Honorissimplythatpeculiarrule，foundeduponapeculiarstateofsociety，bytheapplicationofwhichapeopleoraclassallotpraiseorblame。Nothingismoreunproductivetothemindthananabstractidea;Ithereforehastentocallintheaidoffactsandexamplestoillustratemymeaning。
　　Iselectthemostextraordinarykindofhonorwhichwaseverknownintheworld，andthatwhichwearebestacquaintedwith，viz。，aristocratichonorspringingoutoffeudalsociety。I
　　shallexplainitbymeansoftheprinciplealreadylaiddown，andIshallexplaintheprinciplebymeansoftheillustration。IamnothereledtoinquirewhenandhowthearistocracyoftheMiddleAgescameintoexistence，whyitwassodeeplyseveredfromtheremainderofthenation，orwhatfoundedandconsolidateditspower。Itakeitsexistenceasanestablishedfact，andIamendeavoringtoaccountforthepeculiarviewwhichittookofthegreaterpartofhumanactions。Thefirstthingthatstrikesmeis，thatinthefeudalworldactionswerenotalwayspraisedorblamedwithreferencetotheirintrinsicworth，butthattheyweresometimesappreciatedexclusivelywithreferencetothepersonwhowastheactorortheobjectofthem，whichisrepugnanttothegeneralconscienceofmankind。Thussomeoftheactionswhichwereindifferentonthepartofamaninhumblelife，dishonoredanoble;otherschangedtheirwholecharacteraccordingasthepersonaggrievedbythembelongedordidnotbelongtothearistocracy。Whenthesedifferentnotionsfirstarose，thenobilityformedadistinctbodyamidstthepeople，whichitcommandedfromtheinaccessibleheightswhereitwasensconced。Tomaintainthispeculiarposition，whichconstituteditsstrength，itnotonlyrequiredpoliticalprivileges，butitrequiredastandardofrightandwrongforitsownespecialuse。Thatsomeparticularvirtueorvicebelongedtothenobilityratherthantothehumbleclasses—thatcertainactionswereguiltlesswhentheyaffectedthevillain，whichwerecriminalwhentheytouchedthenoble—thesewereoftenarbitrarymatters;butthathonororshameshouldbeattachedtoaman’sactionsaccordingtohiscondition，wasaresultoftheinternalconstitutionofanaristocraticcommunity。Thishasbeenactuallythecaseinallthecountrieswhichhavehadanaristocracy;aslongasatraceoftheprincipleremains，thesepeculiaritieswillstillexist;todebauchawomanofcolorscarcelyinjuresthereputationofanAmerican—tomarryherdishonorshim。
　　Insomecasesfeudalhonorenjoinedrevenge，andstigmatizedtheforgivenessofinsults;inothersitimperiouslycommandedmentoconquertheirownpassions，andimposedforgetfulnessofself。Itdidnotmakehumanityorkindnessitslaw，butitextolledgenerosity;itsetmorestoreonliberalitythanonbenevolence;itallowedmentoenrichthemselvesbygamblingorbywar，butnotbylabor;itpreferredgreatcrimestosmallearnings;cupiditywaslessdistastefultoitthanavarice;
　　violenceitoftensanctioned，butcunningandtreacheryitinvariablyreprobatedascontemptible。Thesefantasticalnotionsdidnotproceedexclusivelyfromthecapricesofthosewhoentertainedthem。Aclasswhichhassucceededinplacingitselfattheheadofandaboveallothers，andwhichmakesperpetualexertionstomaintainthisloftyposition，mustespeciallyhonorthosevirtueswhichareconspicuousfortheirdignityandsplendor，andwhichmaybeeasilycombinedwithprideandtheloveofpower。Suchmenwouldnothesitatetoinvertthenaturalorderoftheconscienceinordertogivethosevirtuesprecedencebeforeallothers。Itmayevenbeconceivedthatsomeofthemoreboldandbrilliantviceswouldreadilybesetabovethequiet，unpretendingvirtues。Theveryexistenceofsuchaclassinsocietyrendersthesethingsunavoidable。
