Intheirrepresentationsthegeneralsandstatesmenofantiquityareabsolutelydivestedofallindividuality。Theyarepersonifications;theyarepassions，talents，opinions，virtues，vices，butnotmen。Inconsistencyisathingofwhichthesewritershavenonotion。Thatamanmayhavebeenliberalinhisyouthandavariciousinhisage，crueltooneenemyandmercifultoanother，istothemutterlyinconceivable。Ifthefactsbeundeniable，theysupposesomestrangeanddeepdesign，inordertoexplainwhat，aseveryonewhohasobservedhisownmindknows，needsnoexplanationatall。Thisisamodeofwritingveryacceptabletothemultitudewhohavealwaysbeenaccustomedtomakegodsanddaemonsoutofmenverylittlebetterorworsethanthemselves;butitappearscontemptibletoallwhohavewatchedthechangesofhumancharacter——toallwhohaveobservedtheinfluenceoftime，ofcircumstances，andofassociates，onmankind——toallwhohaveseenaherointhegout，ademocratinthechurch，apedantinlove，oraphilosopherinliquor。Thispracticeofpaintinginnothingbutblackandwhiteisunpardonableeveninthedrama。ItisthegreatfaultofAlfieri;andhowmuchitinjurestheeffectofhiscompositionswillbeobvioustoeveryonewhowillcomparehisRosmundawiththeLadyMacbethofShakspeare。Theoneisawickedwoman;theotherisafiend。Heronlyfeelingishatred;allherwordsarecurses。Weareatonceshockedandfatiguedbythespectacleofsuchravingcruelty，excitedbynoprovocation，repeatedlychangingitsobject，andconstantinnothingbutinitsin—
　　extinguishablethirstforblood。
　　Inhistorythiserrorisfarmoredisgraceful。Indeed，thereisnofaultwhichsocompletelyruinsanarrativeintheopinionofajudiciousreader。Weknowthatthelineofdemarcationbetweengoodandbadmenissofaintlymarkedasoftentoeludethemostcarefulinvestigationofthosewhohavethebestopportunitiesforjudging。Publicmen，aboveall，aresurroundedwithsomanytemptationsanddifficultiesthatsomedoubtmustalmostalwayshangovertheirrealdispositionsandintentions。ThelivesofPym，Cromwell，Monk，Clarendon，Marlborough，Burnet，Walpole，arewellknowntous。Weareacquaintedwiththeiractions，theirspeeches，theirwritings;wehaveabundanceoflettersandwell—
　　authenticatedanecdotesrelatingtothem:yetwhatcandidmanwillventureverypositivelytosaywhichofthemwerehonestandwhichofthemweredishonestmen？Itappearseasiertopronouncedecidedlyuponthegreatcharactersofantiquity，notbecausewehavegreatermeansofdiscoveringtruth，butsimplybecausewehavelessmeansofdetectingerror。ThemodernhistoriansofGreecehaveforgottenthis。Theirheroesandvillainsareasconsistentinalltheirsayingsanddoingsasthecardinalvirtuesandthedeadlysinsinanallegory。WeshouldassoonexpectagoodactionfromgiantSlay—goodinBunyanasfromDionysius;andacrimeofEpaminondaswouldseemasincongruousasafaux—pasofthegraveandcomelydamselcalledDiscretion，whoansweredthebellatthedoorofthehouseBeautiful。
　　Thiserrorwaspartlythecauseandpartlytheeffectofthehighestimationinwhichthelaterancientwritershavebeenheldbymodernscholars。ThoseFrenchandEnglishauthorswhohavetreatedoftheaffairsofGreecehavegenerallyturnedwithcontemptfromthesimpleandnaturalnarrationsofThucydidesandXenophontotheextravagantrepresentationsofPlutarch，Diodorus，Curtius，andotherromancersofthesameclass，——menwhodescribedmilitaryoperationswithouteverhavinghandledasword，andappliedtotheseditionsoflittlerepublicsspeculationsformedbyobservationonanempirewhichcoveredhalftheknownworld。Oflibertytheyknewnothing。Itwastothemagreatmystery——asuperhumanenjoyment。Theyrantedaboutlibertyandpatriotism，fromthesamecausewhichleadsmonkstotalkmoreardentlythanothermenaboutloveandwomen。Awisemanvaluespoliticalliberty，becauseitsecuresthepersonsandthepossessionsofcitizens;becauseittendstopreventtheextravaganceofrulers，andthecorruptionofjudges;becauseitgivesbirthtousefulsciencesandelegantarts;becauseitexcitestheindustryandincreasesthecomfortsofallclassesofsociety。Thesetheoristsimaginedthatitpossessedsomethingeternallyandintrinsicallygood，distinctfromtheblessingswhichitgenerallyproduced。Theyconsidereditnotasameansbutasanend;anendtobeattainedatanycost。Theirfavouriteheroesarethosewhohavesacrificed，forthemerenameoffreedom，theprosperity——thesecurity——thejustice——fromwhichfreedomderivesitsvalue。
　　Thereisanotherremarkablecharacteristicofthesewriters，inwhichtheirmodernworshippershavecarefullyimitatedthem——agreatfondnessforgoodstories。Themostestablishedfacts，dates，andcharactersareneversufferedtocomeintocompetitionwithasplendidsaying，oraromanticexploit。Theearlyhistorianshaveleftusnaturalandsimpledescriptionsofthegreateventswhichtheywitnessed，andthegreatmenwithwhomtheyassociated。WhenwereadtheaccountwhichPlutarchandRollinhavegivenofthesameperiod，wescarcelyknowouroldacquaintanceagain;weareutterlyconfoundedbythemelo—
　　dramaticeffectofthenarration，andthesublimecoxcombryofthecharacters。
　　ThesearetheprincipalerrorsintowhichthepredecessorsofMrMitfordhavefallen;andfrommostoftheseheisfree。Hisfaultsareofacompletelydifferentdescription。Itistobehopedthatthestudentsofhistorymaynowbesaved，likeDoraxinDryden’splay，byswallowingtwoconflictingpoisons，eachofwhichmayserveasanantidotetotheother。
　　ThefirstandmostimportantdifferencebetweenMrMitfordandthosewhohaveprecededhimisinhisnarration。Heretheadvantagelies，forthemostpart，onhisside。Hisprincipleistofollowthecontemporaryhistorians，tolookwithdoubtonallstatementswhicharenotinsomedegreeconfirmedbythem，andabsolutelytorejectallwhicharecontradictedbythem。Whileheretainstheguidanceofsomewriterinwhomhecanplaceconfidence，hegoesonexcellently。Whenhelosesit，hefallstothelevel，orperhapsbelowthelevel，ofthewriterswhomhesomuchdespises:heisasabsurdasthey，andverymuchduller。
