Asservantsdonotformaseparatepeople，theyhavenohabits，prejudices，ormannerspeculiartothemselves;theyarenotremarkableforanyparticularturnofmindormoodsoffeeling。
　　Theyknownovicesorvirtuesoftheircondition，buttheypartakeoftheeducation，theopinions，thefeelings，thevirtues，andthevicesoftheircontemporaries;andtheyarehonestmenorscoundrelsinthesamewayastheirmastersare。
　　Theconditionsofservantsarenotlessequalthanthoseofmasters。Asnomarkedranksorfixedsubordinationaretobefoundamongstthem，theywillnotdisplayeitherthemeannessorthegreatnesswhichcharacterizesthearistocracyofmenialsaswellasallotheraristocracies。IneversawamanintheUnitedStateswhoremindedmeofthatclassofconfidentialservantsofwhichwestillretainareminiscenceinEurope，neitherdidI
　　evermeetwithsuchathingasalackey:alltracesoftheoneandoftheotherhavedisappeared。
　　Indemocraciesservantsarenotonlyequalamongstthemselves，butitmaybesaidthattheyareinsomesorttheequalsoftheirmasters。Thisrequiresexplanationinordertoberightlyunderstood。Atanymomentaservantmaybecomeamaster，andheaspirestorisetothatcondition:theservantisthereforenotadifferentmanfromthemaster。Whythenhastheformerarighttocommand，andwhatcompelsthelattertoobey？—
　　thefreeandtemporaryconsentofboththeirwills。Neitherofthemisbynatureinferiortotheother;theyonlybecomesoforatimebycovenant。Withinthetermsofthiscovenant，theoneisaservant，theotheramaster;beyondittheyaretwocitizensofthecommonwealth—twomen。Ibegthereaderparticularlytoobservethatthisisnotonlythenotionwhichservantsthemselvesentertainoftheirowncondition;domesticserviceislookeduponbymastersinthesamelight;andthepreciselimitsofauthorityandobedienceareasclearlysettledinthemindoftheoneasinthatoftheother。
　　Whenthegreaterpartofthecommunityhavelongattainedaconditionnearlyalike，andwhenequalityisanoldandacknowledgedfact，thepublicmind，whichisneveraffectedbyexceptions，assignscertaingenerallimitstothevalueofman，aboveorbelowwhichnomancanlongremainplaced。Itisinvainthatwealthandpoverty，authorityandobedience，accidentallyinterposegreatdistancesbetweentwomen;publicopinion，foundedupontheusualorderofthings，drawsthemtoacommonlevel，andcreatesaspeciesofimaginaryequalitybetweenthem，inspiteoftherealinequalityoftheirconditions。Thisall—powerfulopinionpenetratesatlengthevenintotheheartsofthosewhoseinterestmightarmthemtoresistit;itaffectstheirjudgmentwhilstitsubduestheirwill。Intheirinmostconvictionsthemasterandtheservantnolongerperceiveanydeep—seateddifferencebetweenthem，andtheyneitherhopenorfeartomeetwithanysuchatanytime。Theyarethereforeneithersubjecttodisdainnortoanger，andtheydiscernineachotherneitherhumilitynorpride。Themasterholdsthecontractofservicetobetheonlysourceofhispower，andtheservantregardsitastheonlycauseofhisobedience。Theydonotquarrelabouttheirreciprocalsituations，buteachknowshisownandkeepsit。
　　IntheFrencharmythecommonsoldieristakenfromnearlythesameclassesastheofficer，andmayholdthesamecommissions;outoftheranksheconsidershimselfentirelyequaltohismilitarysuperiors，andinpointoffactheisso;butwhenunderarmshedoesnothesitatetoobey，andhisobedienceisnotthelessprompt，precise，andready，forbeingvoluntaryanddefined。Thisexamplemaygiveanotionofwhattakesplacebetweenmastersandservantsindemocraticcommunities。
　　Itwouldbepreposteroustosupposethatthosewarmanddeep—seatedaffections，whicharesometimeskindledinthedomesticserviceofaristocracy，willeverspringupbetweenthesetwomen，orthattheywillexhibitstronginstancesofself—sacrifice。Inaristocraciesmastersandservantsliveapart，andfrequentlytheironlyintercourseisthroughathirdperson;yettheycommonlystandfirmlybyoneanother。Indemocraticcountriesthemasterandtheservantareclosetogether;theyareindailypersonalcontact，buttheirmindsdonotintermingle;theyhavecommonoccupations，hardlyevercommoninterests。Amongstsuchapeopletheservantalwaysconsidershimselfasasojournerinthedwellingofhismasters。Heknewnothingoftheirforefathers—hewillseenothingoftheirdescendants—hehasnothinglastingtoexpectfromtheirhand。