　　ThenoblesoftheMiddleAgesplacedmilitarycourageforemostamongstvirtues，andinlieuofmanyofthem。Thiswasagainapeculiaropinionwhicharosenecessarilyfromthepeculiarityofthestateofsociety。Feudalaristocracyexistedbywarandforwar;itspowerhadbeenfoundedbyarms，andbyarmsthatpowerwasmaintained;itthereforerequirednothingmorethanmilitarycourage，andthatqualitywasnaturallyexaltedaboveallothers;whateverdenotedit，evenattheexpenseofreasonandhumanity，wasthereforeapprovedandfrequentlyenjoinedbythemannersofthetime。Suchwasthemainprinciple;thecapriceofmanwasonlytobetracedinminuterdetails。Thatamanshouldregardataponthecheekasanunbearableinsult，andshouldbeobligedtokillinsinglecombatthepersonwhostruckhimthuslightly，isanarbitraryrule;butthatanoblecouldnottranquillyreceiveaninsult，andwasdishonoredifheallowedhimselftotakeablowwithoutfighting，weredirectconsequencesofthefundamentalprinciplesandthewantsofmilitaryaristocracy。
　　Thusitwastruetoacertainextenttoassertthatthelawsofhonorwerecapricious;butthesecapricesofhonorwerealwaysconfinedwithincertainnecessarylimits。Thepeculiarrule，whichwascalledhonorbyourforefathers，issofarfrombeinganarbitrarylawinmyeyes，thatIwouldreadilyengagetoascribeitsmostincoherentandfantasticalinjunctionstoasmallnumberoffixedandinvariablewantsinherentinfeudalsociety。
　　IfIweretotracethenotionoffeudalhonorintothedomainofpolitics，Ishouldnotfinditmoredifficulttoexplainitsdictates。ThestateofsocietyandthepoliticalinstitutionsoftheMiddleAgesweresuch，thatthesupremepowerofthenationnevergovernedthecommunitydirectly。Thatpowerdidnotexistintheeyesofthepeople:everymanlookeduptoacertainindividualwhomhewasboundtoobey;bythatintermediatepersonagehewasconnectedwithalltheothers。
　　Thusinfeudalsocietythewholesystemofthecommonwealthresteduponthesentimentoffidelitytothepersonofthelord:
　　todestroythatsentimentwastoopenthesluicesofanarchy。
　　Fidelitytoapoliticalsuperiorwas，moreover，asentimentofwhichallthemembersofthearistocracyhadconstantopportunitiesofestimatingtheimportance;foreveryoneofthemwasavassalaswellasalord，andhadtocommandaswellastoobey。Toremainfaithfultothelord，tosacrificeone’sselfforhimifcalledupon，tosharehisgoodorevilfortunes，tostandbyhiminhisundertakingswhatevertheymightbe—suchwerethefirstinjunctionsoffeudalhonorinrelationtothepoliticalinstitutionsofthosetimes。Thetreacheryofavassalwasbrandedwithextraordinaryseveritybypublicopinion，andanameofpeculiarinfamywasinventedfortheoffencewhichwascalled"felony。"
　　Onthecontrary，fewtracesaretobefoundintheMiddleAgesofthepassionwhichconstitutedthelifeofthenationsofantiquity—Imeanpatriotism;theworditselfisnotofveryancientdateinthelanguage。*bFeudalinstitutionsconcealedthecountryatlargefrommen’ssight，andrenderedtheloveofitlessnecessary。Thenationwasforgotteninthepassionswhichattachedmentopersons。Henceitwasnopartofthestrictlawoffeudalhonortoremainfaithfultoone’scountry。
　　Notindeedthattheloveoftheircountrydidnotexistintheheartsofourforefathers;butitconstitutedadimandfeebleinstinct，whichhasgrownmoreclearandstronginproportionasaristocraticclasseshavebeenabolished，andthesupremepowerofthenationcentralized。ThismaybeclearlyseenfromthecontraryjudgmentswhichEuropeannationshavepasseduponthevariouseventsoftheirhistories，accordingtothegenerationsbywhichsuchjudgmentshavebeenformed。ThecircumstancewhichmostdishonoredtheConstabledeBourbonintheeyesofhiscontemporarieswasthatheborearmsagainsthisking:thatwhichmostdishonorshiminoureyes，isthathemadewaragainsthiscountry;webrandhimasdeeplyasourforefathersdid，butfordifferentreasons。
　　[Footnoteb:Eventheword"patrie"wasnotusedbytheFrenchwritersuntilthesixteenthcentury。]
