，hasoutlivedrevolutionsandchangesofdynasties。EventheReignofTerrorleftituntouched。ItwasbutquiterecentlystruckoutofthePenalCode。Nothingismorecharacteristicthanthepretextforthisbourgeoiscoupd’état。"Granting，"saysChapelier，thereporteroftheSelectCommitteeonthislaw，"thatwagesoughttobealittlehigherthantheyare，……thattheyoughttobehighenoughforhimthatreceivesthem，tobefreefromthatstateofabsolutedependenceduetothewantofthenecessariesoflife，andwhichisalmostthatofslavery，"yettheworkersmustnotbeallowedtocometoanyunderstandingabouttheirowninterests，nortoactincommonandtherebylessentheir"absolutedependence，whichisalmostthatofslavery;"because，forsooth，indoingthistheyinjure"thefreedomoftheircidevantmasters，thepresententrepreneurs，"andbecauseacoalitionagainstthedespotismofthequondammastersofthecorporationsis？guesswhat！？isarestorationofthecorporationsabolishedbytheFrenchconstitutiop;[7]
Footnotes[1]Theauthorofthe"EssayonTrade，etc。，"1770，says，"InthereignofEdwardVI。indeedtheEnglishseemtohaveset，ingoodearnest，aboutencouragingmanufacturesandemployingthepoor。Thiswelearnfromaremarkablestatutewhichrunsthus:’Thatallvagrantsshallbebranded，&c……’"
l。c。，p。5。
[2]ThomasMoresaysinhis"Utopia":"Therforethatoncovetousandunsatiablecormaraunteandveryplageofhisnativecontreymayecompasseabouteandinclosemanythousandakersofgroundetogetherwithinonepaleorhedge，thehusbandmanbethrustowteoftheirowne，orelseitherbyconeyneandfraude，orbyviolentoppressiontheybeputbesydesit，orbywrongsandiniuriestheybesoweriedthattheybecompelledtosellall:byonemeanes，therfore，orbyother，eitherbyhookeorcrooketheymusteneedesdeparteawaye，poore，selye，wretchedsoules，men，women，husbands，wiues，fatherlessechildren，widowes，wofullmotherswiththeiryongebabes，andtheirwholehouseholdssmalinsubstance，andmucheinnumbre，ashusbandryerequirethmanyhandes，Awayetheitrudge，Isay，owteoftheirknowenaccustomedhouses，fyndyngenoplacetorestein。Alltheirhousholdestuffe，whichisverylittlewoorthe，thougheitmightwellabidethesale:yetbeeyngesodainelythrusteowte，theybeconstraynedtosellitforathingofnought。
Andwhentheyhauewanderedabrodetyllthatbespent，whatcanttheythenelsdoebutsteale，andtheniustlypardybehanged，orelsgoaboutbeggyng。
Andyetthenalsotheybecasteinprisonasvagaboundes，becausetheygoabouteandworkenot:whomnomanwylsetaworkethoughtheineuersowillynglyprofrethemseluestherto。"
OfthesepoorfugitivesofwhomThomasMoresaysthattheywereforcedtothieve，"7，200greatandpettythieveswereputtodeath，"inthereignofHenryVIII。（Holinshed，"DescriptionofEngland，"Vol。1，p。186。）InEIizabeth’stime，"roguesweretrussedupapace，andthattherewasnotoneyearcommonlywhereinthreeorfourhundredwerenotdevouredandeatenupbythegallowes。"（Strype’s"AnnalsoftheReformationandEstablishmentofRcligionandotherVariousOccurrencesintheChurchofEnglandduringQueenElizabeth’sHappyReign。"Seconded。，1725，Vol。2。）
AccordingtothissameStrype，inSomersetshire，inoneyear，40personswereexecuted，35robbersburntinthehand，37whipped，and183dischargedas"incottigiblevagabonds。"Nevertheless，heisofopinionthatthislargenumberofprisonersdoesnotcompriseevenafifthoftheactualcriminals，thankstothenegligenceofthejusticesandthefoolishcompassionofthepeople;andtheothercountiesofEnglandwerenotbetteroffinthisrespectthanSomersetshire，whilesomewereevenworse。
[3]"Wheneverthelegislatureattemptstoregulatethedifferencesbetweenmastersandtheirworkmen，itscounsellorsarealwaysthemasters，"saysA。Smith。"L’espritdeslois，c’estlapropriété。"saysLinguet。
[4]"SophismsofFreeTrade。"ByaBarrister。Lond。，1850，p。206。Headdsmaliciously:"Wewerereadyenoughtointerferefortheemployer，cannothingnowbedonefortheemployed？"
[5]FromaclauseofStatute2JamesI。，c。6，weseethatcertainclothmakerstookuponthemselvestodictate，intheircapacityofjusticesofthepeace，theofficialtariffofwagesintheirownshops。InGermany，especiallyaftertheThirtyYears’War，statutesforkeepingdownwagesweregeneral。