　　Whythenshouldheconfoundhislifewiththeirs，andwhenceshouldsostrangeasurrenderofhimselfproceed？Thereciprocalpositionofthetwomenischanged—theirmutualrelationsmustbesotoo。
　　IwouldfainillustrateallthesereflectionsbytheexampleoftheAmericans;butforthispurposethedistinctionsofpersonsandplacesmustbeaccuratelytraced。IntheSouthoftheUnion，slaveryexists;allthatIhavejustsaidisconsequentlyinapplicablethere。IntheNorth，themajorityofservantsareeitherfreedmenorthechildrenoffreedmen;thesepersonsoccupyacontestedpositioninthepublicestimation;bythelawstheyarebroughtuptotheleveloftheirmasters—bythemannersofthecountrytheyareobstinatelydetrudedfromit。
　　Theydonotthemselvesclearlyknowtheirproperplace，andtheyarealmostalwayseitherinsolentorcraven。ButintheNorthernStates，especiallyinNewEngland，thereareacertainnumberofwhites，whoagree，forwages，toyieldatemporaryobediencetothewilloftheirfellow—citizens。Ihaveheardthattheseservantscommonlyperformthedutiesoftheirsituationwithpunctualityandintelligence;andthatwithoutthinkingthemselvesnaturallyinferiortothepersonwhoordersthem，theysubmitwithoutreluctancetoobeyhim。Theyappeartometocarryintoservicesomeofthosemanlyhabitswhichindependenceandequalityengender。Havingonceselectedahardwayoflife，theydonotseektoescapefromitbyindirectmeans;andtheyhavesufficientrespectforthemselves，nottorefusetotheirmasterthatobediencewhichtheyhavefreelypromised。Ontheirpart，mastersrequirenothingoftheirservantsbutthefaithfulandrigorousperformanceofthecovenant:theydonotaskformarksofrespect，theydonotclaimtheirloveordevotedattachment;itisenoughthat，asservants，theyareexactandhonest。Itwouldnotthenbetruetoassertthat，indemocraticsociety，therelationofservantsandmastersisdisorganized:itisorganizedonanotherfooting;theruleisdifferent，butthereisarule。
　　ItisnotmypurposetoinquirewhetherthenewstateofthingswhichIhavejustdescribedisinferiortothatwhichprecededit，orsimplydifferent。Enoughformethatitisfixedanddetermined:forwhatismostimportanttomeetwithamongmenisnotanygivenordering，butorder。ButwhatshallIsayofthosesadandtroubledtimesatwhichequalityisestablishedinthemidstofthetumultofrevolution—whendemocracy，afterhavingbeenintroducedintothestateofsociety，stillstruggleswithdifficultyagainsttheprejudicesandmannersofthecountry？Thelaws，andpartiallypublicopinion，alreadydeclarethatnonaturalorpermanentinferiorityexistsbetweentheservantandthemaster。Butthisnewbeliefhasnotyetreachedtheinnermostconvictionsofthelatter，orratherhisheartrejectsit;inthesecretpersuasionofhismindthemasterthinksthathebelongstoapeculiarandsuperiorrace;hedaresnotsayso，butheshudderswhilstheallowshimselftobedraggedtothesamelevel。Hisauthorityoverhisservantsbecomestimidandatthesametimeharsh:hehasalreadyceasedtoentertainforthemthefeelingsofpatronizingkindnesswhichlonguncontestedpoweralwaysengenders，andheissurprisedthat，beingchangedhimself，hisservantchangesalso。Hewantshisattendantstoformregularandpermanenthabits，inaconditionofdomesticservicewhichisonlytemporary:herequiresthattheyshouldappearcontentedwithandproudofaservilecondition，whichtheywillonedayshakeoff—thattheyshouldsacrificethemselvestoamanwhocanneitherprotectnorruinthem—andinshortthattheyshouldcontractanindissolubleengagementtoabeinglikethemselves，andonewhowilllastnolongerthantheywill。