　　Ihavechosenthehonoroffeudaltimesbywayofillustrationofmymeaning，becauseitscharacteristicsaremoredistinctlymarkedandmorefamiliartousthanthoseofanyotherperiod;butImighthavetakenanexampleelsewhere，andIshouldhavereachedthesameconclusionbyadifferentroad。AlthoughwearelessperfectlyacquaintedwiththeRomansthanwithourownancestors，yetweknowthatcertainpeculiarnotionsofgloryanddisgraceobtainedamongstthem，whichwerenotsolelyderivedfromthegeneralprinciplesofrightandwrong。Manyhumanactionswerejudgeddifferently，accordingastheyaffectedaRomancitizenorastranger，afreemanoraslave;certainviceswereblazonedabroad，certainvirtueswereextolledaboveallothers。"Inthatage，"saysPlutarchinthelifeofCoriolanus，"martialprowesswasmorehonoredandprizedinRomethanalltheothervirtues，insomuchthatitwascalledvirtus，thenameofvirtueitself，byapplyingthenameofthekindtothisparticularspecies;sothatvirtueinLatinwasasmuchastosayvalor。"Cananyonefailtorecognizethepeculiarwantofthatsingularcommunitywhichwasformedfortheconquestoftheworld？
　　Anynationwouldfurnishuswithsimilargroundsofobservation;for，asIhavealreadyremarked，whenevermencollecttogetherasadistinctcommunity，thenotionofhonorinstantlygrowsupamongstthem;thatistosay，asystemofopinionspeculiartothemselvesastowhatisblamableorcommendable;andthesepeculiarrulesalwaysoriginateinthespecialhabitsandspecialinterestsofthecommunity。Thisisapplicabletoacertainextenttodemocraticcommunitiesaswellastoothers，asweshallnowproceedtoprovebytheexampleoftheAmericans。*cSomeloosenotionsoftheoldaristocratichonorofEuropearestilltobefoundscatteredamongsttheopinionsoftheAmericans;butthesetraditionalopinionsarefewinnumber，theyhavebutlittlerootinthecountry，andbutlittlepower。Theyarelikeareligionwhichhasstillsometemplesleftstanding，thoughmenhaveceasedtobelieveinit。
　　Butamidstthesehalf—obliteratednotionsofexotichonor，somenewopinionshavesprungup，whichconstitutewhatmaybetermedinourdaysAmericanhonor。IhaveshownhowtheAmericansareconstantlydriventoengageincommerceandindustry。Theirorigin，theirsocialcondition，theirpoliticalinstitutions，andeventhespottheyinhabit，urgethemirresistiblyinthisdirection。Theirpresentconditionisthenthatofanalmostexclusivelymanufacturingandcommercialassociation，placedinthemidstofanewandboundlesscountry，whichtheirprincipalobjectistoexploreforpurposesofprofit。ThisisthecharacteristicwhichmostpeculiarlydistinguishestheAmericanpeoplefromallothersatthepresenttime。Allthosequietvirtueswhichtendtogivearegularmovementtothecommunity，andtoencouragebusiness，willthereforebeheldinpeculiarhonorbythatpeople，andtoneglectthosevirtueswillbetoincurpubliccontempt。Allthemoreturbulentvirtues，whichoftendazzle，butmorefrequentlydisturbsociety，willonthecontraryoccupyasubordinaterankintheestimationofthissamepeople:theymaybeneglectedwithoutforfeitingtheesteemofthecommunity—toacquirethemwouldperhapsbetorunariskoflosingit。
　　[Footnotec:IspeakhereoftheAmericansinhabitingthoseStateswhereslaverydoesnotexist;theyalonecanbesaidtopresentacompletepictureofdemocraticsociety。]
　　TheAmericansmakeanolessarbitraryclassificationofmen’svices。Therearecertainpropensitieswhichappearcensurabletothegeneralreasonandtheuniversalconscienceofmankind，butwhichhappentoagreewiththepeculiarandtemporarywantsoftheAmericancommunity:thesepropensitiesarelightlyreproved，sometimesevenencouraged;forinstance，theloveofwealthandthesecondarypropensitiesconnectedwithitmaybemoreparticularlycited。Toclear，totill，andtotransformthevastuninhabitedcontinentwhichishisdomain，theAmericanrequiresthedailysupportofanenergeticpassion;thatpassioncanonlybetheloveofwealth;thepassionforwealthisthereforenotreprobatedinAmerica，andprovideditdoesnotgobeyondtheboundsassignedtoitforpublicsecurity，itisheldinhonor。TheAmericanlaudsasanobleandpraiseworthyambitionwhatourownforefathersintheMiddleAgesstigmatizedasservilecupidity，justashetreatsasablindandbarbarousfrenzythatardorofconquestandmartialtemperwhichborethemtobattle。IntheUnitedStatesfortunesarelostandregainedwithoutdifficulty;thecountryisboundless，anditsresourcesinexhaustible。Thepeoplehaveallthewantsandcravingsofagrowingcreature;andwhateverbetheirefforts，theyarealwayssurroundedbymorethantheycanappropriate。Itisnottheruinofafewindividualswhichmaybesoonrepaired，buttheinactivityandslothofthecommunityatlargewhichwouldbefataltosuchapeople。Boldnessofenterpriseistheforemostcauseofitsrapidprogress，itsstrength，anditsgreatness。