　　ItisreallyamusingtoobservehowheproceedswithhisnarrationwhenhehasnobetterauthoritythanpoorDiodorus。Heiscompelledtorelatesomething;yethebelievesnothing。Heaccompanieseveryfactwithalongstatementofobjections。HisaccountoftheadministrationofDionysiusisinnosenseahistory。Itoughttobeentitled——"Historicdoubtsastocertainevents，allegedtohavetakenplaceinSicily。"
　　Thisscepticism，however，likethatofsomegreatlegalcharactersalmostasscepticalashimself;vanisheswheneverhispoliticalpartialitiesinterfere。Heisavehementadmireroftyrannyandoligarchy，andconsidersnoevidenceasfeeblewhichcanbebroughtforwardinfavourofthoseformsofgovernment。
　　Democracyhehateswithaperfecthatred，ahatredwhich，inthefirstvolumeofhishistory，appearsonlyinhisepisodesandreflections，butwhich，inthosepartswherehehaslessreverenceforhisguides，andcanventuretotakehisownway，completelydistortsevenhisnarration。
　　Intakinguptheseopinions，IhavenodoubtthatMrMitfordwasinfluencedbythesameloveofsingularitywhichledhimtospell"island"withoutan"s，"andtoplacetwodotsoverthelastletterof"idea。"Intruth，precedinghistorianshaveerredsomonstrouslyontheothersidethateventheworstpartsofMrMitford’sbookmaybeusefulasacorrective。Forayounggentlemanwhotalksmuchabouthiscountry，tyrannicide，andEpaminondas，thiswork，dilutedinasufficientquantityofRollinandBerthelemi，maybeaveryusefulremedy。
　　Theerrorsofbothpartiesarisefromanignoranceoraneglectofthefundamentalprinciplesofpoliticalscience。Thewritersononesideimaginepopulargovernmenttobealwaysablessing;
　　MrMitfordomitsnoopportunityofassuringusthatitisalwaysacurse。Thefactis，thatagoodgovernment，likeagoodcoat，isthatwhichfitsthebodyforwhichitisdesigned。Amanwho，uponabstractprinciples，pronouncesaconstitutiontobegood，withoutanexactknowledgeofthepeoplewhoaretobegovernedbyit，judgesasabsurdlyasatailorwhoshouldmeasuretheBelvidereApollofortheclothesofallhiscustomers。ThedemagogueswhowishedtoseePortugalarepublic，andthewisecriticswhoreviletheVirginiansfornothavinginstitutedapeerage，appearequallyridiculoustoallmenofsenseandcandour。
　　Thatisthebestgovernmentwhichdesirestomakethepeoplehappy，andknowshowtomakethemhappy。Neithertheinclinationnortheknowledgewillsufficealone;anditisdifficulttofindthemtogether。
　　Puredemocracy，andpuredemocracyalone，satisfiestheformerconditionofthisgreatproblem。Thatthegovernorsmaybesolicitousonlyfortheinterestsofthegoverned，itisnecessarythattheinterestsofthegovernorsandthegovernedshouldbethesame。Thiscannotbeoftenthecasewherepowerisintrustedtooneortoafew。Theprivilegedpartofthecommunitywilldoubtlessderiveacertaindegreeofadvantagefromthegeneralprosperityofthestate;buttheywillderiveagreaterfromoppressionandexaction。Thekingwilldesireanuselesswarforhisglory，oraparc—aux—cerfsforhispleasure。
　　Thenobleswilldemandmonopoliesandlettres—de—cachet。Inproportionasthenumberofgovernorsisincreasedtheevilisdiminished。Therearefewertocontribute，andmoretoreceive。
　　Thedividendwhicheachcanobtainofthepublicplunderbecomeslessandlesstempting。Buttheinterestsofthesubjectsandtherulersneverabsolutelycoincidetillthesubjectsthemselvesbecometherulers，thatis，tillthegovernmentbeeitherimmediatelyormediatelydemocratical。
　　Butthisisnotenough。"Willwithoutpower，"saidthesagaciousCasimirtoMilorBeefington，"islikechildrenplayingatsoldiers。"Thepeoplewillalwaysbedesiroustopromotetheirowninterests;butitmaybedoubted，whether，inanycommunity，theywereeversufficientlyeducatedtounderstandthem。Eveninthisisland，wherethemultitudehavelongbeenbetterinformedthaninanyotherpartofEurope，therightsofthemanyhavegenerallybeenassertedagainstthemselvesbythepatriotismofthefew。Freetrade，oneofthegreatestblessingswhichagovernmentcanconferonapeople，isinalmosteverycountryunpopular。Itmaybewelldoubted，whetheraliberalpolicywithregardtoourcommercialrelationswouldfindanysupportfromaparliamentelectedbyuniversalsuffrage。TherepublicansontheothersideoftheAtlantichaverecentlyadoptedregulationsofwhichtheconsequenceswill，beforelong，showus，"Hownationssink，bydarlingschemesoppressed，Whenvengeancelistenstothefool’srequest。"
　　Thepeoplearetobegovernedfortheirowngood;and，thattheymaybegovernedfortheirowngood，theymustnotbegovernedbytheirownignorance。Therearecountriesinwhichitwouldbeasabsurdtoestablishpopulargovernmentastoabolishalltherestraintsinaschool，ortountieallthestrait—waistcoatsinamadhouse。
　　Henceitmaybeconcludedthatthehappieststateofsocietyisthatinwhichsupremepowerresidesinthewholebodyofawell—
　　informedpeople。Thisisanimaginary，perhapsanunattainable，stateofthings。Yet，insomemeasure，wemayapproximatetoit;
　　andhealonedeservesthenameofagreatstatesman，whoseprincipleitistoextendthepowerofthepeopleinproportiontotheextentoftheirknowledge，andtogivethemeveryfacilityforobtainingsuchadegreeofknowledgeasmayrenderitsafetotrustthemwithabsolutepower。Inthemeantime，itisdangeroustopraiseorcondemnconstitutionsintheabstract;
　　since，fromthedespotismofStPetersburgtothedemocracyofWashington，thereisscarcelyaformofgovernmentwhichmightnot，atleastinsomehypotheticalcase，bethebestpossible。
　　If，however，therebeanyformofgovernmentwhichinallagesandallnationshasalwaysbeen，andmustalwaysbe，pernicious，itiscertainlythatwhichMrMitford，onhisusualprincipleofbeingwiserthanalltherestoftheworld，hastakenunderhisespecialpatronage——pureoligarchy。Thisisclosely，andindeedinseparably，connectedwithanotherofhiseccentrictastes，amarkedpartialityforLacedaemon，andadislikeofAthens。MrMitford’sbookhas，Isuspect，renderedthesesentimentsinsomedegreepopular;andIshall，therefore，examinethematsomelength。