　　Amongstaristocraticnationsitoftenhappensthattheconditionofdomesticservicedoesnotdegradethecharacterofthosewhoenteruponit，becausetheyneitherknownorimagineanyother;andtheamazinginequalitywhichismanifestbetweenthemandtheirmasterappearstobethenecessaryandunavoidableconsequenceofsomehiddenlawofProvidence。Indemocraciestheconditionofdomesticservicedoesnotdegradethecharacterofthosewhoenteruponit，becauseitisfreelychosen，andadoptedforatimeonly;becauseitisnotstigmatizedbypublicopinion，andcreatesnopermanentinequalitybetweentheservantandthemaster。Butwhilstthetransitionfromonesocialconditiontoanotherisgoingon，thereisalmostalwaysatimewhenmen’smindsfluctuatebetweenthearistocraticnotionofsubjectionandthedemocraticnotionofobedience。Obediencethenlosesitsmoralimportanceintheeyesofhimwhoobeys;henolongerconsidersitasaspeciesofdivineobligation，andhedoesnotyetviewitunderitspurelyhumanaspect;ithastohimnocharacterofsanctityorofjustice，andhesubmitstoitastoadegradingbutprofitablecondition。Atthatmomentaconfusedandimperfectphantomofequalityhauntsthemindsofservants;
　　theydonotatonceperceivewhethertheequalitytowhichtheyareentitledistobefoundwithinorwithoutthepaleofdomesticservice;andtheyrebelintheirheartsagainstasubordinationtowhichtheyhavesubjectedthemselves，andfromwhichtheyderiveactualprofit。Theyconsenttoserve，andtheyblushtoobey;theyliketheadvantagesofservice，butnotthemaster;orrather，theyarenotsurethattheyoughtnotthemselvestobemasters，andtheyareinclinedtoconsiderhimwhoordersthemasanunjustusurperoftheirownrights。Thenitisthatthedwellingofeverycitizenoffersaspectaclesomewhatanalogoustothegloomyaspectofpoliticalsociety。A
　　secretandintestinewarfareisgoingontherebetweenpowers，everrivalsandsuspiciousofoneanother:themasterisill—naturedandweak，theservantill—naturedandintractable;
　　theoneconstantlyattemptstoevadebyunfairrestrictionshisobligationtoprotectandtoremunerate—theotherhisobligationtoobey。Thereinsofdomesticgovernmentdanglebetweenthem，tobesnatchedatbyoneortheother。Thelineswhichdivideauthorityfromoppression，libertyfromlicense，andrightfrommight，aretotheireyessojumbledtogetherandconfused，thatnooneknowsexactlywhatheis，orwhathemaybe，orwhatheoughttobe。Suchaconditionisnotdemocracy，butrevolution。
　　ChapterVI:ThatDemocraticInstitutionsAndMannersTendToRaiseRentsAndShortenTheTermsOfLeasesWhathasbeensaidofservantsandmastersisapplicable，toacertainextent，tolandownersandfarmingtenants;butthissubjectdeservestobeconsideredbyitself。InAmericathereare，properlyspeaking，notenantfarmers;everymanownsthegroundhetills。Itmustbeadmittedthatdemocraticlawstendgreatlytoincreasethenumberoflandowners，andtodiminishthatoffarmingtenants。YetwhattakesplaceintheUnitedStatesismuchlessattributabletotheinstitutionsofthecountrythantothecountryitself。InAmericalandischeap，andanyonemayeasilybecomealandowner;itsreturnsaresmall，anditsproducecannotwellbedividedbetweenalandownerandafarmer。Americathereforestandsaloneinthisaswellasinmanyotherrespects，anditwouldbeamistaketotakeitasanexample。
　　Ibelievethatindemocraticaswellasinaristocraticcountriestherewillbelandownersandtenants，buttheconnectionexistingbetweenthemwillbeofadifferentkind。Inaristocraciesthehireofafarmispaidtothelandlord，notonlyinrent，butinrespect，regard，andduty;indemocraciesthewholeispaidincash。Whenestatesaredividedandpassedfromhandtohand，andthepermanentconnectionwhichexistedbetweenfamiliesandthesoilisdissolved，thelandownerandthetenantareonlycasuallybroughtintocontact。Theymeetforamomenttosettletheconditionsoftheagreement，andthenlosesightofeachother;theyaretwostrangersbroughttogetherbyacommoninterest，andwhokeenlytalkoveramatterofbusiness，thesoleobjectofwhichistomakemoney。
