Thosewho，knowingneither
Irelandnoranyforeigncountry，takeastheirsolestandardof
socialandeconomicalexcellenceEnglishpractice，proposeasthe
singleremedyforIrishwretchedness，thetransformationofthe
cottiersintohiredlabourers。Butthisisratheraschemefor
theimprovementofIrishagriculture，thanoftheconditionof
theIrishpeople。Thestatusofaday—labourerhasnocharmfor
infusingforethought，frugality，orself—restraint，intoapeople
devoidofthem。IftheIrishpeasantcouldbeuniversallychanged
intoreceiversofwages，theoldhabitsandmental
characteristicsofthepeopleremaining，weshouldmerelysee
fourorfivemillionsofpeoplelivingasday—labourersinthe
samewretchedmannerinwhichascottierstheylivedbefore;
equallypassiveintheabsenceofeverycomfort，equallyreckless
inmultiplication，andeven，perhaps，equallylistlessattheir
work;sincetheycouldnotbedismissedinabody，andifthey
could，dismissalwouldnowbesimplyremandingthemtothe
poor—rate。Farotherwouldbetheeffectofmakingthempeasant
proprietors。Apeoplewhoinindustryandprovidencehave
everythingtolearn——whoareconfessedlyamongthemost
backwardofEuropeanpopulationsintheindustrialvirtues——
requirefortheirregenerationthemostpowerfulincitementsby
whichthosevirtuescanbestimulated:andthereisnostimulus
asyetcomparabletopropertyinland。Apermanentinterestin
thesoiltothosewhotillit，isalmostaguaranteeforthemost
unweariedlaboriousness:againstover—population，thoughtnot
infallible，itisthebestpreservativeyetknown，andwhereit
failed，anyotherplanwouldprobablyfailmuchmoreegregiously;
theevilwouldbebeyondthereachofmerelyeconomicremedies。
ThecaseofIrelandissimilarinitsrequirementstothatof
India。InIndia，thoughgreaterrorshavefromtimetotimebeen
committed，nooneeverproposed，underthenameofagricultural
improvement，toejecttheryotsorpeasantfarmersfromtheir
possession;theimprovementthathasbeenlookedfor，hasbeen
throughmakingtheirtenuremoresecuretothem，andthesole
differenceofopinionisbetweenthosewhocontendfor
perpetuity，andthosewhothinkthatlongleaseswillsuffice。
ThesamequestionexistsastoIreland:anditwouldbeidleto
denythatlongleases，undersuchlandlordsasaresometimesto
befounddoeffectwonders，eveninIreland。Butthentheymust
beleasesatalowrent。Longleasesareinnowaytoberelied
onforgettingridofcottierism。Duringtheexistenceofcottier
tenancy，leaseshavealwaysbeenlong;twenty—oneyearsandthree
livesconcurrent，wasausualterm。Buttherentbeingfixedby
competition，atahigheramountthancouldbepaid，sothatthe
tenantneitherhad，norcouldbyanyexertionacquire，a
beneficialinterestintheland，theadvantageofaleasewas
nearlynominal。InIndia，thegovernment，whereithasnot
imprudentlymadeoveritsproprietaryrightstothezemindars，is
abletopreventthisevil，because，beingitselfthelandlord，it
canfixtherentaccordingtoitsownjudgment;butunder
individuallandlords，whilerentsarefixedbycompetition，and
thecompetitorsareapeasantrystrugglingforsubsistence，
nominalrentsareinevitable，unlessthepopulationissothin，
thatthecompetitionitselfisonlynominal。Themajorityof
landlordswillgraspatimmediatemoneyandimmediatepower;and
solongastheyfindcottierseagertoofferthemeverything，it
isuselesstorelyonthemfortemperingtheviciouspracticeby
aconsiderateself—denial。
Aperpetuityisastrongerstimulustoimprovementthana
longlease:notonlybecausethelongestlease，beforecomingto
anend，passesthroughallthevarietiesofshortleasesdownto
noleaseatall;butformorefundamentalreasons。Itisvery
shallow，eveninpureeconomics，totakenoaccountofthe
influenceofimagination:thereisavirtuein"forever"beyond
thelongesttermofyears;evenifthetermislongenoughto
includechildren，andallwhomapersonindividuallycaresfor，
yetuntilhehasreachedthathighdegreeofmentalcultivation
atwhichthepublicgood（whichalsoincludesperpetuity）