　　TheshadesintheAtheniancharacterstriketheeyemorerapidlythanthoseintheLacedaemonian:notbecausetheyaredarker，butbecausetheyareonabrighterground。Thelawofostracismisaninstanceofthis。Nothingcanbeconceivedmoreodiousthanthepracticeofpunishingacitizen，simplyandprofessedly，forhiseminence;——andnothingintheinstitutionsofAthensismorefrequentlyormorejustlycensured。Lacedaemonwasfreefromthis。Andwhy？Lacedaemondidnotneedit。Oligarchyisanostracismofitself，——anostracismnotoccasional，butpermanent，——notdubious，butcertain。Herlawspreventedthedevelopmentofmeritinsteadofattackingitsmaturity。Theydidnotcutdowntheplantinitshighandpalmystate，butcursedthesoilwitheternalsterility。Inspiteofthelawofostracism，Athensproduced，withinahundredandfiftyyears，thegreatestpublicmenthateverexisted。WhomhadSpartatoostracise？Sheproduced，atmost，foureminentmen，Brasidas，Gylippus，Lysander，andAgesilaus。Ofthese，notonerosetodistinctionwithinherjurisdiction。Itwasonlywhentheyescapedfromtheregionwithinwhichtheinfluenceofaristocracywitheredeverythinggoodandnoble，itwasonlywhentheyceasedtobeLacedaemonians，thattheybecamegreatmen。Brasidas，amongthecitiesofThrace，wasstrictlyademocraticalleader，thefavouriteministerandgeneralofthepeople。ThesamemaybesaidofGylippus，atSyracuse。Lysander，intheHellespont，andAgesilaus，inAsia，wereliberatedforatimefromthehatefulrestraintsimposedbytheconstitutionofLycurgus。Bothacquiredfameabroad;andbothreturnedtobewatchedanddepressedathome。ThisisnotpeculiartoSparta。Oligarchy，whereverithasexisted，hasalwaysstuntedthegrowthofgenius。
　　ThusitwasatRome，tillaboutacenturybeforetheChristianera:wereadofabundanceofconsulsanddictatorswhowonbattles，andenjoyedtriumphs;butwelookinvainforasinglemanofthefirstorderofintellect，——foraPericles，aDemosthenes，oraHannibal。TheGracchiformedastrongdemocraticalparty;Mariusrevivedit;thefoundationsoftheoldaristocracywereshaken;andtwogenerationsfertileinreallygreatmenappeared。
　　Veniceisastillmoreremarkableinstance:inherhistoryweseenothingbutthestate;aristocracyhaddestroyedeveryseedofgeniusandvirtue。Herdominionwaslikeherself，loftyandmagnificent，butfoundedonfilthandweeds。Godforbidthatthereshouldeveragainexistapowerfulandcivilisedstate，which，afterexistingthroughthirteenhundredeventfulyears，shouldnotbequeathtomankindthememoryofonegreatnameoronegenerousaction。
　　Manywriters，andMrMitfordamongthenumber，haveadmiredthestabilityoftheSpartaninstitutions;infact，thereislittletoadmire，andlesstoapprove。Oligarchyistheweakestandthemoststableofgovernments;anditisstablebecauseitisweak。
　　Ithasasortofvaletudinarianlongevity;itlivesinthebalanceofSanctorius;ittakesnoexercise;itexposesitselftonoaccident;itisseizedwithanhypochondriacalarmateverynewsensation;ittremblesateverybreath;itletsbloodforeveryinflammation:andthus，withouteverenjoyingadayofhealthorpleasure，dragsonitsexistencetoadotinganddebilitatedoldage。
　　TheSpartanspurchasedfortheirgovernmentaprolongationofitsexistencebythesacrificeofhappinessathomeanddignityabroad。Theycringedtothepowerful;theytrampledontheweak;
　　theymassacredtheirhelots;theybetrayedtheirallies;theycontrivedtobeadaytoolateforthebattleofMarathon;theyattemptedtoavoidthebattleofSalamis;theysufferedtheAthenians，towhomtheyowedtheirlivesandliberties，tobeasecondtimedrivenfromtheircountrybythePersians，thattheymightfinishtheirownfortificationsontheIsthmus;theyattemptedtotakeadvantageofthedistresstowhichexertionsintheircausehadreducedtheirpreservers，inordertomakethemtheirslaves;theystrovetopreventthosewhohadabandonedtheirwallstodefendthem，fromrebuildingthemtodefendthemselves;theycommencedthePeloponnesianwarinviolationoftheirengagementswithAthens;theyabandoneditinviolationoftheirengagementswiththeirallies;theygaveuptotheswordwholecitieswhichhadplacedthemselvesundertheirprotection;
　　theybartered，foradvantagesconfinedtothemselves，theinterest，thefreedom，andthelivesofthosewhohadservedthemmostfaithfully;theytookwithequalcomplacency，andequalinfamy，thestripesofElisandthebribesofPersia;theynevershowedeitherresentmentorgratitude;theyabstainedfromnoinjury，andtheyrevengednone。Aboveall，theylookedonacitizenwhoservedthemwellastheirdeadliestenemy。Thesearetheartswhichprotracttheexistenceofgovernment。
　　NorwerethedomesticinstitutionsofLacedaemonlesshatefulorlesscontemptiblethanherforeignpolicy。Aperpetualinterferencewitheverypartofthesystemofhumanlife，aconstantstruggleagainstnatureandreason，characterisedallherlaws。Toviolateevenprejudiceswhichhavetakendeeprootinthemindsofapeopleisscarcelyexpedient;tothinkofextirpatingnaturalappetitesandpassionsisfrantic:theexternalsymptomsmaybeoccasionallyrepressed;butthefeelingstillexists，and，debarredfromitsnaturalobjects，preysonthedisorderedmindandbodyofitsvictim。Thusitisinconvents———thusitisamongasceticsects——thusitwasamongtheLacedaemonians。Hencearosethatmadness，orviolenceapproachingtomadness，which，inspiteofeveryexternalrestraint，oftenappearedamongthemostdistinguishedcitizensofSparta。Cleomenesterminatedhiscareerofravingcrueltybycuttinghimselftopieces。Pausaniasseemstohavebeenabsolutelyinsane;heformedahopelessandprofligatescheme;hebetrayeditbytheostentationofhisbehaviour，andtheimprudenceofhismeasures;andhealienated，byhisinsolence，allwhomighthaveservedorprotectedhim。Xenophon，awarmadmirerofLacedaemon，furnishesuswiththestrongestevidencetothiseffect。ItisimpossiblenottoobservethebrutalandsenselessfurywhichcharacterisesalmosteverySpartanwithwhomhewasconnected。Clearchusnearlylosthislifebyhiscruelty。
