Theprincipleofequalitynecessarilyintroducesseveralotherchangesintolanguage。Inaristocraticages，wheneachnationtendstostandalooffromallothersandlikestohavedistinctcharacteristicsofitsown，itoftenhappensthatseveralpeopleswhichhaveacommonoriginbecomeneverthelessestrangedfromeachother，sothat，withoutceasingtounderstandthesamelanguage，theynolongerallspeakitinthesamemanner。Intheseageseachnationisdividedintoacertainnumberofclasses，whichseebutlittleofeachother，anddonotintermingle。Eachoftheseclassescontracts，andinvariablyretains，habitsofmindpeculiartoitself，andadoptsbychoicecertainwordsandcertainterms，whichafterwardspassfromgenerationtogeneration，liketheirestates。Thesameidiomthencomprisesalanguageofthepoorandalanguageoftherich—alanguageofthecitizenandalanguageofthenobility—alearnedlanguageandavulgarone。Thedeeperthedivisions，andthemoreimpassablethebarriersofsocietybecome，themoremustthisbethecase。Iwouldlayawager，thatamongstthecastesofIndiathereareamazingvariationsoflanguage，andthatthereisalmostasmuchdifferencebetweenthelanguageofthepariahandthatoftheBrahminasthereisintheirdress。When，onthecontrary，men，beingnolongerrestrainedbyranks，meetontermsofconstantintercourse—whencastesaredestroyed，andtheclassesofsocietyarerecruitedandintermixedwitheachother，allthewordsofalanguagearemingled。Thosewhichareunsuitabletothegreaternumberperish;theremainderformacommonstore，whenceeveryonechoosesprettynearlyatrandom。
　　AlmostallthedifferentdialectswhichdividedtheidiomsofEuropeannationsaremanifestlydeclining;thereisnopatoisintheNewWorld，anditisdisappearingeverydayfromtheoldcountries。
　　Theinfluenceofthisrevolutioninsocialconditionsisasmuchfeltinstyleasitisinphraseology。Notonlydoeseveryoneusethesamewords，butahabitspringsupofusingthemwithoutdiscrimination。Theruleswhichstylehadsetuparealmostabolished:thelineceasestobedrawnbetweenexpressionswhichseembytheirverynaturevulgar，andotherwhichappeartoberefined。Personsspringingfromdifferentranksofsocietycarrythetermsandexpressionstheyareaccustomedtousewiththem，intowhatevercircumstancestheymaypass;thustheoriginofwordsislostliketheoriginofindividuals，andthereisasmuchconfusioninlanguageasthereisinsociety。
　　Iamawarethatintheclassificationofwordsthereareruleswhichdonotbelongtooneformofsocietyanymorethantoanother，butwhicharederivedfromthenatureofthings。Someexpressionsandphrasesarevulgar，becausetheideastheyaremeanttoexpressarelowinthemselves;othersareofahighercharacter，becausetheobjectstheyareintendedtodesignatearenaturallyelevated。Nointermixtureofrankswillevereffacethesedifferences。Buttheprincipleofequalitycannotfailtorootoutwhateverismerelyconventionalandarbitraryintheformsofthought。PerhapsthenecessaryclassificationwhichI
　　pointedoutinthelastsentencewillalwaysbelessrespectedbyademocraticpeoplethanbyanyother，becauseamongstsuchapeopletherearenomenwhoarepermanentlydisposedbyeducation，culture，andleisuretostudythenaturallawsoflanguage，andwhocausethoselawstoberespectedbytheirownobservanceofthem。
　　Ishallnotquitthistopicwithouttouchingonafeatureofdemocraticlanguages，whichisperhapsmorecharacteristicofthemthananyother。Ithasalreadybeenshownthatdemocraticnationshaveataste，andsometimesapassion，forgeneralideas，andthatthisarisesfromtheirpeculiarmeritsanddefects。
　　Thislikingforgeneralideasisdisplayedindemocraticlanguagesbythecontinualuseofgenerictermsorabstractexpressions，andbythemannerinwhichtheyareemployed。Thisisthegreatmeritandthegreatimperfectionoftheselanguages。