　　Commercialbusinessistherelikeavastlottery，bywhichasmallnumberofmencontinuallylose，buttheStateisalwaysagainer;suchapeopleoughtthereforetoencourageanddohonortoboldnessincommercialspeculations。Butanyboldspeculationrisksthefortuneofthespeculatorandofallthosewhoputtheirtrustinhim。TheAmericans，whomakeavirtueofcommercialtemerity，havenorightinanycasetobrandwithdisgracethosewhopractiseit。HencearisesthestrangeindulgencewhichisshowntobankruptsintheUnitedStates;
　　theirhonordoesnotsufferbysuchanaccident。InthisrespecttheAmericansdiffer，notonlyfromthenationsofEurope，butfromallthecommercialnationsofourtime，andaccordinglytheyresemblenoneofthemintheirpositionortheirwants。
　　InAmericaallthoseviceswhichtendtoimpairthepurityofmorals，andtodestroytheconjugaltie，aretreatedwithadegreeofseveritywhichisunknownintherestoftheworld。Atfirstsightthisseemsstrangelyatvariancewiththetoleranceshownthereonothersubjects，andoneissurprisedtomeetwithamoralitysorelaxedandsoaustereamongsttheselfsamepeople。
　　Butthesethingsarelessincoherentthantheyseemtobe。PublicopinionintheUnitedStatesverygentlyrepressesthatloveofwealthwhichpromotesthecommercialgreatnessandtheprosperityofthenation，anditespeciallycondemnsthatlaxityofmoralswhichdivertsthehumanmindfromthepursuitofwell—being，anddisturbstheinternalorderofdomesticlifewhichissonecessarytosuccessinbusiness。Toearntheesteemoftheircountrymen，theAmericansarethereforeconstrainedtoadaptthemselvestoorderlyhabits—anditmaybesaidinthissensethattheymakeitamatterofhonortolivechastely。
　　OnonepointAmericanhonoraccordswiththenotionsofhonoracknowledgedinEurope;itplacescourageasthehighestvirtue，andtreatsitasthegreatestofthemoralnecessitiesofman;butthenotionofcourageitselfassumesadifferentaspect。
　　IntheUnitedStatesmartialvalorisbutlittleprized;thecouragewhichisbestknownandmostesteemedisthatwhichemboldensmentobravethedangersoftheocean，inordertoarriveearlierinport—tosupporttheprivationsofthewildernesswithoutcomplaint，andsolitudemorecruelthanprivations—thecouragewhichrendersthemalmostinsensibletothelossofafortunelaboriouslyacquired，andinstantlypromptstofreshexertionstomakeanother。CourageofthiskindispeculiarlynecessarytothemaintenanceandprosperityoftheAmericancommunities，anditisheldbytheminpeculiarhonorandestimation;tobetrayawantofitistoincurcertaindisgrace。
　　Ihaveyetanothercharacteristicpointwhichmayservetoplacetheideaofthischapterinstrongerrelief。InademocraticsocietylikethatoftheUnitedStates，wherefortunesarescantyandinsecure，everybodyworks，andworkopensawaytoeverything:thishaschangedthepointofhonorquiteround，andhasturneditagainstidleness。IhavesometimesmetinAmericawithyoungmenofwealth，personallydisinclinedtoalllaboriousexertion，butwhohadbeencompelledtoembraceaprofession。
　　Theirdispositionandtheirfortuneallowedthemtoremainwithoutemployment;publicopinionforbadeit，tooimperiouslytobedisobeyed。IntheEuropeancountries，onthecontrary，wherearistocracyisstillstrugglingwiththefloodwhichoverwhelmsit，Ihaveoftenseenmen，constantlyspurredonbytheirwantsanddesires，remaininidleness，inordernottolosetheesteemoftheirequals;andIhaveknownthemsubmittoennuiandprivationsratherthantowork。Noonecanfailtoperceivethattheseoppositeobligationsaretwodifferentrulesofconduct，bothneverthelessoriginatinginthenotionofhonor。