　　Chirisophusdeprivedhisarmyoftheservicesofafaithfulguidebyhisunreasonableandferociousseverity。Butitisneedlesstomultiplyinstances。Lycurgus，MrMitford’sfavouritelegislator，foundedhiswholesystemonamistakenprinciple。Heneverconsideredthatgovernmentsweremadeformen，andnotmenforgovernments。Insteadofadaptingtheconstitutiontothepeople，hedistortedthemindsofthepeopletosuittheconstitution，aschemeworthyoftheLaputanAcademyofProjectors。AndthisappearstoMrMitfordtoconstitutehispeculiartitletoadmiration。Hearhimself:"Whattomoderneyesmoststrikinglysetsthatextraordinarymanaboveallotherlegislatorsis，thatinsomanycircumstances，apparentlyoutofthereachoflaw，hecontrolledandformedtohisownmindthewillsandhabitsofhispeople。"IshouldsupposethatthisgentlemanhadtheadvantageofreceivinghiseducationundertheferulaofDrPangloss;forhismetaphysicsareclearlythoseofthecastleofThunder—ten—tronckh:"Remarquezbienquelesnezontetefaitspourporterdeslunettes，aussiavonsnousdeslunettes。Lesjambessontvisiblementinstituespouretrechaussees，etnousavonsdeschausses。Lescochonsetantfaitspouretremanges，nousmangeonsduporctoutel’annee。"
　　AtAthensthelawsdidnotconstantlyinterferewiththetastesofthepeople。Thechildrenwerenottakenfromtheirparentsbythatuniversalstep—mother，thestate。Theywerenotstarvedintothieves，ortorturedintobullies;therewasnoestablishedtableatwhicheveryonemustdine，noestablishedstyleinwhicheveryonemustconverse。AnAthenianmighteatwhateverhecouldaffordtobuy，andtalkaslongashecouldfindpeopletolisten。Thegovernmentdidnottellthepeoplewhatopinionstheyweretohold，orwhatsongstheyweretosing。Freedomproducedexcellence。Thusphilosophytookitsorigin。Thuswereproducedthosemodelsofpoetry，oforatory，andofthearts，whichscarcelyfallshortofthestandardofidealexcellence。
　　Nothingismoreconducivetohappinessthanthefreeexerciseofthemindinpursuitscongenialtoit。Thishappiness，assuredly，wasenjoyedfarmoreatAthensthanatSparta。TheAtheniansareacknowledgedevenbytheirenemiestohavebeendistinguished，inprivatelife，bytheircourteousandamiabledemeanour。Theirlevity，atleast，wasbetterthanSpartansullennessandtheirimpertinencethanSpartaninsolence。EvenincourageitmaybequestionedwhethertheywereinferiortotheLacedaemonians。ThegreatAthenianhistorianhasreportedaremarkableobservationofthegreatAthenianminister。Periclesmaintainedthathiscountrymen，withoutsubmittingtothehardshipsofaSpartaneducation，rivalledalltheachievementsofSpartanvalour，andthatthereforethepleasuresandamusementswhichtheyenjoyedweretobeconsideredassomuchcleargain。TheinfantryofAthenswascertainlynotequaltothatofLacedaemon;butthisseemstohavebeencausedmerelybywantofpractice:theattentionoftheAthenianswasdivertedfromthedisciplineofthephalanxtothatofthetrireme。TheLacedaemonians，inspiteofalltheirboastedvalour，were，fromthesamecause，timidanddisorderlyinnavalaction。
　　ButwearetoldthatcrimesofgreatenormitywereperpetratedbytheAtheniangovernment，andthedemocraciesunderitsprotection。ItistruethatAthenstoooftenacteduptothefullextentofthelawsofwarinanagewhenthoselawshadnotbeenmitigatedbycauseswhichhaveoperatedinlatertimes。
　　Thisaccusationis，infact，commontoAthens，toLacedaemon，toallthestatesofGreece，andtoallstatessimilarlysituated。
　　Wherecommunitiesareverylarge，theheavierevilsofwararefeltbutbyfew。Theploughboysings，thespinning—wheelturnsround，thewedding—dayisfixed，whetherthelastbattlewerelostorwon。Inlittlestatesitcannotbethus;everymanfeelsinhisownpropertyandpersontheeffectofawar。Everymanisasoldier，andasoldierfightingforhisnearestinterests。Hisowntreeshavebeencutdown——hisowncornhasbeenburnt——hisownhousehasbeenpillaged——hisownrelationshavebeenkilled。
　　Howcanheentertaintowardstheenemiesofhiscountrythesamefeelingswithonewhohassufferednothingfromthem，exceptperhapstheadditionofasmallsumtothetaxeswhichhepays？
　　Meninsuchcircumstancescannotbegenerous。Theyhavetoomuchatstake。Itiswhentheyare，ifImaysoexpressmyself，playingforlove，itiswhenwarisameregameatchess，itiswhentheyarecontendingforaremotecolony，afrontiertown，thehonoursofaflag，asalute，oratitle，thattheycanmakefinespeeches，anddogoodofficestotheirenemies。TheBlackPrincewaitedbehindthechairofhiscaptive;VillarsinterchangedreparteeswithEugene;GeorgeII。sentcongratulationstoLouisXV。，duringawar，uponoccasionofhisescapefromtheattemptofDamien:andthesethingsarefineandgenerous，andverygratifyingtotheauthoroftheBroadStoneofHonour，andalltheotherwisemenwhothink，likehim，thatGodmadetheworldonlyfortheuseofgentlemen。Buttheyspringingeneralfromutterheartlessness。Nowaroughtevertobeundertakenbutundercircumstanceswhichrenderallinterchangeofcourtesybetweenthecombatantsimpossible。Itisabadthingthatmenshouldhateeachother;butitisfarworsethattheyshouldcontractthehabitofcuttingoneanother’sthroatswithouthatred。Warisneverlenient，butwhereitiswanton;
　　whenmenarecompelledtofightinselfdefence，theymusthateandavenge:thismaybebad;butitishumannature;itistheclayasitcamefromthehandofthepotter。