"Thewantofservantsandlabourerswasverytroublesometothelandedproprietorsinthedepopulateddistricts。Allvillagerswereforbiddentoletroomstosinglemenandwomen;allthelatterweretobereportedtotheauthoritiesandcastintoprisoniftheywereunwillingtobecomeservants，eveniftheywereemployedatanyotherwork，suchassowingseedsforthepeasantsatadailywage，orevenbuyingandsellingcorn。
（ImperialprivilegesandsanctionsforSilesia，I。，25。）ForawholecenturyinthedecreesofthesmallGermanpotentatesabittercrygoesupattainandagainaboutthewickedandimpertinentmbblethatwillnotreconcileitselftoitshardlot，willnotbecontentwiththelegalwage;theindividuallandedproprietorsareforbiddentopaymorethantheStatehadfixedbyatariff。Andyettheconditionsofservicewereattimesbetterafterwarthan100yearslater;thefarmservantsofSilesiahad，in1652，meattwiceaweek，whilsteveninourcentury，districtsareknownwheretheyhaveitonlythreetimesayear。Further，wagesafterthewarwerehigherthaninthefollowingcentury。"（G。Freytag。）
[6]ArticleI。ofthislawruns:"L’anéantissementdetouteesp&edecorporationsdumêmeétatetprofessionétantl’unedesbasesfondamentalesdelaconstitutionfrancaise，iiestdéfendudelesrétablirdefaitsousquelqueprétexteetsousquelqueformequecesoit。"ArticleIV。declares，thatif"descitoyensattachésauxmemesprofessions，artsetmétiersprenaientdesdélibérations，faisaiententreeuxdesconventionstendantesirefuserdeconcertouà
n’accorderqu’àunprixdéterminélesecoursdeleurindustrieoudeleurstravaux，lesditesdélibérationsetconventions……serontdéclaréesinconstitutionnelles，attentatoiresàlalibertéetàladeclarationdesdroitsdeI’homme，&c。";felony，therefore，asintheoldlabour—statutes。（"RévolutionsdeParis，"Paris，1791，t。III，p。523。）
[7]BuchezetRoux:？"HistoireParlementaire，"t。x。，p。195。
ChapterTwenty—NineKarlMarxCapitalVolumeOnePartVIII:
PrimativeAccumulationCHAPTERTWENTY—NINE:
GENESISOFTHECAPITALISTFARMER
Nowthatwehaveconsideredtheforciblecreationofaclassofoutlawedproletarians，thebloodydisciplinethatturnedthemintowage—laborers，thedisgracefulactionoftheStatewhichemployedthepolicetoacceleratetheaccumulationofcapitalbyincreasingthedegreeofexploitationoflabor，thequestionremains:whencecamethecapitalistsoriginally？Fortheexpropriationoftheagriculturalpopulationcreates，directly，nonebutthegreatestlandedproprietors。Asfar，however，asconcernsthegenesisofthefarmer，wecan，sotosay，putourhandonit，becauseitisaslowprocessevolvingthroughmanycenturies。Theserfs，aswellasthefreesmallproprietors，heldlandunderverydifferenttenures，andwerethereforeemancipatedunderverydifferenteconomicconditions。InEnglandthefirstformofthefarmeristhebailiff，himselfaserf。HispositionissimilartothatoftheoldRomanvillicus，onlyinamorelimitedsphereofaction。Duringthesecondhalfofthe14thcenturyheisreplacedbyafarmer，whomthelandlordprovidedwithseed，cattleandimplements。Hisconditionisnotverydifferentfromthatofthepeasant。
Onlyheexploitsmorewage—labor。Soonhebecomesametayer，ahalf—farmer。
Headvancesonepartoftheagriculturalstock，thelandlordtheother。
Thetwodividethetotalproductinproportionsdeterminedbycontract。
ThisformquicklydisappearsinEngland，togivetheplacetothefarmerproper，whomakeshisowncapitalbreedbyemployingwage—laborers，andpaysapartofthesurplus—product，inmoneyorinkind，tothelandlordasrent。Solong，duringthe15thcentury，astheindependentpeasantandthefarm—laborerworkingforhimselfaswellasforwages，enrichedthemselvesbytheirownlabor，thecircumstancesofthefarmer，andhisfieldofproduction，wereequallymediocre。Theagriculturalrevolutionwhichcommencedinthelastthirdofthe15thcentury，andcontinuedduringalmostthewholeofthe16th（excepting，however，itslastdecade），enrichedhimjustasspeedilyasitimpoverishedthemassoftheagriculturalpeople。[1]
Theusurpationofthecommonlandsallowedhimtoaugmentgreatlyhisstockofcattle，almostwithoutcost，whilsttheyyieldedhimarichersupplyofmanureforthetillageofthesoil。Tothiswasaddedinthe16thcenturyaveryimportantelement。Atthattimethecontractsforfarmsranforalongtime，oftenfor99years。Theprogressivefallinthevalueofthepreciousmetals，andthereforeofmoney，broughtthefarmersgoldenfruit。Apartfromalltheothercircumstancesdiscussedabove，itloweredwages。Aportionofthelatterwasnowaddedtotheprofitsofthefarm。