　　Whatourforefathersdesignatedashonorabsolutelywasinrealityonlyoneofitsforms;theygaveagenericnametowhatwasonlyaspecies。Honorthereforeistobefoundindemocraticaswellasinaristocraticages，butitwillnotbedifficulttoshowthatitassumesadifferentaspectintheformer。Notonlyareitsinjunctionsdifferent，butweshallshortlyseethattheyarelessnumerous，lessprecise，andthatitsdictatesarelessrigorouslyobeyed。Thepositionofacasteisalwaysmuchmorepeculiarthanthatofapeople。Nothingissomuchoutofthewayoftheworldasasmallcommunityinvariablycomposedofthesamefamilies（aswasforinstancethearistocracyoftheMiddleAges），whoseobjectistoconcentrateandtoretain，exclusivelyandhereditarily，education，wealth，andpoweramongstitsownmembers。Butthemoreoutofthewaythepositionofacommunityhappenstobe，themorenumerousareitsspecialwants，andthemoreextensiveareitsnotionsofhonorcorrespondingtothosewants。Therulesofhonorwillthereforealwaysbelessnumerousamongstapeoplenotdividedintocastesthanamongstanyother。
　　Ifeveranynationsareconstitutedinwhichitmayevenbedifficulttofindanypeculiarclassesofsociety，thenotionofhonorwillbeconfinedtoasmallnumberofprecepts，whichwillbemoreandmoreinaccordancewiththemorallawsadoptedbythemassofmankind。Thusthelawsofhonorwillbelesspeculiarandlessmultifariousamongstademocraticpeoplethaninanaristocracy。Theywillalsobemoreobscure;andthisisanecessaryconsequenceofwhatgoesbefore;forasthedistinguishingmarksofhonorarelessnumerousandlesspeculiar，itmustoftenbedifficulttodistinguishthem。Tothis，otherreasonsmaybeadded。AmongstthearistocraticnationsoftheMiddleAges，generationsucceededgenerationinvain;eachfamilywaslikeanever—dying，ever—stationaryman，andthestateofopinionswashardlymorechangeablethanthatofconditions。Everyonethenhadalwaysthesameobjectsbeforehiseyes，whichhecontemplatedfromthesamepoint;hiseyesgraduallydetectedthesmallestdetails，andhisdiscernmentcouldnotfailtobecomeintheendclearandaccurate。Thusnotonlyhadthemenoffeudaltimesveryextraordinaryopinionsinmattersofhonor，buteachofthoseopinionswaspresenttotheirmindsunderaclearandpreciseform。
　　ThiscanneverbethecaseinAmerica，whereallmenareinconstantmotion;andwheresociety，transformeddailybyitsownoperations，changesitsopinionstogetherwithitswants。Insuchacountrymenhaveglimpsesoftherulesofhonor，buttheyhaveseldomtimetofixattentionuponthem。
　　Butevenifsocietyweremotionless，itwouldstillbedifficulttodeterminethemeaningwhichoughttobeattachedtotheword"honor。"IntheMiddleAges，aseachclasshaditsownhonor，thesameopinionwasneverreceivedatthesametimebyalargenumberofmen;andthisrendereditpossibletogiveitadeterminedandaccurateform，whichwasthemoreeasy，asallthosebywhomitwasreceived，havingaperfectlyidenticalandmostpeculiarposition，werenaturallydisposedtoagreeuponthepointsofalawwhichwasmadeforthemselvesalone。Thusthecodeofhonorbecameacompleteanddetailedsystem，inwhicheverythingwasanticipatedandprovidedforbeforehand，andafixedandalwayspalpablestandardwasappliedtohumanactions。
　　Amongstademocraticnation，liketheAmericans，inwhichranksareidentified，andthewholeofsocietyformsonesinglemass，composedofelementswhichareallanalogousthoughnotentirelysimilar，itisimpossibleevertoagreebeforehandonwhatshallorshallnotbeallowedbythelawsofhonor。Amongstthatpeople，indeed，somenationalwantsdoexistwhichgiverisetoopinionscommontothewholenationonpointsofhonor;buttheseopinionsneveroccuratthesametime，inthesamemanner，orwiththesameintensitytothemindsofthewholecommunity;thelawofhonorexists，butithasnoorganstopromulgateit。