　　ItistruethatamongthedependenciesofAthensseditionsassumedacharactermoreferociousthaneveninFrance，duringthereignofterror——theaccursedSaturnaliaofanaccursedbondage。ItistruethatinAthensitself，wheresuchconvulsionswerescarcelyknown，theconditionofthehigherorderswasdisagreeable;thattheywerecompelledtocontributelargesumsfortheserviceortheamusementofthepublic;andthattheyweresometimesharassedbyvexatiousinformers。
　　Wheneversuchcasesoccur，MrMitford’sscepticismvanishes。The"if，"the"but，"the"itissaid，"the"ifwemaybelieve，"withwhichhequalifieseverychargeagainstatyrantoranaristocracy，areatonceabandoned。Theblackerthestory，thefirmerishisbelief，andheneverfailstoinveighwithheartybitternessagainstdemocracyasthesourceofeveryspeciesofcrime。
　　TheAthenians，Ibelieve，possessedmorelibertythanwasgoodforthem。YetIwillventuretoassertthat，whilethesplendour，theintelligence，andtheenergyofthatgreatpeoplewerepeculiartothemselves，thecrimeswithwhichtheyarechargedarosefromcauseswhichwerecommontothemwitheveryotherstatewhichthenexisted。Theviolenceoffactioninthatagesprungfromacausewhichhasalwaysbeenfertileineverypoliticalandmoralevil，domesticslavery。
　　Theeffectofslaveryiscompletelytodissolvetheconnectionwhichnaturallyexistsbetweenthehigherandlowerclassesoffreecitizens。Therichspendtheirwealthinpurchasingandmaintainingslaves。Thereisnodemandforthelabourofthepoor;thefableofMeneniusceasestobeapplicable;thebellycommunicatesnonutrimenttothemembers;thereisanatrophyinthebodypolitic。Thetwoparties，therefore，proceedtoextremitiesutterlyunknownincountrieswheretheyhavemutuallyneedofeachother。InRometheoligarchywastoopowerfultobesubvertedbyforce;andneitherthetribunesnorthepopularassemblies，thoughconstitutionallyomnipotent，couldmaintainasuccessfulcontestagainstmenwhopossessedthewholepropertyofthestate。Hencethenecessityformeasurestendingtounsettlethewholeframeofsociety，andtotakeawayeverymotiveofindustry;theabolitionofdebts，andtheagrarianlaws——propositionsabsurdlycondemnedbymenwhodonotconsiderthecircumstancesfromwhichtheysprung。Theywerethedesperateremediesofadesperatedisease。InGreecetheoligarchicalinterestwasnotingeneralsodeeplyrootedasatRome。Themultitude，therefore，oftenredressedbyforcegrievanceswhich，atRome，werecommonlyattackedundertheformsoftheconstitution。Theydroveoutormassacredtherich，anddividedtheirproperty。Ifthesuperiorunionormilitaryskilloftherichrenderedthemvictorious，theytookmeasuresequallyviolent，disarmedallinwhomtheycouldnotconfide，oftenslaughteredgreatnumbers，andoccasionallyexpelledthewholecommonaltyfromthecity，andremained，withtheirslaves，thesoleinhabitants。
　　FromsuchcalamitiesAthensandLacedaemonalonewerealmostcompletelyfree。AtAthensthepursesoftherichwerelaidunderregularcontributionforthesupportofthepoor;andthis，rightlyconsidered，wasasmuchafavourtothegiversastothereceivers，sincenoothermeasurecouldpossiblyhavesavedtheirhousesfrompillageandtheirpersonsfromviolence。ItissingularthatMrMitfordshouldperpetuallyreprobateapolicywhichwasthebestthatcouldbepursuedinsuchastateofthings，andwhichalonesavedAthensfromthefrightfuloutrageswhichwereperpetratedatCorcyra。
　　Lacedaemon，cursedwithasystemofslaverymoreodiousthanhaseverexistedinanyothercountry，avoidedthisevilbyalmosttotallyannihilatingprivateproperty。Lycurgusbeganbyanagrarianlaw。Heabolishedallprofessionsexceptthatofarms;
　　hemadethewholeofhiscommunityastandingarmy，everymemberofwhichhadacommonrighttotheservicesofacrowdofmiserablebondmen;hesecuredthestatefromseditionattheexpenseoftheHelots。Ofallthepartsofhissystemthisisthemostcreditabletohishead，andthemostdisgracefultohisheart。
　　Theseconsiderations，andmanyothersofequalimportance，MrMitfordhasneglected;buthehasyetaheavierchargetoanswer。
　　Hehasmadenotonlyillogicalinferences，butfalsestatements。
　　Whileheneverstates，withoutqualificationsandobjections，thechargeswhichtheearliestandbesthistorianshavebroughtagainsthisfavouritetyrants，Pisistratus，Hippias，andGelon，hetranscribes，withoutanyhesitation，thegrossestabuseoftheleastauthoritativewritersagainsteverydemocracyandeverydemagogue。Suchanaccusationshouldnotbemadewithoutbeingsupported;andIwillthereforeselectoneoutofmanypassageswhichwillfullysubstantiatethecharge，andconvictMrMitfordofwilfulmisrepresentation，orofnegligencescarcelylessculpable。MrMitfordisspeakingofoneofthegreatestmenthateverlived，Demosthenes，andcomparinghimwithhisrival，Aeschines。Lethimspeakforhimself。
　　"InearliestyouthDemosthenesearnedanopprobriousnicknamebytheeffeminacyofhisdressandmanner。"DoesMrMitfordknowthatDemosthenesdeniedthischarge，andexplainedthenicknameinaperfectlydifferentmanner？（SeethespeechofAeschinesagainstTimarchus。）And，ifheknewit，shouldhenothavestatedit？Heproceedsthus:"Onemergingfromminority，bytheAthenianlaw，atfive—and—twenty，heearnedanotheropprobriousnicknamebyaprosecutionofhisguardians，whichwasconsideredasadishonourableattempttoextortmoneyfromthem。"InthefirstplaceDemostheneswasnotfive—and—twentyyearsofage。MrMitfordmighthavelearned，fromsocommonabookastheArchaeologiaofArchbishopPotter，thatattwentyAtheniancitizenswerefreedfromthecontroloftheirguardians，andbegantomanagetheirownproperty。TheveryspeechofDemosthenesagainsthisguardiansprovesmostsatisfactorilythathewasundertwenty。InhisspeechagainstMidias，hesaysthatwhenheundertookthatprosecutionhewasquiteaboy。