　　Democraticnationsarepassionatelyaddictedtogenerictermsorabstractexpressions，becausethesemodesofspeechenlargethought，andassisttheoperationsofthemindbyenablingittoincludeseveralobjectsinasmallcompass。AFrenchdemocraticwriterwillbeapttosaycapacitesintheabstractformenofcapacity，andwithoutparticularizingtheobjectstowhichtheircapacityisapplied:hewilltalkaboutactualitestodesignateinonewordthethingspassingbeforehiseyesattheinstant;
　　andhewillcomprehendunderthetermeventualiteswhatevermayhappenintheuniverse，datingfromthemomentatwhichhespeaks。Democraticwritersareperpetuallycoiningwordsofthiskind，inwhichtheysublimateintofurtherabstractiontheabstracttermsofthelanguage。Nay，more，torendertheirmodeofspeechmoresuccinct，theypersonifythesubjectoftheseabstractterms，andmakeitactlikearealentity。ThustheywouldsayinFrench，"Laforcedeschosesveutquelescapacitesgouvernent。"
　　IcannotbetterillustratewhatImeanthanbymyownexample。Ihavefrequentlyusedtheword"equality"inanabsolutesense—nay，Ihavepersonifiedequalityinseveralplaces;thusIhavesaidthatequalitydoessuchandsuchthings，orrefrainsfromdoingothers。ItmaybeaffirmedthatthewritersoftheageofLouisXIVwouldnothaveusedtheseexpressions:theywouldneverhavethoughtofusingtheword"equality"withoutapplyingittosomeparticularobject;andtheywouldratherhaverenouncedthetermaltogetherthanhaveconsentedtomakealivingpersonageofit。
　　Theseabstracttermswhichaboundindemocraticlanguages，andwhichareusedoneveryoccasionwithoutattachingthemtoanyparticularfact，enlargeandobscurethethoughtstheyareintendedtoconvey;theyrenderthemodeofspeechmoresuccinct，andtheideacontainedinitlessclear。Butwithregardtolanguage，democraticnationspreferobscuritytolabor。Iknownotindeedwhetherthisloosestylehasnotsomesecretcharmforthosewhospeakandwriteamongstthesenations。Asthemenwholivetherearefrequentlylefttotheeffortsoftheirindividualpowersofmind，theyarealmostalwaysapreytodoubt;andastheirsituationinlifeisforeverchanging，theyareneverheldfasttoanyoftheiropinionsbythecertaintenureoftheirfortunes。Menlivingindemocraticcountriesare，then，apttoentertainunsettledideas，andtheyrequirelooseexpressionstoconveythem。Astheyneverknowwhethertheideatheyexpressto—daywillbeappropriatetothenewpositiontheymayoccupyto—morrow，theynaturallyacquirealikingforabstractterms。
　　Anabstracttermislikeaboxwithafalsebottom:youmayputinitwhatideasyouplease，andtakethemoutagainwithoutbeingobserved。
　　Amongstallnations，genericandabstracttermsformthebasisoflanguage。Idonot，therefore，affecttoexpelthesetermsfromdemocraticlanguages;Isimplyremarkthatmenhaveanespecialtendency，intheagesofdemocracy，tomultiplywordsofthiskind—totakethemalwaysbythemselvesintheirmostabstractacceptation，andtousethemonalloccasions，evenwhenthenatureofthediscoursedoesnotrequirethem。
　　ChapterXVII:OfSomeOfTheSourcesOfPoetryAmongstDemocraticNationsVariousdifferentsignificationshavebeengiventotheword"poetry。"ItwouldwearymyreadersifIweretoleadthemintoadiscussionastowhichofthesedefinitionsoughttobeselected:
　　IprefertellingthematoncethatwhichIhavechosen。Inmyopinion，poetryisthesearchandthedelineationoftheideal。
　　Thepoetishewho，bysuppressingapartofwhatexists，byaddingsomeimaginarytouchestothepicture，andbycombiningcertainrealcircumstances，butwhichdonotinfactconcurrentlyhappen，completesandextendstheworkofnature。Thustheobjectofpoetryisnottorepresentwhatistrue，buttoadornit，andtopresenttothemindsomeloftierimagery。Verse，regardedastheidealbeautyoflanguage，maybeeminentlypoetical;butversedoesnot，ofitself，constitutepoetry。
　　Inowproceedtoinquirewhether，amongsttheactions，thesentiments，andtheopinionsofdemocraticnations，thereareanywhichleadtoaconceptionofidealbeauty，andwhichmayforthisreasonbeconsideredasnaturalsourcesofpoetry。Itmustinthefirstplace，beacknowledgedthatthetasteforidealbeauty，andthepleasurederivedfromtheexpressionofit，areneversointenseorsodiffusedamongstademocraticasamongstanaristocraticpeople。Inaristocraticnationsitsometimeshappensthatthebodygoesontoactasitwerespontaneously，whilstthehigherfacultiesareboundandburdenedbyrepose。