　　TheconfusionisfargreaterstillinademocraticcountrylikeFrance，wherethedifferentclassesofwhichtheformerfabricofsocietywascomposed，beingbroughttogetherbutnotyetmingled，importdaybydayintoeachother’scirclesvariousandsometimesconflictingnotionsofhonor—whereeveryman，athisownwillandpleasure，forsakesoneportionofhisforefathers’creed，andretainsanother;sothat，amidstsomanyarbitrarymeasures，nocommonrulecaneverbeestablished，anditisalmostimpossibletopredictwhichactionswillbeheldinhonorandwhichwillbethoughtdisgraceful。Suchtimesarewretched，buttheyareofshortduration。
　　Ashonor，amongstdemocraticnations，isimperfectlydefined，itsinfluenceisofcourselesspowerful;foritisdifficulttoapplywithcertaintyandfirmnessalawwhichisnotdistinctlyknown。Publicopinion，thenaturalandsupremeinterpreterofthelawsofhonor，notclearlydiscerningtowhichsidecensureorapprovaloughttolean，canonlypronounceahesitatingjudgment。Sometimestheopinionofthepublicmaycontradictitself;morefrequentlyitdoesnotact，andletsthingspass。
　　Theweaknessofthesenseofhonorindemocraciesalsoarisesfromseveralothercauses。Inaristocraticcountries，thesamenotionsofhonorarealwaysentertainedbyonlyafewpersons，alwayslimitedinnumber，oftenseparatedfromtherestoftheirfellow—citizens。Honoriseasilymingledandidentifiedintheirmindswiththeideaofallthatdistinguishestheirownposition;itappearstothemasthechiefcharacteristicoftheirownrank;theyapplyitsdifferentruleswithallthewarmthofpersonalinterest，andtheyfeel（ifImayusetheexpression）apassionforcomplyingwithitsdictates。Thistruthisextremelyobviousintheoldblack—letterlawbooksonthesubjectof"trialbybattel。"Thenobles，intheirdisputes，wereboundtousethelanceandsword;whereasthevillainsusedonlysticksamongstthemselves，"inasmuchas，"tousethewordsoftheoldbooks，"villainshavenohonor。"Thisdidnotmean，asitmaybeimaginedatthepresentday，thatthesepeoplewerecontemptible;
　　butsimplythattheiractionswerenottobejudgedbythesameruleswhichwereappliedtotheactionsofthearistocracy。
　　Itissurprising，atfirstsight，thatwhenthesenseofhonorismostpredominant，itsinjunctionsareusuallymoststrange;sothatthefurtheritisremovedfromcommonreasonthebetteritisobeyed;whenceithassometimesbeeninferredthatthelawsofhonorwerestrengthenedbytheirownextravagance。
　　Thetwothingsindeedoriginatefromthesamesource，buttheoneisnotderivedfromtheother。Honorbecomesfantasticalinproportiontothepeculiarityofthewantswhichitdenotes，andthepaucityofthemenbywhomthosewantsarefelt;anditisbecauseitdenoteswantsofthiskindthatitsinfluenceisgreat。Thusthenotionofhonorisnotthestrongerforbeingfantastical，butitisfantasticalandstrongfromtheselfsamecause。
　　Further，amongstaristocraticnationseachrankisdifferent，butallranksarefixed;everymanoccupiesaplaceinhisownspherewhichhecannotrelinquish，andhelivesthereamidstothermenwhoareboundbythesameties。Amongstthesenationsnomancaneitherhopeorfeartoescapebeingseen;nomanisplacedsolowbutthathehasastageofhisown，andnonecanavoidcensureorapplausebyhisobscurity。IndemocraticStatesonthecontrary，whereallthemembersofthecommunityaremingledinthesamecrowdandinconstantagitation，publicopinionhasnoholdonmen;theydisappearateveryinstant，andeludeitspower。Consequentlythedictatesofhonorwillbetherelessimperiousandlessstringent;forhonoractssolelyforthepubliceye—differinginthisrespectfrommerevirtue，whichlivesuponitselfcontentedwithitsownapproval。
　　Ifthereaderhasdistinctlyapprehendedallthatgoesbefore，hewillunderstandthatthereisacloseandnecessaryrelationbetweentheinequalityofsocialconditionsandwhathasherebeenstyledhonor—arelationwhich，ifIamnotmistaken，hadnotbeforebeenclearlypointedout。Ishallthereforemakeonemoreattempttoillustrateitsatisfactorily。Supposeanationstandsapartfromtherestofmankind:independentlyofcertaingeneralwantsinherentinthehumanrace，itwillalsohavewantsandinterestspeculiartoitself:certainopinionsofcensureorapprobationforthwithariseinthecommunity，whicharepeculiartoitself，andwhicharestyledhonorbythemembersofthatcommunity。Nowsupposethatinthissamenationacastearises，which，initsturn，standsapartfromalltheotherclasses，andcontractscertainpeculiarwants，whichgiveriseintheirturntospecialopinions。Thehonorofthiscaste，composedofamedleyofthepeculiarnotionsofthenation，andthestillmorepeculiarnotionsofthecaste，willbeasremoteasitispossibletoconceivefromthesimpleandgeneralopinionsofmen。