　　（Meirakulliononkomide。）Hisyouthmight，therefore，excusethestep，evenifithadbeenconsidered，asMrMitfordsays，adishonourableattempttoextortmoney。Butwhoconsidereditassuch？Notthejudgeswhocondemnedtheguardians。TheAtheniancourtsofjusticewerenotthepurestintheworld;buttheirdecisionswereatleastaslikelytobejustastheabuseofadeadlyenemy。MrMitfordrefersforconfirmationofhisstatementtoAeschinesandPlutarch。Aeschinesbynomeansbearshimout;andPlutarchdirectlycontradictshim。"Notlongafter，"saysMrMitford，"hetookblowspubliclyinthetheater"
　　（Ipreservetheorthography，ifitcanbesocalled，ofthishistorian）"fromapetulantyouthofrank，namedMeidias。"Herearetwodisgracefulmistakes。Inthefirstplace，itwaslongafter;eightyearsattheveryleast，probablymuchmore。Inthenextplacethepetulantyouth，ofwhomMrMitfordspeaks，wasfiftyyearsold。（WhoeverwillreadthespeechofDemosthenesagainstMidiaswillfindthestatementsinthetextconfirmed，andwillhave，moreover，thepleasureofbecomingacquaintedwithoneofthefinestcompositionsintheworld。）ReallyMrMitfordhaslessreasontocensurethecarelessnessofhispredecessorsthantoreformhisown。Afterthismonstrousinaccuracy，withregardtofacts，wemaybeabletojudgewhatdegreeofcreditoughttobegiventothevagueabuseofsuchawriter。"ThecowardiceofDemosthenesinthefieldafterwardsbecamenotorious。"Demostheneswasacivilcharacter;warwasnothisbusiness。Inhistimethedivisionbetweenmilitaryandpoliticalofficeswasbeginningtobestronglymarked;yettherecollectionofthedayswheneverycitizenwasasoldierwasstillrecent。Insuchstatesofsocietyacertaindegreeofdisreputealwaysattachestosedentarymen;butthatanyleaderoftheAtheniandemocracycouldhavebeen，asMrMitfordsaysofDemosthenes，afewlinesbefore，remarkablefor"anextraordinarydeficiencyofpersonalcourage，"isabsolutelyimpossible。Whatmercenarywarriorofthetimeexposedhislifetogreaterormoreconstantperils？WasthereasinglesoldieratChaeroneawhohadmorecausetotrembleforhissafetythantheorator，who，incaseofdefeat，couldscarcelyhopeformercyfromthepeoplewhomhehadmisledortheprincewhomhehadopposed？Werenottheordinaryfluctuationsofpopularfeelingenoughtodeteranycowardfromengaginginpoliticalconflicts？Isocrates，whomMrMitfordextols，becauseheconstantlyemployedalltheflowersofhisschool—boyrhetorictodecorateoligarchyandtyranny，avoidedthejudicialandpoliticalmeetingsofAthensfrommeretimidity，andseemstohavehateddemocracyonlybecausehedurstnotlookapopularassemblyintheface。Demostheneswasamanofafeebleconstitution:hisnerveswereweak，buthisspiritwashigh;andtheenergyandenthusiasmofhisfeelingssupportedhimthroughlifeandindeath。
　　SomuchforDemosthenes。Nowfortheoratorofaristocracy。I
　　donotwishtoabuseAeschines。Hemayhavebeenanhonestman。
　　Hewascertainlyagreatman;andIfeelareverence，ofwhichMrMitfordseemstohavenonotion，forgreatmenofeveryparty。
　　But，whenMrMitfordsaysthattheprivatecharacterofAeschineswaswithoutstain，doesherememberwhatAeschineshashimselfconfessedinhisspeechagainstTimarchus？Icanmakeallowances，aswellasMrMitford，forpersonswholivedunderadifferentsystemoflawsandmorals;butletthembemadeimpartially。IfDemosthenesistobeattackedonaccountofsomechildishimproprieties，provedonlybytheassertionofanantagonist，whatshallwesayofthosematurerviceswhichthatantagonisthashimselfacknowledged？"AgainsttheprivatecharacterofAeschines，"saysMrMitford，"Demosthenesseemsnottohavehadaninsinuationtooppose。"HasMrMitfordeverreadthespeechofDemosthenesontheEmbassy？Orcanhehaveforgotten，whatwasneverforgottenbyanyoneelsewhoeverreadit，thestorywhichDemosthenesrelateswithsuchterribleenergyoflanguageconcerningthedrunkenbrutalityofhisrival？Trueorfalse，hereissomethingmorethananinsinuation;andnothingcanvindicatethehistorian，whohasoverlookedit，fromthechargeofnegligenceorofpartiality。ButAeschinesdeniedthestory。AnddidnotDemosthenesalsodenythestoryrespectinghischildishnickname，whichMrMitfordhasneverthelesstoldwithoutanyqualification？Butthejudges，orsomepartofthem，showed，bytheirclamour，theirdisbeliefoftherelationofDemosthenes。Anddidnotthejudges，whotriedthecausebetweenDemosthenesandhisguardians，indicate，inamuchclearermanner，theirapprobationoftheprosecution？ButDemostheneswasademagogue，andistobeslandered。Aeschineswasanaristocrat，andistobepanegyrised。Isthisahistory，oraparty—pamphlet？
　　Thesepassages，allselectedfromasinglepageofMrMitford’swork，maygivesomenotiontothosereaders，whohavenotthemeansofcomparinghisstatementswiththeoriginalauthorities，ofhisextremepartialityandcarelessness。Indeed，wheneverthishistorianmentionsDemosthenes，heviolatesallthelawsofcandourandevenofdecency;heweighsnoauthorities;hemakesnoallowances;heforgetsthebestauthenticatedfactsinthehistoryofthetimes，andthemostgenerallyrecognisedprinciplesofhumannature。TheoppositionofthegreatoratortothepolicyofPhilipherepresentsasneithermorenorlessthandeliberatevillany。IholdalmostthesameopinionwithMrMitfordrespectingthecharacterandtheviewsofthatgreatandaccomplishedprince。ButamI，therefore，topronounceDemosthenesprofligateandinsincere？Surelynot。Dowenotperpetuallyseemenofthegreatesttalentsandthepurestintentionsmisledbynationalorfactiousprejudices？ThemostrespectablepeopleinEnglandwere，littlemorethanfortyyearsago，inthehabitofutteringthebitterestabuseagainstWashingtonandFranklin。Itiscertainlytoberegrettedthatmenshoulderrsogrosslyintheirestimateofcharacter。Butnopersonwhoknowsanythingofhumannaturewillimputesucherrorstodepravity。
　　MrMitfordisnotmoreconsistentwithhimselfthanwithreason。
　　Thoughheistheadvocateofalloligarchies，heisalsoawarmadmirerofallkings，andofallcitizenswhoraisedthemselvestothatspeciesofsovereigntywhichtheGreeksdenominatedtyranny。Ifmonarchy，asMrMitfordholds，beinitselfablessing，democracymustbeabetterformofgovernmentthanaristocracy，whichisalwaysopposedtothesupremacy，andeventotheeminence，ofindividuals。Ontheotherhand，itisbutonestepthatseparatesthedemagogueandthesovereign。