Thecontinuousriseinthepriceofcorn，wool，meat，inawordofallagriculturalproduce，swelledthemoneycapitalofthefarmwithoutanyactiononhispart，whilsttherenthepaid（beingcalculatedontheoldvalueofmoney）diminishedinreality。[2]Thustheygrewrichattheexpensebothoftheirlaborersandtheirlandlords。
Nowonder，therefore，thatEngland，attheendofthe16thcentury，hadaclassofcapitalistfarmers，rich，consideringthecircumstancesofthetime。[3]
Footnotes[1]Harrisoninhis"DescriptionofEngland"，says"althoughperadventurefourepoundsofoldrentbeimprovedtofortie，towardtheendofhisterm，ifhehavenotsixorsevenyearesrentliengbyhim，fiftieorahundredpounds，yetwillthefarmerthinkehisgainesveriesmall。"
[2]Ontheinfluenceofthedepreciationofmoneyinthe16thcentury，onthedifferentclassesofsociety，see"ACompendiumofBriefeExaminationofCertayneOrdinaryComplaintsofDiversofourCountrymenintheseourDays"，byW。S。Gentleman（London1581）。ThedialogueformofthisworkledpeopleforalongtimetoascribeittoShakespeare，andevenin1751，itwaspublishedunderhisname。ItsauthorisWilliamStafford。Inoneplacetheknightreasonsasfollows:Knight:You，myneighbor，thehusbandman，youMaisterMercer，andyouGoodmanCooper，withotherartificers，maysaveyourselvesmetelywell。Forasmuchasallthingsaredearerthantheywere，somuchdoyouariseinthepryceofyourwaresandoccupationsthatyesellagayne。Butwehavenothingtosellwherebywemightadvanceyepricethereof，tocountervailethosethingsthatwemustbuyagayne。"
Inanotherplace，theknightasksthedoctor:Iprayyou，whatbethosesortsthatyemeane。Andfirst，ofthosethatyethinkeshouldhavenolossethereby？Doctor:Imeanallthosethatlivebybuyingandselling，forastheybuydeare，thesellthereafter。Knight:Whatisthenextsortthatyesaywouldwinbyit？Doctor:Marry，allsuchashavetakingsoffearmesintheirownemanurance[cultivation]attheoldrent，forwheretheypayaftertheolderatetheysellafterthenewe？thatis，theypayefortheirelandegoodcheape，andsellallthingsgrowingthereofdeare。Knight:Whatsorteisthatwhich，yesaydeshouldhavegreaterlossehereby，thanthesemenhadprofit？Doctor:
Itisallnoblemen，gentlemen，andallotherthatliveeitherbyastintedrentorstypend，ordonotmanure[cultivate]theground，ordoeoccupynobuyingandselling。"
[3]InFrance，therégisseur，steward，collectorofduesforthefeudallordsduringtheearlierpartofthemiddleages，soonbecameanhommed’affaires，whobyextortion，cheating，&c。，swindledhimselfintoacapitalist。Theserégisseursthemselvesweresometimesnoblemen。E。g。，"C’estlicomptequemessireJacquesdeThoraine，chevalierchastelainsorBesanconrentés—seigneurtenantlescomptesà
DijonpourmonseigneurleducetcomtedeBourgoigne，desrentesappartenantàladitechastellenie，depuisxxvejourdedécembreMCCCLIX
jusqu’auxxviiiejourdedécembreMCCCLX。"（AlexisMonteil:"Traité
deMatériauxManuscritsetc。"，pp。234，235。）Alreadyitisevidentherehowinallspheresofsociallifethelion’ssharefallstothemiddleman。
Intheeconomicdomain，e。g。，financiers，stock—exchangespeculators，merchants，shopkeepersskimthecream;incivilmatters，thelawyerfleeceshisclients;inpoliticstherepresentativeisofmoreimportancethanthevoters，theministerthanthesovereign;inreligion，Godispushedintothebackgroundbythe"Mediator"，andthelatteragainisshovedbackbythepriests，theinevitablemiddlemenbetweenthegoodshepherdandhissheep。InFrance，asinEngland，thegreatfeudalterritoriesweredividedintoinnumerablesmallhomesteads，butunderconditionsincomparablymorefavorableforthepeople。Duringthe14thcenturyarosethefarmsorterriers。Theirnumbergrewconstantly，farbeyond100，000。Theypaidrentsvaryingfrom1/12to1/5oftheproductinmoneyorinkind。
Thesefarmswerefiefs，sub—fiefs，&c。，accordingthevalueandextentofthedomains，manyofthemonlycontainingafewacres。Butthesefarmershadrightsofjurisdictioninsomedegreeoverthedwellersonthesoil;
therewerefourgrades。Theoppressionoftheagriculturalpopulationunderallthesepettytyrantswillbeunderstood。MonteilsaysthattherewereonceinFrance160，000judges，wheretoday，4，000tribunals，includingjusticesofthepeace，suffice。