acquiresaparamountascendancyoverhisfeelingsanddesires，he
willnotexerthimselfwiththesameardourtoincreasethevalue
ofanestate，hisinterestinwhichdiminishesinvalueevery
year。Besides，whileperpetualtenureisthegeneralruleof
landedproperty，asitisinallthecountiesofEurope，atenure
foralimitedperiod，howeverlong，issuretoberegardedasa
somethingofinferiorconsiderationanddignity，andinspires
lessofardourtoobtainit，andofattachmenttoitwhen
obtained。Butwhereacountryisundercottiertenure，the
questionofperpetuityisquitesecondarytothemoreimportant
point，alimitationoftherent。Rentpaidbyacapitalistwho
farmsforprofit，andnotforbread，maysafelybeabandonedto
competition;rentpaidbylabourerscannot，unlessthelabourers
wereinastateofcivilizationandimprovementwhichlabourers
havenowhereyetreached，andcannoteasilyreachundersucha
tenure。Peasantrentsoughtnevertobearbitrary，neveratthe
discretionofthelandlord:eitherbycustomorlaw，itis
imperativelynecessarythattheyshouldbefixed;andwhereno
mutuallyadvantageouscustom，suchasthemetayersystemof
Tuscany，hasestablisheditself，reasonandexperiencerecommend
thattheyshouldbefixedbyauthority:thuschangingtherent
intoaquit—rent，andthefarmerintoapeasantproprietor。
Forcarryingthischangeintoeffectonasufficientlylarge
scaletoaccomplishthecompleteabolitionofcottiertenancy，
themodewhichmostobviouslysuggestsitselfisthedirectone
ofdoingthethingoutrightbyActofParliament;makingthe
wholelandofIrelandthepropertyofthetenants，subjecttothe
rentsnowreallypaid（notthenominalrent），asafixedrent
charge。This，underthenameof"fixityoftenure，"wasoneof
thedemandsoftheRepealAssociationduringthemostsuccessful
periodoftheiragitation;andwasbetterexpressedbyMr。
Conner，itsearliest，mostenthusiastic，andmostindefatigable
apostle，（1*）bythewords，"avaluationandaperpetuity。"In
suchameasuretherewouldnothavebeenanyinjustice，provided
thelandlordswerecompensatedforthepresentvalueofthe
chancesofincreasewhichtheywereprospectivelyrequiredto
forego。Theruptureofexistingsocialrelationswouldhardly
havebeenmoreviolentthanthateffectedbytheministersStein
andHardenbergwhen，byaseriesofedicts，intheearlypartof
thepresentcentury，theyrevolutionizedthestateoflanded
propertyinthePrussianmonarchy，andlefttheirnamesto
posterityamongthegreatestbenefactorsoftheircountry。To
enlightenedforeignerswritingonIreland，VonRaumerandGustave
deBeaumont，aremedyofthissortseemedsoexactlyand
obviouslywhatthediseaserequired，thattheyhadsome
difficultyincomprehendinghowitwasthatthethingwasnotyet
done。
This，however，wouldhavebeen，inthefirstplace，a
completeexpropriationofthehigherclassesofIreland:which，
ifthereisanytruthintheprincipleswehavelaiddown，would
beperfectlywarrantable，butonlyifitwerethesolemeansof
effectingagreatpublicgood。Inthesecondplace，thatthere
shouldbenonebutpeasantproprietors，isinitselffarfrom
desirable。Largefarms，cultivatedbylargecapital，andownedby
personsofthebesteducationwhichthecountrycangive，persons
qualifiedbyinstructiontoappreciatescientificdiscoveries，
andabletobearthedelayandriskofcostlyexperiments，arean
importantpartofagoodagriculturalsystem。Manysuchlandlords
thereareeveninIreland;anditwouldbeapublicmisfortuneto
drivethemfromtheirposts。Alargeproportionalsoofthe
presentholdingsareprobablystilltoosmalltotrythe
proprietarysystemunderthegreatestadvantages;norarethe
tenantsalwaysthepersonsonewoulddesiretoselectasthe
firstoccupantsofpeasant—properties。Therearenumbersofthem
onwhomitwouldhaveamorebeneficialeffecttogivethemthe
hopeofacquiringalandedpropertybyindustryandfrugality，
thanthepropertyitselfinimmediatepossession。
Thereare，however，muchmildermeasures，notopentosimilar
objections，andwhich，ifpushedtotheutmostextentofwhich
theyaresusceptible，wouldrealizeinnoinconsiderabledegree