　　Amongstthesenationsthepeoplewillveryoftendisplaypoetictastes，andsometimesallowtheirfancytorangebeyondandabovewhatsurroundsthem。Butindemocraciestheloveofphysicalgratification，thenotionofbetteringone’scondition，theexcitementofcompetition，thecharmofanticipatedsuccess，aresomanyspurstourgemenonwardsintheactiveprofessionstheyhaveembraced，withoutallowingthemtodeviateforaninstantfromthetrack。Themainstressofthefacultiesistothispoint。Theimaginationisnotextinct;butitschieffunctionistodevisewhatmaybeuseful，andtorepresentwhatisreal。
　　Theprincipleofequalitynotonlydivertsmenfromthedescriptionofidealbeauty—italsodiminishesthenumberofobjectstobedescribed。Aristocracy，bymaintainingsocietyinafixedposition，isfavorabletothesolidityanddurationofpositivereligions，aswellastothestabilityofpoliticalinstitutions。Itnotonlykeepsthehumanmindwithinacertainsphereofbelief，butitpredisposesthemindtoadoptonefaithratherthananother。AnaristocraticpeoplewillalwaysbepronetoplaceintermediatepowersbetweenGodandman。Inthisrespectitmaybesaidthatthearistocraticelementisfavorabletopoetry。Whentheuniverseispeopledwithsupernaturalcreatures，notpalpabletothesensesbutdiscoveredbythemind，theimaginationrangesfreely，andpoets，findingathousandsubjectstodelineate，alsofindacountlessaudiencetotakeaninterestintheirproductions。Indemocraticagesitsometimeshappens，onthecontrary，thatmenareasmuchafloatinmattersofbeliefastheyareintheirlaws。Scepticismthendrawstheimaginationofpoetsbacktoearth，andconfinesthemtotherealandvisibleworld。Evenwhentheprincipleofequalitydoesnotdisturbreligiousbelief，ittendstosimplifyit，andtodivertattentionfromsecondaryagents，tofixitprincipallyontheSupremePower。Aristocracynaturallyleadsthehumanmindtothecontemplationofthepast，andfixesitthere。Democracy，onthecontrary，givesmenasortofinstinctivedistasteforwhatisancient。Inthisrespectaristocracyisfarmorefavorabletopoetry;forthingscommonlygrowlargerandmoreobscureastheyaremoreremote;andforthistwofoldreasontheyarebettersuitedtothedelineationoftheideal。
　　Afterhavingdeprivedpoetryofthepast，theprincipleofequalityrobsitinpartofthepresent。Amongstaristocraticnationsthereareacertainnumberofprivilegedpersonages，whosesituationis，asitwere，withoutandabovetheconditionofman;tothese，power，wealth，fame，wit，refinement，anddistinctioninallthingsappearpeculiarlytobelong。Thecrowdneverseesthemveryclosely，ordoesnotwatchtheminminutedetails;andlittleisneededtomakethedescriptionofsuchmenpoetical。Ontheotherhand，amongstthesamepeople，youwillmeetwithclassessoignorant，low，andenslaved，thattheyarenolessfitobjectsforpoetryfromtheexcessoftheirrudenessandwretchedness，thantheformerarefromtheirgreatnessandrefinement。Besides，asthedifferentclassesofwhichanaristocraticcommunityiscomposedarewidelyseparated，andimperfectlyacquaintedwitheachother，theimaginationmayalwaysrepresentthemwithsomeadditionto，orsomesubtractionfrom，whattheyreallyare。Indemocraticcommunities，wheremenareallinsignificantandverymuchalike，eachmaninstantlyseesallhisfellowswhenhesurveyshimself。Thepoetsofdemocraticagescannever，therefore，takeanymaninparticularasthesubjectofapiece;foranobjectofslenderimportance，whichisdistinctlyseenonallsides，willneverlenditselftoanidealconception。Thustheprincipleofequality;inproportionasithasestablisheditselfintheworld，hasdriedupmostoftheoldspringsofpoetry。Letusnowattempttoshowwhatnewonesitmaydisclose。