　　Ifthisarticlehadnotextendeditselftosogreatalength，I
　　shouldofferafewobservationsonsomeotherpeculiaritiesofthiswriter，——hisgeneralpreferenceoftheBarbarianstotheGreeks，——hispredilectionforPersians，Carthaginians，Thracians，forallnations，inshort，exceptthatgreatandenlightenednationofwhichheisthehistorian。ButIwillconfinemyselftoasingletopic。
　　MrMitfordhasremarked，withtruthandspirit，that"anyhistoryperfectlywritten，butespeciallyaGrecianhistoryperfectlywrittenshouldbeapoliticalinstituteforallnations。"IthasnotoccurredtohimthataGrecianhistory，perfectlywritten，shouldalsobeacompleterecordoftheriseandprogressofpoetry，philosophy，andthearts。Herehisworkisextremelydeficient。Indeed，thoughitmayseemastrangethingtosayofagentlemanwhohaspublishedsomanyquartos，MrMitfordseemstoentertainafeeling，borderingoncontempt，forliteraryandspeculativepursuits。Thetalentsofactionalmostexclusivelyattracthisnotice;andhetalkswithverycomplacentdisdainof"theidlelearned。"Homer，indeed，headmires;butprincipally，Iamafraid，becauseheisconvincedthatHomercouldneitherreadnorwrite。HecouldnotavoidspeakingofSocrates;buthehasbeenfarmoresolicitoustotracehisdeathtopoliticalcauses，andtodeducefromitconsequencesunfavourabletoAthens，andtopopulargovernments，thantothrowlightonthecharacteranddoctrinesofthewonderfulman，"FromwhosemouthissuedforthMellifluousstreamsthatwateredalltheschoolsOfAcademics，oldandnew，withthoseSurnamedPeripatetics，andthesectEpicurean，andtheStoicsevere。"
　　HedoesnotseemtobeawarethatDemostheneswasagreatorator;
　　herepresentshimsometimesasanaspirantdemagogue，sometimesasanadroitnegotiator，andalwaysasagreatrogue。ButthatinwhichtheAthenianexcelledallmenofallages，thatirresistibleeloquence，whichatthedistanceofmorethantwothousandyearsstirsourblood，andbringstearsintooureyes，hepassesbywithafewphrasesofcommonplacecommendation。Theoriginofthedrama，thedoctrinesofthesophists，thecourseofAthenianeducation，thestateoftheartsandsciences，thewholedomesticsystemoftheGreeks，hehasalmostcompletelyneglected。Yetthesethingswillappear，toareflectingman，scarcelylessworthyofattentionthanthetakingofSphacteriaorthedisciplineofthetargeteersofIphicrates。
　　This，indeed，isadeficiencybynomeanspeculiartoMrMitford。
　　Mostpeopleseemtoimaginethatadetailofpublicoccurrences——
　　theoperationsofsieges———thechangesofadministrations——thetreaties——theconspiracies——therebellions——isacompletehistory。Differencesofdefinitionarelogicallyunimportant;
　　butpracticallytheysometimesproducethemostmomentouseffects。Thusithasbeeninthepresentcase。Historianshave，almostwithoutexception，confinedthemselvestothepublictransactionsofstates，andhavelefttothenegligentadministrationofwritersoffictionaprovinceatleastequallyextensiveandvaluable。
　　Allwisestatesmenhaveagreedtoconsidertheprosperityoradversityofnationsasmadeupofthehappinessormiseryofindividuals，andtorejectaschimericalallnotionsofapublicinterestofthecommunity，distinctfromtheinterestofthecomponentparts。Itisthereforestrangethatthosewhoseofficeitistosupplystatesmenwithexamplesandwarningsshouldomit，astoomeanforthedignityofhistory，circumstanceswhichexertthemostextensiveinfluenceonthestateofsociety。Ingeneral，theundercurrentofhumanlifeflowssteadilyon，unruffledbythestormswhichagitatethesurface。Thehappinessofthemanycommonlydependsoncausesindependentofvictoriesordefeats，ofrevolutionsorrestorations，——causeswhichcanberegulatedbynolaws，andwhicharerecordedinnoarchives。
　　Thesecausesarethethingswhichitisofmainimportancetoustoknow，nothowtheLacedaemonianphalanxwasbrokenatLeuctra，——notwhetherAlexanderdiedofpoisonorbydisease。
　　History，withoutthese，isashellwithoutakernel;andsuchisalmostallthehistorywhichisextantintheworld。Paltryskirmishesandplotsarereportedwithabsurdanduselessminuteness;butimprovementsthemostessentialtothecomfortofhumanlifeextendthemselvesovertheworld，andintroducethemselvesintoeverycottage，beforeanyannalistcancondescend，fromthedignityofwritingaboutgeneralsandambassadors，totaketheleastnoticeofthem。Thustheprogressofthemostsalutaryinventionsanddiscoveriesisburiedinimpenetrablemystery;mankindaredeprivedofamostusefulspeciesofknowledge，andtheirbenefactorsoftheirhonestfame。
　　Inthemeantimeeverychildknowsbyheartthedatesandadventuresofalonglineofbarbariankings。Thehistoryofnations，inthesenseinwhichIusetheword，isoftenbeststudiedinworksnotprofessedlyhistorical。Thucydides，asfarashegoes，isanexcellentwriter;yetheaffordsusfarlessknowledgeofthemostimportantparticularsrelatingtoAthensthanPlatoorAristophanes。ThelittletreatiseofXenophononDomesticEconomycontainsmorehistoricalinformationthanallthesevenbooksofhisHellenics。ThesamemaybesaidoftheSatiresofHorace，oftheLettersofCicero，ofthenovelsofLeSage，ofthememoirsofMarmontel。Manyothersmightbementioned;butthesesufficientlyillustratemymeaning。
　　Iwouldhopethattheremayyetappearawriterwhomaydespisethepresentnarrowlimits，andasserttherightsofhistoryovereverypartofhernaturaldomain。Shouldsuchawriterengageinthatenterprise，inwhichIcannotbutconsiderMrMitfordashavingfailed，hewillrecord，indeed，allthatisinterestingandimportantinmilitaryandpoliticaltransactions;buthewillnotthinkanythingtootrivialforthegravityofhistorywhichisnottootrivialtopromoteordiminishthehappinessofman。