theobjectsought。Oneofthemwouldbe，toenactthatwhoever
reclaimswastelandbecomestheownerofit，atafixedquit—rent
equaltoamoderateinterestonitsmerevalueaswaste。Itwould
ofcoursebeanecessarypartofthismeasure，tomakecompulsory
onlandlordsthesurrenderofwastelands（notofanornamental
character）wheneverrequiredforreclamation。Anotherexpedient，
andoneinwhichindividualscouldco—operate，wouldbetobuyas
muchaspossibleofthelandofferedforsale，andsellitagain
insmallportionsaspeasant—properties。ASocietyforthis
purposewasatonetimeprojected（thoughtheattemptto
establishitprovedunsuccessful）ontheprinciples，sofaras
applicable，oftheFreeholdLandSocietieswhichhavebeenso
successfullyestablishedinEngland，notprimarilyfor
agricultural，butforelectoralpurposes。
Thisisamodeinwhichprivatecapitalmaybeemployedin
renovatingthesocialandagriculturaleconomyofireland，not
onlywithoutsacrificebutwithconsiderableprofittoits
owners。TheremarkablesuccessoftheWasteLandimprovement
Society，whichproceededonaplanfarlessadvantageoustothe
tenant，isaninstanceofwhatanIrishpeasantrycanbe
stimulatedtodo，byasufficientassurancethatwhattheydo
willbefortheirownadvantage。itisnotevenindispensableto
adoptperpetuityastherule;longleasesatmoderaterents，like
thoseoftheWasteLandSociety，wouldsuffice，ifaprospect
wereheldouttothefarmersofbeingallowedtopurchasetheir
farmswiththecapitalwhichtheymightacquire，astheSociety’s
tenantsweresorapidlyacquiringundertheinfluenceofits
beneficentsystem。（2*）Whenthelandsweresold，thefundsofthe
associationwouldbeliberated，anditmightrecommence
operationsinsomeotherquarter。
2。ThusfarIhadwrittenin1856。Sincethattimethegreat
crisisofIrishindustryhasmadefurtherprogress，anditis
necessarytoconsiderhowitspresentstateaffectstheopinions，
onprospectsoronpracticalmeasures，expressedintheprevious
partofthischapter。
Theprincipalchangeinthesituationconsistsinthegreat
diminution，holdingoutahopeoftheentireextinction，of
cottiertenure。Theenormousdecreaseinthenumberofsmall
holdings，andincreaseinthoseofamediumsize，attestedbythe
statisticalreturns，sufficientlyprovesthegeneralfact，and
alltestimoniesshowthatthetendencystillcontinues。（3*）Itis
probablethattherepealofthecornlaws，necessitatingachange
intheexportsofIrelandfromtheproductsoftillagetothose
ofpasturage，wouldofitselfhavesufficedtobringaboutthis
revolutionintenure。Agrazingfarmcanonlybemanagedbya
capitalistfarmer，orbythelandlord。Butachangeinvolvingso
greatadisplacementofthepopulation，hasbeenimmensely
facilitatedandmademorerapidbythevastemigration，aswell
asbythatgreatestbooneverconferredonIrelandbyany
Government，theEncumberedEstatesAct;thebestprovisionsof
whichhavesince，throughtheLandedEstatesCourt，been
permanentlyincorporatedintothesocialsystemofthecountry。
ThegreatestpartofthesoilofIreland，thereisreasonto
believe，isnowfarmedeitherbythelandlords，orbysmall
capitalistfarmers。Thatthesefarmersareimprovingin
circumstances，andaccumulatingcapital，thereisconsiderable
evidence，inparticularthegreatincreaseofdepositsinthe
banksofwhichtheyaretheprincipalcustomers。Sofarasthat
classisconcerned，thechiefthingstillwantedissecurityof
tenure，orassuranceofcompensationforimprovements。Themeans
ofsupplyingthesewantsarenowengagingtheattentionofthe
mostcompetentminds;JudgeLongfield’saddress，intheautumnof
1864，andthesensationcreatedbyit，areanerainthesubject，
andapointhasnowbeenreachedwhenwemayconfidentlyexpect
thatwithinaveryfewyearssomethingeffectualwillbedone。
Butwhat，meanwhile，istheconditionofthedisplaced
cottiers，sofarastheyhavenotemigrated;andofthewhole
classwhosubsistbyagriculturallabour，withouttheoccupation
ofanyland？Asyet，theirstateisoneofgreatpoverty，with