　　Whenscepticismhaddepopulatedheaven，andtheprogressofequalityhadreducedeachindividualtosmallerandbetterknownproportions，thepoets，notyetawareofwhattheycouldsubstituteforthegreatthemeswhichweredepartingtogetherwiththearistocracy，turnedtheireyestoinanimatenature。Astheylostsightofgodsandheroes，theysetthemselvestodescribestreamsandmountains。Thenceoriginatedinthelastcentury，thatkindofpoetrywhichhasbeencalled，bywayofdistinction，thedescriptive。Somehavethoughtthatthissortofdelineation，embellishedwithallthephysicalandinanimateobjectswhichcovertheearth，wasthekindofpoetrypeculiartodemocraticages;butIbelievethistobeanerror，andthatitonlybelongstoaperiodoftransition。
　　Iampersuadedthatintheenddemocracydivertstheimaginationfromallthatisexternaltoman，andfixesitonmanalone。Democraticnationsmayamusethemselvesforawhilewithconsideringtheproductionsofnature;buttheyareonlyexcitedinrealitybyasurveyofthemselves。Here，andherealone，thetruesourcesofpoetryamongstsuchnationsaretobefound;anditmaybebelievedthatthepoetswhoshallneglecttodrawtheirinspirationshence，willloseallswayoverthemindswhichtheywouldenchant，andwillbeleftintheendwithnonebutunimpassionedspectatorsoftheirtransports。Ihaveshownhowtheideasofprogressionandoftheindefiniteperfectibilityofthehumanracebelongtodemocraticages。Democraticnationscarebutlittleforwhathasbeen，buttheyarehauntedbyvisionsofwhatwillbe;inthisdirectiontheirunboundedimaginationgrowsanddilatesbeyondallmeasure。Herethenisthewildestrangeopentothegeniusofpoets，whichallowsthemtoremovetheirperformancestoasufficientdistancefromtheeye。Democracyshutsthepastagainstthepoet，butopensthefuturebeforehim。
　　Asallthecitizenswhocomposeademocraticcommunityarenearlyequalandalike，thepoetcannotdwelluponanyoneofthem;butthenationitselfinvitestheexerciseofhispowers。Thegeneralsimilitudeofindividuals，whichrendersanyoneofthemtakenseparatelyanimpropersubjectofpoetry，allowspoetstoincludethemallinthesameimagery，andtotakeageneralsurveyofthepeopleitself。Democracticnationshaveaclearerperceptionthananyothersoftheirownaspect;andanaspectsoimposingisadmirablyfittedtothedelineationoftheideal。
　　IreadilyadmitthattheAmericanshavenopoets;Icannotallowthattheyhavenopoeticideas。InEuropepeopletalkagreatdealofthewildsofAmerica，buttheAmericansthemselvesneverthinkaboutthem:theyareinsensibletothewondersofinanimatenature，andtheymaybesaidnottoperceivethemightyforestswhichsurroundthemtilltheyfallbeneaththehatchet。
　　Theireyesarefixeduponanothersight:theAmericanpeopleviewsitsownmarchacrossthesewilds—dryingswamps，turningthecourseofrivers，peoplingsolitudes，andsubduingnature。
　　ThismagnificentimageofthemselvesdoesnotmeetthegazeoftheAmericansatintervalsonly;itmaybesaidtohaunteveryoneoftheminhisleastaswellasinhismostimportantactions，andtobealwaysflittingbeforehismind。Nothingconceivableissopetty，soinsipid，socrowdedwithpaltryinterests，inonewordsoanti—poetic，asthelifeofamanintheUnitedStates。Butamongstthethoughtswhichitsuggeststhereisalwaysonewhichisfullofpoetry，andthatisthehiddennervewhichgivesvigortotheframe。
　　Inaristocraticageseachpeople，aswellaseachindividual，ispronetostandseparateandalooffromallothers。
　　Indemocraticages，theextremefluctuationsofmenandtheimpatienceoftheirdesireskeepthemperpetuallyonthemove;sothattheinhabitantsofdifferentcountriesintermingle，see，listento，andborrowfromeachother’sstores。Itisnotonlythenthemembersofthesamecommunitywhogrowmorealike;