　　Inproportionaspropertyissubdividedandwealthdistributedoverthecountry，thecommunityisfilledwithpeoplewhoseformeropulenceisdeclining，andwithotherswhosefortunesareofrecentgrowthandwhosewantsincreasemorerapidlythantheirresources。Forallsuchpersonsthesmallestpecuniaryprofitisamatterofimportance，andnoneofthemfeeldisposedtowaiveanyoftheirclaims，ortoloseanyportionoftheirincome。Asranksareintermingled，andasverylargeaswellasveryscantyfortunesbecomemorerare，everydaybringsthesocialconditionofthelandownernearertothatofthefarmer;theonehasnotnaturallyanyuncontestedsuperiorityovertheother;betweentwomenwhoareequal，andnotateaseintheircircumstances，thecontractofhireisexclusivelyanaffairofmoney。Amanwhoseestateextendsoverawholedistrict，andwhoownsahundredfarms，iswellawareoftheimportanceofgainingatthesametimetheaffectionsofsomethousandsofmen;thisobjectappearstocallforhisexertions，andtoattainithewillreadilymakeconsiderablesacrifices。
　　Buthewhoownsahundredacresisinsensibletosimilarconsiderations，andhecaresbutlittletowintheprivateregardofhistenant。
　　Anaristocracydoesnotexpirelikeamaninasingleday;
　　thearistocraticprincipleisslowlyunderminedinmen’sopinion，beforeitisattackedintheirlaws。Longbeforeopenwarisdeclaredagainstit，thetiewhichhadhithertounitedthehigherclassestothelowermaybeseentobegraduallyrelaxed。
　　Indifferenceandcontemptarebetrayedbyoneclass，jealousyandhatredbytheothers;theintercoursebetweenrichandpoorbecomeslessfrequentandlesskind，andrentsareraised。Thisisnottheconsequenceofademocraticrevolution，butitscertainharbinger;foranaristocracywhichhaslosttheaffectionsofthepeople，onceandforever，islikeatreedeadattheroot，whichisthemoreeasilytornupbythewindsthehigheritsbrancheshavespread。
　　Inthecourseofthelastfiftyyearstherentsoffarmshaveamazinglyincreased，notonlyinFrancebutthroughoutthegreaterpartofEurope。Theremarkableimprovementswhichhavetakenplaceinagricultureandmanufactureswithinthesameperioddonotsufficeinmyopiniontoexplainthisfact;
　　recoursemustbehadtoanothercausemorepowerfulandmoreconcealed。IbelievethatcauseistobefoundinthedemocraticinstitutionswhichseveralEuropeannationshaveadopted，andinthedemocraticpassionswhichmoreorlessagitatealltherest。
　　IhavefrequentlyheardgreatEnglishlandownerscongratulatethemselvesthat，atthepresentday，theyderiveamuchlargerincomefromtheirestatesthantheirfathersdid。Theyhaveperhapsgoodreasonstobeglad;butmostassuredlytheyknownotwhattheyaregladof。Theythinktheyaremakingacleargain，whenitisinrealityonlyanexchange;theirinfluenceiswhattheyarepartingwithforcash;andwhattheygaininmoneywillerelongbelostinpower。
　　Thereisyetanothersignbywhichitiseasytoknowthatagreatdemocraticrevolutionisgoingonorapproaching。IntheMiddleAgesalmostalllandswereleasedforlives，orforverylongterms;thedomesticeconomyofthatperiodshowsthatleasesforninety—nineyearsweremorefrequentthenthanleasesfortwelveyearsarenow。Menthenbelievedthatfamilieswereimmortal;men’sconditionsseemedsettledforever，andthewholeofsocietyappearedtobesofixed，thatitwasnotsupposedthatanythingwouldeverbestirredorshakeninitsstructure。Inagesofequality，thehumanmindtakesadifferentbent;theprevailingnotionisthatnothingabides，andmanishauntedbythethoughtofmutability。Underthisimpressionthelandownerandthetenanthimselfareinstinctivelyaversetoprotractedtermsofobligation;theyareafraidofbeingtiedupto—morrowbythecontractwhichbenefitsthemtoday。Theyhavevagueanticipationsofsomesuddenandunforeseenchangeintheirconditions;theymistrustthemselves;theyfearlesttheirtasteshouldchange，andlesttheyshouldlamentthattheycannotridthemselvesofwhattheycoveted;noraresuchfearsunfounded，forindemocraticagesthatwhichismostfluctuatingamidstthefluctuationofallaroundistheheartofman。