butslightprospectofimprovement。Manywages，indeed，have
risenmuchabovethewretchedlevelofagenerationago:butthe
costofsubsistencehasalsorisensomuchabovetheoldpotato
standard，thattherealimprovementisnotequaltothenominal;
andaccordingtothebestinformationtowhichIhaveaccess，
thereislittleappearanceofanimprovedstandardofliving
amongtheclass。Thepopulation，infact，reducedthoughitbe，
isstillfarbeyondwhatthecountrycansupportasamere
grazingdistrictofEngland。Itmaynot，perhaps，bestrictly
truethat，ifthepresentnumberofinhabitantsaretobe
maintainedathome，itcanonlybeeitherontheoldvicious
systemofcottierism，orassmallproprietorsgrowingtheirown
food。Thelandswhichwillremainundertillagewould，nodoubt，
ifsufficientsecurityforoutlayweregiven，admitofamore
extensiveemploymentoflabourersbythesmallcapitalist
farmers;andthis，intheopinionofsomecompetentjudges，might
enablethecountrytosupportthepresentnumberofits
populationinactualexistence。Butnoonewillpretendthatthis
resourceissufficienttomaintaintheminanyconditioninwhich
itisfitthatthegreatbodyofthepeasantryofacountry
shouldexist。Accordinglytheemigration，whichforatimehad
fallenoff，has，undertheadditionalstimulusofbadseasons，
revivedinallitsstrength。Itiscalculatedthatwithinthe
year1864notlessthan100，000emigrantslefttheIrishshores。
Asfarasregardstheemigrantsthemselvesandtheirposterity，
orthegeneralinterestsofthehumanrace，itwouldbefollyto
regretthisresult。ThechildrenoftheimmigrantIrishreceive
theeducationofAmericans，andenter，morerapidlyand
completelythanwouldhavebeenpossibleinthecountryoftheir
descent，intothebenefitsofahigherstateofcivilization。In
twentyorthirtyyearstheyarenotmentallydistinguishablefrom
otherAmericans。Theloss，andthedisgrace，areEngland’s:and
itistheEnglishpeopleandgovernmentwhomitchieflyconcerns
toaskthemselves，howfaritwillbetotheirhonourand
advantagetoretainthemeresoilofIreland，buttoloseits
inhabitants。WiththepresentfeelingsoftheIrishpeople，and
thedirectionwhichtheirhopeofimprovingtheirconditionseems
tobepermanentlytaking，England，itisprobable，hasonlythe
choicebetweenthedepopulationofIreland，andtheconversionof
apartofthelabouringpopulationintopeasantproprietors。The
trulyinsularignoranceofherpublicmenrespectingaformof
agriculturaleconomywhichpredominatesinnearlyeveryother
civilizedcountry，makesitonlytooprobablethatshewill
choosetheworsesideofthealternative。Yettherearegermsof
atendencytotheformationofpeasantproprietorsonIrishsoil，
whichrequireonlytheaidofafriendlylegislatortofoster
them;asisshowninthefollowingextractfromaprivate
communicationbymyeminentandvaluedfriend，ProfessorCairnes:
——
"Onthesale，someeightortenyearsago，oftheThomond，
Portarlington，andKingstonestates，intheEncumberedEstates
Court，itwasobservedthataconsiderablenumberofoccupying
tenantspurchasedthefeeoftheirfarms。Ihavenotbeenableto
obtainanyinformationastowhatfollowedthat
proceeding—whetherthepurchaserscontinuedtofarmtheirsmall
properties，orunderthemaniaoflandlordismtriedtoescape
fromtheirformermodeoflife。Butthereareotherfactswhich
haveahearingonthisquestion。Inthosepartsofthecountry
wheretenant—rightprevails，thepricesgivenforthegoodwillof
afarmareenormous。Thefollowingfigures，takenfromthe
scheduleofanestateintheneighbourhoodofNewry，nowpassing
throughtheLandedEstatesCourt，willgiveanidea，butavery
inadequateone，ofthepriceswhichthismerecustomaryright
generallyfetches。
"Statementshowingthepricesatwhichthetenant—rightof
certainfarmsnearNewrywassold:——
LotAcresRentPurchase—money
oftenant—right
123？4？33
22477240
31339110
4143485
51033172
651375
7826130
81133130
9255
_________
110？34？80
"Thepriceshererepresentonthewholeaboutthreeyears’
purchaseoftherental:butthis，asIhavesaid，givesbutan