　　communitiesarethemselvesassimilatedtooneanother，andthewholeassemblagepresentstotheeyeofthespectatoronevastdemocracy，eachcitizenofwhichisapeople。Thisdisplaystheaspectofmankindforthefirsttimeinthebroadestlight。Allthatbelongstotheexistenceofthehumanracetakenasawhole，toitsvicissitudesandtoitsfuture，becomesanabundantmineofpoetry。Thepoetswholivedinaristocraticageshavebeeneminentlysuccessfulintheirdelineationsofcertainincidentsinthelifeofapeopleoraman;butnoneofthemeverventuredtoincludewithinhisperformancesthedestiniesofmankind—ataskwhichpoetswritingindemocraticagesmayattempt。Atthatsametimeatwhicheveryman，raisinghiseyesabovehiscountry，beginsatlengthtodiscernmankindatlarge，theDivinityismoreandmoremanifesttothehumanmindinfullandentiremajesty。Ifindemocraticagesfaithinpositivereligionsbeoftenshaken，andthebeliefinintermediateagents，bywhatevernametheyarecalled，beovercast;ontheotherhandmenaredisposedtoconceiveafarbroaderideaofProvidenceitself，anditsinterferenceinhumanaffairsassumesanewandmoreimposingappearancetotheireyes。Lookingatthehumanraceasonegreatwhole，theyeasilyconceivethatitsdestiniesareregulatedbythesamedesign;andintheactionsofeveryindividualtheyareledtoacknowledgeatraceofthatuniversalandeternalplanonwhichGodrulesourrace。Thisconsiderationmaybetakenasanotherprolificsourceofpoetrywhichisopenedindemocraticages。Democraticpoetswillalwaysappeartrivialandfrigidiftheyseektoinvestgods，demons，orangels，withcorporealforms，andiftheyattempttodrawthemdownfromheaventodisputethesupremacyofearth。Butiftheystrivetoconnectthegreateventstheycommemoratewiththegeneralprovidentialdesignswhichgoverntheuniverse，and，withoutshowingthefingeroftheSupremeGovernor，revealthethoughtsoftheSupremeMind，theirworkswillbeadmiredandunderstood，fortheimaginationoftheircontemporariestakesthisdirectionofitsownaccord。
　　Itmaybeforeseeninthelikemannerthatpoetslivingindemocraticageswillpreferthedelineationofpassionsandideastothatofpersonsandachievements。Thelanguage，thedress，andthedailyactionsofmenindemocraciesarerepugnanttoidealconceptions。Thesethingsarenotpoeticalinthemselves;
　　and，ifitwereotherwise，theywouldceasetobeso，becausetheyaretoofamiliartoallthosetowhomthepoetwouldspeakofthem。Thisforcesthepoetconstantlytosearchbelowtheexternalsurfacewhichispalpabletothesenses，inordertoreadtheinnersoul:andnothinglendsitselfmoretothedelineationoftheidealthanthescrutinyofthehiddendepthsintheimmaterialnatureofman。Ineednottorambleoverearthandskytodiscoverawondrousobjectwovenofcontrasts，ofgreatnessandlittlenessinfinite，ofintensegloomandofamazingbrightness—capableatonceofexcitingpity，admiration，terror，contempt。Ifindthatobjectinmyself。Manspringsoutofnothing，crossestime，anddisappearsforeverinthebosomofGod;heisseenbutforamoment，staggeringonthevergeofthetwoabysses，andthereheislost。
　　Ifmanwerewhollyignorantofhimself，hewouldhavenopoetryinhim;foritisimpossibletodescribewhattheminddoesnotconceive。Ifmanclearlydiscernedhisownnature，hisimaginationwouldremainidle，andwouldhavenothingtoaddtothepicture。Butthenatureofmanissufficientlydisclosedforhimtoapprehendsomethingofhimself;andsufficientlyobscureforalltheresttobeplungedinthickdarkness，inwhichhegropesforever—andforeverinvain—tolayholdonsomecompleternotionofhisbeing。
　　Amongstademocraticpeoplepoetrywillnotbefedwithlegendarylaysorthememorialsofoldtraditions。Thepoetwillnotattempttopeopletheuniversewithsupernaturalbeingsinwhomhisreadersandhisownfancyhaveceasedtobelieve;norwillhepresentvirtuesandvicesinthemaskoffrigidpersonification，whicharebetterreceivedundertheirownfeatures。Alltheseresourcesfailhim;butManremains，andthepoetneedsnomore。Thedestiniesofmankind—manhimself，takenalooffromhisageandhiscountry，andstandinginthepresenceofNatureandofGod，withhispassions，hisdoubts，hisrareprosperities，andinconceivablewretchedness—willbecomethechief，ifnotthesolethemeofpoetryamongstthesenations。