　　Havingreachedthisextremepointoftheargument，Inowreturn。Whenranksarecommingledandprivilegesabolished，themenofwhomanationiscomposedbeingoncemoreequalandalike，theirinterestsandwantsbecomeidentical，andallthepeculiarnotionswhicheachcastestyledhonorsuccessivelydisappear:thenotionofhonornolongerproceedsfromanyothersourcethanthewantspeculiartothenationatlarge，anditdenotestheindividualcharacterofthatnationtotheworld。Lastly，ifitbeallowabletosupposethatalltheracesofmankindshouldbecommingled，andthatallthepeoplesofearthshouldultimatelycometohavethesameinterests，thesamewants，undistinguishedfromeachotherbyanycharacteristicpeculiarities，noconventionalvaluewhateverwouldthenbeattachedtomen’sactions;theywouldallberegardedbyallinthesamelight;thegeneralnecessitiesofmankind，revealedbyconsciencetoeveryman，wouldbecomethecommonstandard。Thesimpleandgeneralnotionsofrightandwrongonlywouldthenberecognizedintheworld，towhich，byanaturalandnecessarytie，theideaofcensureorapprobationwouldbeattached。Thus，tocompriseallmymeaninginasingleproposition，thedissimilaritiesandinequalitiesofmengaverisetothenotionofhonor;thatnotionisweakenedinproportionasthesedifferencesareobliterated，andwiththemitwoulddisappear。
　　BookThree—ChaptersXIX—XXI
　　ChapterXIX:WhySoManyAmbitiousMenAndSoLittleLoftyAmbitionAreToBeFoundInTheUnitedStatesThefirstthingwhichstrikesatravellerintheUnitedStatesistheinnumerablemultitudeofthosewhoseektothrowofftheiroriginalcondition;andthesecondistherarityofloftyambitiontobeobservedinthemidstoftheuniversallyambitiousstirofsociety。NoAmericansaredevoidofayearningdesiretorise;buthardlyanyappeartoentertainhopesofgreatmagnitude，ortodriveatveryloftyaims。Allareconstantlyseekingtoacquireproperty，power，andreputation—fewcontemplatethesethingsuponagreatscale;andthisisthemoresurprising，asnothingistobediscernedinthemannersorlawsofAmericatolimitdesire，ortopreventitfromspreadingitsimpulsesineverydirection。Itseemsdifficulttoattributethissingularstateofthingstotheequalityofsocialconditions;forattheinstantwhenthatsameequalitywasestablishedinFrance，theflightofambitionbecameunbounded。
　　Nevertheless，IthinkthattheprincipalcausewhichmaybeassignedtothisfactistobefoundinthesocialconditionanddemocraticmannersoftheAmericans。
　　Allrevolutionsenlargetheambitionofmen:thispropositionismorepeculiarlytrueofthoserevolutionswhichoverthrowanaristocracy。Whentheformerbarrierswhichkeptbackthemultitudefromfameandpoweraresuddenlythrowndown，aviolentanduniversalrisetakesplacetowardsthateminencesolongcovetedandatlengthtobeenjoyed。Inthisfirstburstoftriumphnothingseemsimpossibletoanyone:notonlyaredesiresboundless，butthepowerofsatisfyingthemseemsalmostboundless，too。Amidstthegeneralandsuddenrenewaloflawsandcustoms，inthisvastconfusionofallmenandallordinances，thevariousmembersofthecommunityriseandsinkagainwithexcessiverapidity;andpowerpassessoquicklyfromhandtohandthatnoneneeddespairofcatchingitinturn。Itmustberecollected，moreover，thatthepeoplewhodestroyanaristocracyhavelivedunderitslaws;theyhavewitnesseditssplendor，andtheyhaveunconsciouslyimbibedthefeelingsandnotionswhichitentertained。Thusatthemomentwhenanaristocracyisdissolved，itsspiritstillpervadesthemassofthecommunity，anditstendenciesareretainedlongafterithasbeendefeated。