inadequateideaofthatwhichisfrequently，indeedofthatwhich
isordinarily，paid。Theright，beingpurelycustomary，willvary
invaluewiththeconfidencegenerallyreposedinthegoodfaith
ofthelandlord。Inthepresentinstance，circumstanceshavecome
tolightinthecourseoftheproceedingsconnectedwiththesale
oftheestate，whichgivereasontobelievethattheconfidence
inthiscasewasnothigh;consequently，theratesabovegiven
maybetakenasconsiderablyunderthosewhichordinarily
prevail。Cases，asIaminformedonthehighestauthority，have
inotherpartsofthecountrycometolight，alsointheLanded
EstatesCourt，inwhichthepricegivenforthetenant—rightwas
equaltothatofthewholefeeoftheland。Itisaremarkable
factthatpeopleshouldbefoundtogive，saytwentyor
twenty—fiveyears’purchase，forlandwhichisstillsubjecttoa
goodroundrent。Why，itwillbeasked，dotheynotpurchaseland
outandoutforthesame，oraslightlylarger，sum？Theanswer
tothisquestion，Ibelieveistohefoundinthestateofour
landlaws。Thecostoftransferringlandinsmallportionsis，
relativelytothepurchasemoney，veryconsiderable，eveninthe
LandedEstatesCourt;whilethegoodwillofafarmmaybe
transferredwithoutanycostatall。Thecheapestconveyancethat
couldbedrawninthatCourt，wheretheutmosteconomy，
consistentwiththepresentmodeofremuneratinglegalservices，
isstrictlyenforced，would，irrespectiveofstampduties，cost
10l。——averysensibleadditiontothepurchaseofasmall
peasantestate:aconveyancetotransferathousandacresmight
notcostmore，andwouldprobablynotcostmuchmore。Butin
truth，themerecostofconveyancerepresentsbuttheleastpart
oftheobstacleswhichexisttoobtaininglandinsmallportions。
Afarmoreseriousimpedimentisthecomplicatedstateofthe
ownershipofland，whichrendersitfrequentlyimpracticableto
subdivideapropertyintosuchportionsaswouldbringtheland
withinthereachofsmallbidders。Theremedyforthisstateof
things，however，liesinmeasuresofamoreradicalsortthanI
fearitisatallprobablethatanyHouseofCommonswearesoon
likelytoseewouldevenwithpatienceconsider。Aregistryof
titlesmaysucceedinreducingthiscomplexconditionof
ownershiptoitssimplestexpression;butwhererealcomplication
exists，thedifficultyisnottobegotridofbymeresimplicity
ofform;andaregistryoftitles—whilethepowersofdisposition
atpresentenjoyedbylandownersremainundiminished，whileevery
settlorandtestatorhasanalmostunboundedlicencetomultiply
interestsinland，aspride，thepassionfordictation，ormere
whimmaysuggest——will，inmyopinion，failtoreachtheroot
oftheevil。Theeffectofthesecircumstancesistoplacean
immensepremiumuponlargedealingsinland—indeedinmostcases
practicallytoprecludeallotherthanlargedealing;andwhile
thisisthestateofthelaw，theexperimentofpeasant
proprietorship，itisplain，cannotbefairlytried。Thefacts，
however，whichIhavestate，show，Ithink，conclusively，that
thereisnoobstacleinthedispositionofthepeopletothe
introductionofthissystem。"
Ihaveconcludedadiscussion，whichhasoccupiedaspace
almostdisproportionedtothedimensionsofthiswork;andIhere
closetheexaminationofthosesimplerformsofsocialeconomyin
whichtheproduceofthelandeitherbelongsundividedlytoone
class，orissharedonlybetweentwoclasses。Wenowproceedto
thehypothesisofathreefolddivisionoftheproduce，among
labourers，landlords，andcapitalists;andinordertoconnect
thecomingdiscussionsascloselyaspossiblewiththosewhich
havenowforsometimeoccupiedus，Ishallcommencewiththe
subjectofWages。
NOTES:
1。Authorofnumerouspamphlets，entitled"TruePoliticalEconomy
ofIreland"，"LettertotheEarlofDevon"，"TwoLettersonthe
RackrentOppressionofIreland"，andothers。MrConnorhasbeen
anagitatoronthesubjectsince1832。
2。Thoughthissociety，duringtheyearssucceedingthefamine，
wasforcedtowindupitsaffairs，thememoryofwhatit
accomplishedoughttobepreserved。Thefollowingisanextract
intheProceedingsofLordDevon’sCommissionfromthereport