　　Experiencemayconfirmthisassertion，ifweconsidertheproductionsofthegreatestpoetswhohaveappearedsincetheworldhasbeenturnedtodemocracy。TheauthorsofouragewhohavesoadmirablydelineatedthefeaturesofFaust，ChildeHarold，Rene，andJocelyn，didnotseektorecordtheactionsofanindividual，buttoenlargeandtothrowlightonsomeoftheobscurerrecessesofthehumanheart。Sucharethepoemsofdemocracy。Theprincipleofequalitydoesnotthendestroyallthesubjectsofpoetry:itrendersthemlessnumerous，butmorevast。
　　ChapterXVIII:OfTheInflatedStyleOfAmericanWritersAndOratorsIhavefrequentlyremarkedthattheAmericans，whogenerallytreatofbusinessinclear，plainlanguage，devoidofallornament，andsoextremelysimpleastobeoftencoarse，areapttobecomeinflatedassoonastheyattemptamorepoeticaldiction。Theythenventtheirpomposityfromoneendofaharanguetotheother;andtohearthemlavishimageryoneveryoccasion，onemightfancythattheyneverspokeofanythingwithsimplicity。TheEnglisharemorerarelygiventoasimilarfailing。Thecauseofthismaybepointedoutwithoutmuchdifficulty。Indemocraticcommunitieseachcitizenishabituallyengagedinthecontemplationofaverypunyobject，namelyhimself。Ifheeverraiseshislookshigher，hethenperceivesnothingbuttheimmenseformofsocietyatlarge，orthestillmoreimposingaspectofmankind。Hisideasarealleitherextremelyminuteandclear，orextremelygeneralandvague:whatliesbetweenisanopenvoid。Whenhehasbeendrawnoutofhisownsphere，therefore，healwaysexpectsthatsomeamazingobjectwillbeofferedtohisattention;anditisonthesetermsalonethatheconsentstotearhimselfforaninstantfromthepettycomplicatedcareswhichformthecharmandtheexcitementofhislife。Thisappearstomesufficientlytoexplainwhymenindemocracies，whoseconcernsareingeneralsopaltry，callupontheirpoetsforconceptionssovastanddescriptionssounlimited。
　　Theauthors，ontheirpart，donotfailtoobeyapropensityofwhichtheythemselvespartake;theyperpetuallyinflatetheirimaginations，andexpandingthembeyondallbounds，theynotunfrequentlyabandonthegreatinordertoreachthegigantic。
　　Bythesemeanstheyhopetoattracttheobservationofthemultitude，andtofixiteasilyuponthemselves:noraretheirhopesdisappointed;forasthemultitudeseeksfornothinginpoetrybutsubjectsofveryvastdimensions，ithasneitherthetimetomeasurewithaccuracytheproportionsofallthesubjectssetbeforeit，noratastesufficientlycorrecttoperceiveatonceinwhatrespecttheyareoutofproportion。Theauthorandthepublicatoncevitiateoneanother。
　　Wehavejustseenthatamongstdemocraticnations，thesourcesofpoetryaregrand，butnotabundant。Theyaresoonexhausted:andpoets，notfindingtheelementsoftheidealinwhatisrealandtrue，abandonthementirelyandcreatemonsters。
　　Idonotfearthatthepoetryofdemocraticnationswillprovetooinsipid，orthatitwillflytooneartheground;Iratherapprehendthatitwillbeforeverlosingitselfintheclouds，andthatitwillrangeatlasttopurelyimaginaryregions。I
　　fearthattheproductionsofdemocraticpoetsmayoftenbesurchargedwithimmenseandincoherentimagery，withexaggerateddescriptionsandstrangecreations;andthatthefantasticbeingsoftheirbrainmaysometimesmakeusregrettheworldofreality。
　　BookOne—ChaptersXIX—XXI
　　ChapterXIX:SomeObservationsOnTheDramaAmongstDemocraticNationsWhentherevolutionwhichsubvertsthesocialandpoliticalstateofanaristocraticpeoplebeginstopenetrateintoliterature，itgenerallyfirstmanifestsitselfinthedrama，anditalwaysremainsconspicuousthere。Thespectatorofadramaticpieceis，toacertainextent，takenbysurprisebytheimpressionitconveys。Hehasnotimetorefertohismemory，ortoconsultthosemoreabletojudgethanhimself。Itdoesnotoccurtohimtoresistthenewliterarytendencieswhichbegintobefeltbyhim;heyieldstothembeforeheknowswhattheyare。