　　Hewillportrayinvividcoloursthedomesticsociety，themanners，theamusements，theconversationoftheGreeks。Hewillnotdisdaintodiscussthestateofagriculture，ofthemechanicalarts，andoftheconveniencesoflife。Theprogressofpainting，ofsculpture，andofarchitecture，willformanimportantpartofhisplan。But，aboveall，hisattentionwillbegiventothehistoryofthatsplendidliteraturefromwhichhassprungallthestrength，thewisdom，thefreedom，andtheglory，ofthewesternworld。
　　OftheindifferencewhichMrMitfordshowsonthissubjectIwillnotspeak;forIcannotspeakwithfairness。ItisasubjectonwhichIlovetoforgettheaccuracyofajudge，inthevenerationofaworshipperandthegratitudeofachild。Ifweconsidermerelythesubtletyofdisquisition，theforceofimagination，theperfectenergyandeleganceofexpressionwhichcharacterisethegreatworksofAtheniangenius，wemustpronouncethemintrinsicallymostvaluable;butwhatshallwesaywhenwereflectthatfromhencehavesprungdirectlyorindirectly，allthenoblestcreationsofthehumanintellect;thatfromhencewerethevastaccomplishmentsandthebrilliantfancyofCicero;
　　thewitheringfireofJuvenal;theplasticimaginationofDante;
　　thehumourofCervantes;thecomprehensionofBacon;thewitofButler;thesupremeanduniversalexcellenceofShakspeare？Allthetriumphsoftruthandgeniusoverprejudiceandpower，ineverycountryandineveryage，havebeenthetriumphsofAthens。
　　Whereverafewgreatmindshavemadeastandagainstviolenceandfraud，inthecauseoflibertyandreason，therehasbeenherspiritinthemidstofthem;inspiring，encouraging，consoling;——
　　bythelonelylampofErasmus;bytherestlessbedofPascal;inthetribuneofMirabeau;inthecellofGalileo;onthescaffoldofSidney。Butwhoshallestimateherinfluenceonprivatehappiness？Whoshallsayhowmanythousandshavebeenmadewiser，happier，andbetter，bythosepursuitsinwhichshehastaughtmankindtoengage:tohowmanythestudieswhichtooktheirrisefromherhavebeenwealthinpoverty，——libertyinbondage，——healthinsickness，——societyinsolitude？Herpowerisindeedmanifestedatthebar，inthesenate，inthefieldofbattle，intheschoolsofphilosophy。Butthesearenotherglory。Whereverliteratureconsolessorrow，orassuagespain，——
　　whereveritbringsgladnesstoeyeswhichfailwithwakefulnessandtears，andacheforthedarkhouseandthelongsleep，——thereisexhibited，initsnoblestform，theimmortalinfluenceofAthens。
　　Thedervise，intheArabiantale，didnothesitatetoabandontohiscomradethecamelswiththeirloadofjewelsandgold，whileheretainedthecasketofthatmysteriousjuicewhichenabledhimtobeholdatoneglanceallthehiddenrichesoftheuniverse。
　　Surelyitisnoexaggerationtosaythatnoexternaladvantageistobecomparedwiththatpurificationoftheintellectualeyewhichgivesustocontemplatetheinfinitewealthofthementalworld，allthehoardedtreasuresofitsprimevaldynasties，alltheshapelessoreofitsyetunexploredmines。ThisisthegiftofAthenstoman。Herfreedomandherpowerhaveformorethantwentycenturiesbeenannihilated;herpeoplehavedegeneratedintotimidslaves;herlanguageintoabarbarousjargon;hertempleshavebeengivenuptothesuccessivedepredationsofRomans，Turks，andScotchmen;butherintellectualempireisimperishable。Andwhenthosewhohaverivalledhergreatnessshallhavesharedherfate;whencivilisationandknowledgeshallhavefixedtheirabodeindistantcontinents;whenthesceptreshallhavepassedawayfromEngland;when，perhaps，travellersfromdistantregionsshallinvainlabourtodecipheronsomemoulderingpedestalthenameofourproudestchief;shallhearsavagehymnschauntedtosomemisshapenidolovertheruineddomeofourproudesttemple;andshallseeasinglenakedfishermanwashhisnetsintheriverofthetenthousandmasts;——herinfluenceandherglorywillstillsurvive，——freshineternalyouth，exemptfrommutabilityanddecay，immortalastheintellectualprinciplefromwhichtheyderivedtheirorigin，andoverwhichtheyexercisetheircontrol。
　　EndVolumeI
　　CriticalandHistoricalEssaysVolume2
　　byThomasBabingtonMacaulayFOREIGNHISTORY
　　MACHIAVELLI
　　RANKE’SHISTORYOFTHEPOPES
　　WAROFTHESPANISHSUCCESSION
　　FREDERICTHEGREAT
　　POLITICALCONTROVERSY
　　SOUTHEY’SCOLLOQUIES
　　CIVILDISABILTIESOFTHEJEWS
　　GLADSTONEONCHURCHANDSTATE
　　LITERARYCRITICISMS
　　BACON
　　JOHNBUNYAN
　　DRAMATISTSOFTHERESTORATION
　　ADDISON
　　SAMUELJOHNSON
　　MADAMED’ARBLAY
　　BYRON
　　MONTGOMERY
　　INDEX
　　MACHIAVELLI
　　（March1827）
　　OeuvrescompletesdeMACHIAVEL，traduitesparJ。V。PERIERParis:
　　1825。
　　Thosewhohaveattendedtothepracticeofourliterarytribunalarewellawarethat，bymeansofcertainlegalfictionssimilartothoseofWestminsterHall，wearefrequentlyenabledtotakecognisanceofcaseslyingbeyondthesphereofouroriginaljurisdiction。Weneedhardlysay，therefore，thatinthepresentinstanceM。PerierismerelyaRichardRoe，whowillnotbementionedinanysubsequentstageoftheproceedings，andwhosenameisusedforthesolepurposeofbringingMachiavelliintocourt。
　　Wedoubtwhetheranynameinliteraryhistorybesogenerallyodiousasthatofthemanwhosecharacterandwritingswenowproposetoconsider。ThetermsinwhichheiscommonlydescribedwouldseemtoimportthathewastheTempter，theEvilPrinciple，thediscovererofambitionandrevenge，theoriginalinventorofperjury，andthat，beforethepublicationofhisfatalPrince，therehadneverbeenahypocrite，atyrant，oratraitor，asimulatedvirtue，oraconvenientcrime。OnewritergravelyassuresusthatMauriceofSaxonylearnedallhisfraudulentpolicyfromthatexecrablevolume。AnotherremarksthatsinceitwastranslatedintoTurkish，theSultanshavebeenmoreaddictedthanformerlytothecustomofstranglingtheirbrothers。LordLytteltonchargesthepoorFlorentinewiththemanifoldtreasonsofthehouseofGuise，andwiththemassacreofSt。Bartholomew。