　　ChapterVII:InfluenceOfDemocracyOnWagesMostoftheremarkswhichIhavealreadymadeinspeakingofservantsandmasters，maybeappliedtomastersandworkmen。Asthegradationsofthesocialscalecometobelessobserved，whilstthegreatsinkthehumblerise，andaspovertyaswellasopulenceceasestobehereditary，thedistancebothinrealityandinopinion，whichheretoforeseparatedtheworkmanfromthemaster，islessenedeveryday。Theworkmanconceivesamoreloftyopinionofhisrights，ofhisfuture，ofhimself;heisfilledwithnewambitionandwithnewdesires，heisharassedbynewwants。Everyinstantheviewswithlongingeyestheprofitsofhisemployer;andinordertosharethem，hestrivestodisposeofhislaboratahigherrate，andhegenerallysucceedsatlengthintheattempt。Indemocraticcountries，aswellaselsewhere，mostofthebranchesofproductiveindustryarecarriedonatasmallcost，bymenlittleremovedbytheirwealthoreducationabovethelevelofthosewhomtheyemploy。Thesemanufacturingspeculatorsareextremelynumerous;theirinterestsdiffer;theycannotthereforeeasilyconcertorcombinetheirexertions。Ontheotherhandtheworkmenhavealmostalwayssomesureresources，whichenablethemtorefusetoworkwhentheycannotgetwhattheyconceivetobethefairpriceoftheirlabor。Intheconstantstruggleforwageswhichisgoingonbetweenthesetwoclasses，theirstrengthisdivided，andsuccessalternatesfromonetotheother。Itisevenprobablethatintheendtheinterestoftheworkingclassmustprevail;forthehighwageswhichtheyhavealreadyobtainedmakethemeverydaylessdependentontheirmasters;andastheygrowmoreindependent，theyhavegreaterfacilitiesforobtainingafurtherincreaseofwages。
　　IshalltakeforexamplethatbranchofproductiveindustrywhichisstillatthepresentdaythemostgenerallyfollowedinFrance，andinalmostallthecountriesoftheworld—Imeanthecultivationofthesoil。InFrancemostofthosewholaborforhireinagriculture，arethemselvesownersofcertainplotsofground，whichjustenablethemtosubsistwithoutworkingforanyoneelse。Whentheselaborerscometooffertheirservicestoaneighboringlandownerorfarmer，ifherefusesthemacertainrateofwages，theyretiretotheirownsmallpropertyandawaitanotheropportunity。
　　Ithinkthat，uponthewhole，itmaybeassertedthataslowandgradualriseofwagesisoneofthegenerallawsofdemocraticcommunities。Inproportionassocialconditionsbecomemoreequal，wagesrise;andaswagesarehigher，socialconditionsbecomemoreequal。Butagreatandgloomyexceptionoccursinourowntime。Ihaveshowninaprecedingchapterthataristocracy，expelledfrompoliticalsociety，hastakenrefugeincertaindepartmentsofproductiveindustry，andhasestablisheditsswaythereunderanotherform;thispowerfullyaffectstherateofwages。AsalargecapitalisrequiredtoembarkinthegreatmanufacturingspeculationstowhichIallude，thenumberofpersonswhoenteruponthemisexceedinglylimited:astheirnumberissmall，theycaneasilyconcerttogether，andfixtherateofwagesastheyplease。Theirworkmenonthecontraryareexceedinglynumerous，andthenumberofthemisalwaysincreasing;for，fromtimetotime，anextraordinaryrunofbusinesstakesplace，duringwhichwagesareinordinatelyhigh，andtheyattractthesurroundingpopulationtothefactories。
　　But，whenoncemenhaveembracedthatlineoflife，wehavealreadyseenthattheycannotquititagain，becausetheysooncontracthabitsofbodyandmindwhichunfitthemforanyothersortoftoil。Thesemenhavegenerallybutlittleeducationandindustry，withbutfewresources;theystandthereforealmostatthemercyofthemaster。Whencompetition，orotherfortuitouscircumstances，lessenhisprofits，hecanreducethewagesofhisworkmenalmostatpleasure，andmakefromthemwhathelosesbythechancesofbusiness。Shouldtheworkmenstrike，themaster，whoisarichman，canverywellwaitwithoutbeingruineduntilnecessitybringsthembacktohim;buttheymustworkdaybydayortheydie，fortheironlypropertyisintheirhands。Theyhavelongbeenimpoverishedbyoppression，andthepoorertheybecomethemoreeasilymaytheybeoppressed:theycanneverescapefromthisfatalcircleofcauseandconsequence。Itisnotthensurprisingthatwages，afterhavingsometimessuddenlyrisen，arepermanentlyloweredinthisbranchofindustry;
　　whereasinothercallingsthepriceoflabor，whichgenerallyincreasesbutlittle，isneverthelessconstantlyaugmented。