　　Authorsareverypromptindiscoveringwhichwaythetasteofthepublicisthussecretlyinclined。Theyshapetheirproductionsaccordingly;andtheliteratureofthestage，afterhavingservedtoindicatetheapproachingliteraryrevolution，speedilycompletesitsaccomplishment。Ifyouwouldjudgebeforehandoftheliteratureofapeoplewhichislapsingintodemocracy，studyitsdramaticproductions。
　　Theliteratureofthestage，moreover，evenamongstaristocraticnations，constitutesthemostdemocraticpartoftheirliterature。Nokindofliterarygratificationissomuchwithinthereachofthemultitudeasthatwhichisderivedfromtheatricalrepresentations。Neitherpreparationnorstudyisrequiredtoenjoythem:theylayholdonyouinthemidstofyourprejudicesandyourignorance。Whentheyetuntutoredloveofthepleasuresofthemindbeginstoaffectaclassofthecommunity，itinstantlydrawsthemtothestage。Thetheatresofaristocraticnationshavealwaysbeenfilledwithspectatorsnotbelongingtothearistocracy。Atthetheatrealonethehigherranksmixwiththemiddleandthelowerclasses;therealonedotheformerconsenttolistentotheopinionofthelatter，oratleasttoallowthemtogiveanopinionatall。Atthetheatre，menofcultivationandofliteraryattainmentshavealwayshadmoredifficultythanelsewhereinmakingtheirtasteprevailoverthatofthepeople，andinpreventingthemselvesfrombeingcarriedawaybythelatter。Thepithasfrequentlymadelawsfortheboxes。
　　Ifitbedifficultforanaristocracytopreventthepeoplefromgettingtheupperhandinthetheatre，itwillreadilybeunderstoodthatthepeoplewillbesupremetherewhendemocraticprincipleshavecreptintothelawsandmanners—whenranksareintermixed—whenminds，aswellasfortunes，arebroughtmorenearlytogether—andwhentheupperclasshaslost，withitshereditarywealth，itspower，itsprecedents，anditsleisure。
　　Thetastesandpropensitiesnaturaltodemocraticnations，inrespecttoliterature，willthereforefirstbediscernibleinthedrama，anditmaybeforeseenthattheywillbreakouttherewithvehemence。Inwrittenproductions，theliterarycanonsofaristocracywillbegently，gradually，and，sotospeak，legallymodified;atthetheatretheywillberiotouslyoverthrown。
　　Thedramabringsoutmostofthegoodqualities，andalmostallthedefects，inherentindemocraticliterature。Democraticpeoplesholderuditionverycheap，andcarebutlittleforwhatoccurredatRomeandAthens;theywanttohearsomethingwhichconcernsthemselves，andthedelineationofthepresentageiswhattheydemand。
　　Whentheheroesandthemannersofantiquityarefrequentlybroughtuponthestage，anddramaticauthorsfaithfullyobservetherulesofantiquatedprecedent，thatisenoughtowarrantaconclusionthatthedemocraticclasseshavenotyetgottheupperhandofthetheatres。Racinemakesaveryhumbleapologyintheprefacetothe"Britannicus"forhavingdisposedofJuniaamongsttheVestals，who，accordingtoAulusGellius，hesays，"admittednoonebelowsixyearsofagenoraboveten。"Wemaybesurethathewouldneitherhaveaccusedhimselfoftheoffence，nordefendedhimselffromcensure，ifhehadwrittenforourcontemporaries。Afactofthiskindnotonlyillustratesthestateofliteratureatthetimewhenitoccurred，butalsothatofsocietyitself。Ademocraticstagedoesnotprovethatthenationisinastateofdemocracy，for，aswehavejustseen，eveninaristocraciesitmayhappenthatdemocratictastesaffectthedrama;butwhenthespiritofaristocracyreignsexclusivelyonthestage，thefactirrefragablydemonstratesthatthewholeofsocietyisaristocratic;anditmaybeboldlyinferredthatthesameletteredandlearnedclasswhichswaysthedramaticwriterscommandsthepeopleandgovernsthecountry。
　　Therefinedtastesandthearrogantbearingofanaristocracywillrarelyfailtoleadit，whenitmanagesthestage，tomakeakindofselectioninhumannature。Someoftheconditionsofsocietyclaimitschiefinterest;andthesceneswhichdelineatetheirmannersarepreferreduponthestage。