　　Ambitionisthereforealwaysextremelygreataslongasademocraticrevolutionlasts，anditwillremainsoforsometimeaftertherevolutionisconsummated。Thereminiscenceoftheextraordinaryeventswhichmenhavewitnessedisnotobliteratedfromtheirmemoryinaday。Thepassionswhicharevolutionhasrouseddonotdisappearatitsclose。Asenseofinstabilityremainsinthemidstofre—establishedorder:anotionofeasysuccesssurvivesthestrangevicissitudeswhichgaveitbirth;
　　desiresstillremainextremelyenlarged，whenthemeansofsatisfyingthemarediminisheddaybyday。Thetasteforlargefortunessubsists，thoughlargefortunesarerare:andoneverysidewetracetheravagesofinordinateandhaplessambitionkindledinheartswhichtheyconsumeinsecretandinvain。
　　Atlength，however，thelastvestigesofthestruggleareeffaced;theremainsofaristocracycompletelydisappear;thegreateventsbywhichitsfallwasattendedareforgotten;peacesucceedstowar，andtheswayoforderisrestoredinthenewrealm;desiresareagainadaptedtothemeansbywhichtheymaybefulfilled;thewants，theopinions，andthefeelingsofmencohereoncemore;thelevelofthecommunityispermanentlydetermined，anddemocraticsocietyestablished。Ademocraticnation，arrivedatthispermanentandregularstateofthings，willpresentaverydifferentspectaclefromthatwhichwehavejustdescribed;andwemayreadilyconcludethat，ifambitionbecomesgreatwhilsttheconditionsofsocietyaregrowingequal，itlosesthatqualitywhentheyhavegrownso。Aswealthissubdividedandknowledgediffused，nooneisentirelydestituteofeducationorofproperty;theprivilegesanddisqualificationsofcastebeingabolished，andmenhavingshatteredthebondswhichheldthemfixed，thenotionofadvancementsuggestsitselftoeverymind，thedesiretoriseswellsineveryheart，andallmenwanttomountabovetheirstation:ambitionistheuniversalfeeling。
　　Butiftheequalityofconditionsgivessomeresourcestoallthemembersofthecommunity，italsopreventsanyofthemfromhavingresourcesofgreatextent，whichnecessarilycircumscribestheirdesireswithinsomewhatnarrowlimits。Thusamongstdemocraticnationsambitionisardentandcontinual，butitsaimisnothabituallylofty;andlifeisgenerallyspentineagerlycovetingsmallobjectswhicharewithinreach。Whatchieflydivertsthemenofdemocraciesfromloftyambitionisnotthescantinessoftheirfortunes，butthevehemenceoftheexertionstheydailymaketoimprovethem。Theystraintheirfacultiestotheutmosttoachievepaltryresults，andthiscannotfailspeedilytolimittheirdiscernmentandtocircumscribetheirpowers。Theymightbemuchpoorerandstillbegreater。Thesmallnumberofopulentcitizenswhoaretobefoundamidstademocracydonotconstituteanexceptiontothisrule。Amanwhoraiseshimselfbydegreestowealthandpower，contracts，inthecourseofthisprotractedlabor，habitsofprudenceandrestraintwhichhecannotafterwardsshakeoff。A
　　mancannotenlargehismindashewouldhishouse。Thesameobservationisapplicabletothesonsofsuchaman;theyareborn，itistrue，inaloftyposition，buttheirparentswerehumble;theyhavegrownupamidstfeelingsandnotionswhichtheycannotafterwardseasilygetridof;anditmaybepresumedthattheywillinheritthepropensitiesoftheirfatheraswellashiswealth。Itmayhappen，onthecontrary，thatthepoorestscionofapowerfularistocracymaydisplayvastambition，becausethetraditionalopinionsofhisraceandthegeneralspiritofhisorderstillbuoyhimupforsometimeabovehisfortune。
　　Anotherthingwhichpreventsthemenofdemocraticperiodsfromeasilyindulginginthepursuitofloftyobjects，isthelapseoftimewhichtheyforeseemusttakeplacebeforetheycanbereadytoapproachthem。"Itisagreatadvantage，"saysPascal，"tobeamanofquality，sinceitbringsonemanasforwardateighteenortwentyasanothermanwouldbeatfifty，whichisacleargainofthirtyyears。"Thosethirtyyearsarecommonlywantingtotheambitiouscharactersofdemocracies。Theprincipleofequality，whichallowseverymantoarriveateverything，preventsallmenfromrapidadvancement。