　　Thisstateofdependenceandwretchedness，inwhichapartofthemanufacturingpopulationofourtimelives，formsanexceptiontothegeneralrule，contrarytothestateofalltherestofthecommunity;but，forthisveryreason，nocircumstanceismoreimportantormoredeservingoftheespecialconsiderationofthelegislator;forwhenthewholeofsocietyisinmotion，itisdifficulttokeepanyoneclassstationary;andwhenthegreaternumberofmenareopeningnewpathstofortune，itisnolessdifficulttomakethefewsupportinpeacetheirwantsandtheirdesires。
　　BookThree—ChaptersVIII—X
　　ChapterVIII:InfluenceOfDemocracyOnKindredIhavejustexaminedthechangeswhichtheequalityofconditionsproducesinthemutualrelationsoftheseveralmembersofthecommunityamongstdemocraticnations，andamongsttheAmericansinparticular。Iwouldnowgodeeper，andinquireintotheclosertiesofkindred:myobjecthereisnottoseekfornewtruths，buttoshowinwhatmannerfactsalreadyknownareconnectedwithmysubject。
　　Ithasbeenuniversallyremarked，thatinourtimetheseveralmembersofafamilystanduponanentirelynewfootingtowardseachother;thatthedistancewhichformerlyseparatedafatherfromhissonshasbeenlessened;andthatpaternalauthority，ifnotdestroyed，isatleastimpaired。Somethinganalogoustothis，butevenmorestriking，maybeobservedintheUnitedStates。InAmericathefamily，intheRomanandaristocraticsignificationoftheword，doesnotexist。Allthatremainsofitareafewvestigesinthefirstyearsofchildhood，whenthefatherexercises，withoutopposition，thatabsolutedomesticauthority，whichthefeeblenessofhischildrenrendersnecessary，andwhichtheirinterest，aswellashisownincontestablesuperiority，warrants。ButassoonastheyoungAmericanapproachesmanhood，thetiesoffilialobediencearerelaxeddaybyday:masterofhisthoughts，heissoonmasterofhisconduct。InAmericathereis，strictlyspeaking，noadolescence:atthecloseofboyhoodthemanappears，andbeginstotraceouthisownpath。Itwouldbeanerrortosupposethatthisisprecededbyadomesticstruggle，inwhichthesonhasobtainedbyasortofmoralviolencethelibertythathisfatherrefusedhim。Thesamehabits，thesameprincipleswhichimpeltheonetoasserthisindependence，predisposetheothertoconsidertheuseofthatindependenceasanincontestableright。Theformerdoesnotexhibitanyofthoserancorousorirregularpassionswhichdisturbmenlongaftertheyhaveshakenoffanestablishedauthority;thelatterfeelsnoneofthatbitterandangryregretwhichisapttosurviveabygonepower。Thefatherforeseesthelimitsofhisauthoritylongbeforehand，andwhenthetimearriveshesurrendersitwithoutastruggle:thesonlooksforwardtotheexactperiodatwhichhewillbehisownmaster;andheentersuponhisfreedomwithoutprecipitationandwithouteffort，asapossessionwhichishisownandwhichnooneseekstowrestfromhim。*a[Footnotea:TheAmericans，however，havenotyetthoughtfittostriptheparent，ashasbeendoneinFrance，ofoneofthechiefelementsofparentalauthority，bydeprivinghimofthepowerofdisposingofhispropertyathisdeath。IntheUnitedStatestherearenorestrictionsonthepowersofatestator。Inthisrespect，asinalmostallothers，itiseasytoperceive，thatifthepoliticallegislationoftheAmericansismuchmoredemocraticthanthatoftheFrench，thecivillegislationofthelatterisinfinitelymoredemocraticthanthatoftheformer。
　　Thismayeasilybeaccountedfor。ThecivillegislationofFrancewastheworkofamanwhosawthatitwashisinteresttosatisfythedemocraticpassionsofhiscontemporariesinallthatwasnotdirectlyandimmediatelyhostiletohisownpower。Hewaswillingtoallowsomepopularprinciplestoregulatethedistributionofpropertyandthegovernmentoffamilies，providedtheywerenottobeintroducedintotheadministrationofpublicaffairs。Whilstthetorrentofdemocracyoverwhelmedthecivillawsofthecountry，hehopedtofindaneasyshelterbehinditspoliticalinstitutions。Thispolicywasatoncebothadroitandselfish;butacompromiseofthiskindcouldnotlast;forintheendpoliticalinstitutionsneverfailtobecometheimageandexpressionofcivilsociety;andinthissenseitmaybesaidthatnothingismorepoliticalinanationthanitscivillegislation。]