　　Certainvirtues，andevencertainvices，arethoughtmoreparticularlytodeservetofigurethere;andtheyareapplaudedwhilstallothersareexcluded。Uponthestage，aswellaselsewhere，anaristocraticaudiencewillonlymeetpersonagesofquality，andsharetheemotionsofkings。Thesamethingappliestostyle:anaristocracyisapttoimposeupondramaticauthorscertainmodesofexpressionwhichgivethekeyinwhicheverythingistobedelivered。Bythesemeansthestagefrequentlycomestodelineateonlyonesideofman，orsometimeseventorepresentwhatisnottobemetwithinhumannatureatall—toriseabovenatureandtogobeyondit。
　　Indemocraticcommunitiesthespectatorshavenosuchpartialities，andtheyrarelydisplayanysuchantipathies:theyliketoseeuponthestagethatmedleyofconditions，offeelings，andofopinions，whichoccursbeforetheireyes。Thedramabecomesmorestriking，morecommon，andmoretrue。
　　Sometimes，however，thosewhowriteforthestageindemocraciesalsotransgresstheboundsofhumannature—butitisonadifferentsidefromtheirpredecessors。Byseekingtorepresentinminutedetailthelittlesingularitiesofthemomentandthepeculiarcharacteristicsofcertainpersonages，theyforgettoportraythegeneralfeaturesoftherace。
　　Whenthedemocraticclassesrulethestage，theyintroduceasmuchlicenseinthemanneroftreatingsubjectsasinthechoiceofthem。Astheloveofthedramais，ofallliterarytastes，thatwhichismostnaturaltodemocraticnations，thenumberofauthorsandofspectators，aswellasoftheatricalrepresentations，isconstantlyincreasingamongstthesecommunities。Amultitudecomposedofelementssodifferent，andscatteredinsomanydifferentplaces，cannotacknowledgethesamerulesorsubmittothesamelaws。Noconcurrenceispossibleamongstjudgessonumerous，whoknownotwhentheymaymeetagain;andthereforeeachpronounceshisownsentenceonthepiece。Iftheeffectofdemocracyisgenerallytoquestiontheauthorityofallliteraryrulesandconventions，onthestageitabolishesthemaltogether，andputsintheirplacenothingbutthewhimofeachauthorandofeachpublic。
　　ThedramaalsodisplaysinanespecialmannerthetruthofwhatIhavesaidbeforeinspeakingmoregenerallyofstyleandartindemocraticliterature。InreadingthecriticismswhichwereoccasionedbythedramaticproductionsoftheageofLouisXIV，oneissurprisedtoremarkthegreatstresswhichthepubliclaidontheprobabilityoftheplot，andtheimportancewhichwasattachedtotheperfectconsistencyofthecharacters，andtotheirdoingnothingwhichcouldnotbeeasilyexplainedandunderstood。Thevaluewhichwassetupontheformsoflanguageatthatperiod，andthepaltrystrifeaboutwordswithwhichdramaticauthorswereassailed，arenolesssurprising。ItwouldseemthatthemenoftheageofLouisXIVattachedveryexaggeratedimportancetothosedetails，whichmaybeperceivedinthestudy，butwhichescapeattentiononthestage。For，afterall，theprincipalobjectofadramaticpieceistobeperformed，anditschiefmeritistoaffecttheaudience。Buttheaudienceandthereadersinthatagewerethesame:onquittingthetheatretheycalleduptheauthorforjudgmenttotheirownfiresides。Indemocracies，dramaticpiecesarelistenedto，butnotread。Mostofthosewhofrequenttheamusementsofthestagedonotgotheretoseekthepleasuresofthemind，butthekeenemotionsoftheheart。Theydonotexpecttohearafineliterarywork，buttoseeaplay;andprovidedtheauthorwritesthelanguageofhiscountrycorrectlyenoughtobeunderstood，andthathischaractersexcitecuriosityandawakensympathy，theaudiencearesatisfied。Theyasknomoreoffiction，andimmediatelyreturntoreallife。Accuracyofstyleisthereforelessrequired，becausetheattentiveobservanceofitsrulesislessperceptibleonthestage。Asfortheprobabilityoftheplot，itisincompatiblewithperpetualnovelty，surprise，andrapidityofinvention。Itisthereforeneglected，andthepublicexcusestheneglect。Youmaybesurethatifyousucceedinbringingyouraudienceintothepresenceofsomethingthataffectsthem，theywillnotcarebywhatroadyoubroughtthemthere;andtheywillneverreproachyouforhavingexcitedtheiremotionsinspiteofdramaticrules。