　　Itmayperhapsnotbewithoututilitytoshowhowthesechangeswhichtakeplaceinfamilyrelations，arecloselyconnectedwiththesocialandpoliticalrevolutionwhichisapproachingitsconsummationunderourownobservation。Therearecertaingreatsocialprinciples，whichapeopleeitherintroduceseverywhere，ortoleratesnowhere。Incountrieswhicharearistocraticallyconstitutedwithallthegradationsofrank，thegovernmentnevermakesadirectappealtothemassofthegoverned:asmenareunitedtogether，itisenoughtoleadtheforemost，therestwillfollow。Thisisequallyapplicabletothefamily，astoallaristocracieswhichhaveahead。Amongstaristocraticnations，socialinstitutionsrecognize，intruth，nooneinthefamilybutthefather;childrenarereceivedbysocietyathishands;societygovernshim，hegovernsthem。Thustheparenthasnotonlyanaturalright，butheacquiresapoliticalright，tocommandthem:heistheauthorandthesupportofhisfamily;butheisalsoitsconstitutedruler。Indemocracies，wherethegovernmentpicksouteveryindividualsinglyfromthemass，tomakehimsubservienttothegenerallawsofthecommunity，nosuchintermediatepersonisrequired:afatheristhere，intheeyeofthelaw，onlyamemberofthecommunity，olderandricherthanhissons。
　　Whenmostoftheconditionsoflifeareextremelyunequal，andtheinequalityoftheseconditionsispermanent，thenotionofasuperiorgrowsupontheimaginationsofmen:ifthelawinvestedhimwithnoprivileges，customandpublicopinionwouldconcedethem。When，onthecontrary，mendifferbutlittlefromeachother，anddonotalwaysremainindissimilarconditionsoflife，thegeneralnotionofasuperiorbecomesweakerandlessdistinct:itisvainforlegislationtostrivetoplacehimwhoobeysverymuchbeneathhimwhocommands;themannersofthetimebringthetwomennearertooneanother，anddrawthemdailytowardsthesamelevel。Althoughthelegislationofanaristocraticpeopleshouldgrantnopeculiarprivilegestotheheadsoffamilies;Ishallnotbethelessconvincedthattheirpowerismorerespectedandmoreextensivethaninademocracy;
　　forIknowthat，whatsoeverthelawsmaybe，superiorsalwaysappearhigherandinferiorslowerinaristocraciesthanamongstdemocraticnations。
　　Whenmenlivemorefortheremembranceofwhathasbeenthanforthecareofwhatis，andwhentheyaremoregiventoattendtowhattheirancestorsthoughtthantothinkthemselves，thefatheristhenaturalandnecessarytiebetweenthepastandthepresent—thelinkbywhichtheendsofthesetwochainsareconnected。Inaristocracies，then，thefatherisnotonlythecivilheadofthefamily，buttheoracleofitstraditions，theexpounderofitscustoms，thearbiterofitsmanners。Heislistenedtowithdeference，heisaddressedwithrespect，andthelovewhichisfeltforhimisalwaystemperedwithfear。Whentheconditionofsocietybecomesdemocratic，andmenadoptastheirgeneralprinciplethatitisgoodandlawfultojudgeofallthingsforone’sself，usingformerpointsofbeliefnotasaruleoffaithbutsimplyasameansofinformation，thepowerwhichtheopinionsofafatherexerciseoverthoseofhissonsdiminishesaswellashislegalpower。
　　Perhapsthesubdivisionofestateswhichdemocracybringswithitcontributesmorethananythingelsetochangetherelationsexistingbetweenafatherandhischildren。Whenthepropertyofthefatherofafamilyisscanty，hissonandhimselfconstantlyliveinthesameplace，andsharethesameoccupations:habitandnecessitybringthemtogether，andforcethemtoholdconstantcommunication:theinevitableconsequenceisasortoffamiliarintimacy，whichrendersauthoritylessabsolute，andwhichcanillbereconciledwiththeexternalformsofrespect。Nowindemocraticcountriestheclassofthosewhoarepossessedofsmallfortunesispreciselythatwhichgivesstrengthtothenotions，andaparticulardirectiontothemanners，ofthecommunity。Thatclassmakesitsopinionspreponderateasuniversallyasitswill，andeventhosewhoaremostinclinedtoresistitscommandsarecarriedawayintheendbyitsexample。Ihaveknowneageropponentsofdemocracywhoallowedtheirchildrentoaddressthemwithperfectcolloquialequality。
　　Thus，atthesametimethatthepowerofaristocracyisdeclining，theaustere，theconventional，andthelegalpartofparentalauthorityvanishes，andaspeciesofequalityprevailsaroundthedomestichearth。Iknownot，uponthewhole，whethersocietylosesbythechange，butIaminclinedtobelievethatmanindividuallyisagainerbyit。Ithinkthat，inproportionasmannersandlawsbecomemoredemocratic，therelationoffatherandsonbecomesmoreintimateandmoreaffectionate;rulesandauthorityarelesstalkedof;confidenceandtendernessareoftentimesincreased，anditwouldseemthatthenaturalbondisdrawncloserinproportionasthesocialbondisloosened。Inademocraticfamilythefatherexercisesnootherpowerthanthatwithwhichmenlovetoinvesttheaffectionandtheexperienceofage;hisorderswouldperhapsbedisobeyed，buthisadviceisforthemostpartauthoritative。Thoughhebenothedgedinwithceremonialrespect，hissonsatleastaccosthimwithconfidence;
　　nosettledformofspeechisappropriatedtothemodeofaddressinghim，buttheyspeaktohimconstantly，andarereadytoconsulthimdaybyday;themasterandtheconstitutedrulerhavevanished—thefatherremains。Nothingmoreisneeded，inordertojudgeofthedifferencebetweenthetwostatesofsocietyinthisrespect，thantoperusethefamilycorrespondenceofaristocraticages。Thestyleisalwayscorrect，ceremonious，stiff，andsocoldthatthenaturalwarmthoftheheartcanhardlybefeltinthelanguage。Thelanguage，onthecontrary，addressedbyasontohisfatherindemocraticcountriesisalwaysmarkedbymingledfreedom，familiarityandaffection，whichatonceshowthatnewrelationshavesprungupinthebosomofthefamily。
　　Asimilarrevolutiontakesplaceinthemutualrelationsofchildren。Inaristocraticfamilies，aswellasinaristocraticsociety，everyplaceismarkedoutbeforehand。Notonlydoesthefatheroccupyaseparaterank，inwhichheenjoysextensiveprivileges，buteventhechildrenarenotequalamongstthemselves。Theageandsexofeachirrevocablydeterminehisrank，andsecuretohimcertainprivileges:mostofthesedistinctionsareabolishedordiminishedbydemocracy。Inaristocraticfamiliestheeldestson，inheritingthegreaterpartoftheproperty，andalmostalltherightsofthefamily，becomesthechief，and，toacertainextent，themaster，ofhisbrothers。
　　Greatnessandpowerareforhim—forthem，mediocrityanddependence。Neverthelessitwouldbewrongtosupposethat，amongstaristocraticnations，theprivilegesoftheeldestsonareadvantageoustohimselfalone，orthattheyexcitenothingbutenvyandhatredinthosearoundhim。Theeldestsoncommonlyendeavorstoprocurewealthandpowerforhisbrothers，becausethegeneralsplendorofthehouseisreflectedbackonhimwhorepresentsit;theyoungersonsseektobacktheelderbrotherinallhisundertakings，becausethegreatnessandpoweroftheheadofthefamilybetterenablehimtoprovideforallitsbranches。
　　Thedifferentmembersofanaristocraticfamilyarethereforeverycloselyboundtogether;theirinterestsareconnected，theirmindsagree，buttheirheartsareseldominharmony。
　　Democracyalsobindsbrotherstoeachother，butbyverydifferentmeans。Underdemocraticlawsallthechildrenareperfectlyequal，andconsequentlyindependent;nothingbringsthemforciblytogether，butnothingkeepsthemapart;andastheyhavethesameorigin，astheyaretrainedunderthesameroof，astheyaretreatedwiththesamecare，andasnopeculiarprivilegedistinguishesordividesthem，theaffectionateandyouthfulintimacyofearlyyearseasilyspringsupbetweenthem。Scarcelyanyopportunitiesoccurtobreakthetiethusformedattheoutsetoflife;fortheirbrotherhoodbringsthemdailytogether，withoutembarrassingthem。Itisnot，then，byinterest，butbycommonassociationsandbythefreesympathyofopinionandoftaste，thatdemocracyunitesbrotherstoeachother。Itdividestheirinheritance，butitallowstheirheartsandmindstomingletogether。Suchisthecharmofthesedemocraticmanners，thateventhepartisansofaristocracyarecaughtbyit;andafterhavingexperienceditforsometime，theyarebynomeanstemptedtoreverttotherespectfulandfrigidobservanceofaristocraticfamilies。Theywouldbegladtoretainthedomestichabitsofdemocracy，iftheymightthrowoffitssocialconditionsanditslaws;buttheseelementsareindissolublyunited，anditisimpossibletoenjoytheformerwithoutenduringthelatter。