madetothesocietyin1845，bytheirintelligentmanager，
ColonelRobinson:——
"Twohundredandforty—fivetenants，manyofwhomwereafew
yearssinceinastateborderingonpauperism，theoccupiersof
smallholdingsoffromtentotwentyplantationacreseach，have，
bytheirownfreelabour，withthesociety’said，improvedtheir
farmstothevalueof4396l。;605l。havingbeenaddedduring
thelastyear，beingattherateof17l。18s。pertenantforthe
wholeterm，and2l。9s。forthepastyear;thebenefitofwhich
improvementseachtenantwillenjoyduringtheunexpiredtermof
athirty—oneyears’lease。
"These245tenantsandtheirfamilieshave，byspade
industry，reclaimedandbroughtintocultivation1032plantation
acresofland，previouslyunproductivemountainwaste，uponwhich
theygrew，lastyear，cropsvaluedbycompetentpracticalpersons
at3896l。，beingintheproportionof15l。18s。eachtenant;
andtheirlivestock，consistingofcattle，horses，sheep，and
pigs，nowactuallyupontheestates，isvalued，accordingtothe
presentpricesoftheneighbouringmarkets，at4162l。，ofwhich
1304l。hasbeenaddedsinceFebruary1844，beingattherateof
16l。19s。forthwwholeperiodand5l。6s。forthelastyear;
duringwhichtimetheirstockhasthusincreasedinvalueasum
equaltotheirpresentannualrent;andbythestatisticaltables
andreturnsreferredtoinpreviousreports，itisprovedthat
thetenants，ingeneralimprovetheirlittlefarms，andincrease
theircultivationandcrops，innearlydirectproportiontothe
numberofavailableworkingpersonsofbothsexes，ofwhichtheir
familiesconsist。"
Therecannotbeastrongertestimonytothesuperioramount
ofgross，andevenofnetproduce，raisedbysmallfarmingunder
anytolerablesystemoflandedtenure;anditisworthyof
attentionthattheindustryandzealweregreatestamongthe
smallerholders;ColonelRobinsonnoticing，asexceptionstothe
remarkableandrapidprogressofimprovement，sometenantswho
were"occupantsoflargerfarmsthantwentyacres，aclasstoo
oftendeficientintheenduringindustryindispensableforthe
successfulprosecutionofmountainimprovements。"
3。Thereis，however，apartialcounter—current，ofwhichIhave
notseenanypublicnotice。"Aclassofmen，notverynumerous，
butsufficientlysotodomuchmischief，have，throughtheLanded
EstatesCourt，gotintopossessionoflandinIreland，who，of
allclasses，areleastlikelytorecognisethedutiesofa
landlord’sposition。Thesearesmalltradersintowns，whoby
dintofsheerparsimony，frequentlycombinedwithmoney—lending
atusuriousrates，havesucceeded，inthecourseofalonglife，
inscrapingtogetherasmuchmoneyaswillenablethemtobuy
fiftyorahundredacresofland。Thesepeopleneverthinkof
turningfarmers，but，proudoftheirpositionaslandlords，
proceedtoturnittotheutmostaccount。Aninstanceofthis
kindcameundermynoticelately。Thetenantsontheproperty
were，atthetimeofthepurchase，sometwelveyearsago，ina
tolerablycomfortablestate。Withinthatperiodtheirrenthas
beenraisedthreeseveraltimes;anditisnow，asIaminformed
bythepriestofthedistrict，nearlydoubleitsamountatthe
commencementofthepresentproprietor’sreign。Theresultis
thatthepeople，whowereformerlyintolerablecomfort，arenow
reducedtopoverty:twoofthemhaveleftthepropertyand
squattednearanadjacentturfbog，wheretheyexisttrustingfor
supporttooccasionaljobs。Ifthismanisnotshot，hewill
injurehimselfthroughthedeteriorationofhisproperty，but
meantimehehasbeengettingeightortenpercentonhispurchase
money。Thisisbynomeansararecase。Thescandalwhichsuch
occurrencescause，castsitsreflectionontransactionsofa
whollydifferentandperfectlylegitimatecause，castsits
reflectionontransactionsofawhollydifferentandperfectly
legitimatekind，wheretheremovalofthetenantsissimplyan
actofmercyforallparties。
"Theanxietyoflandlordstogetridofcottiersisalsoto
someextentneutralizedbytheanxietyofmiddlementogetthem。
Aboutone—fourthofthewholelandofIrelandisheldunderlong
leases;therentreceived，whentheleaseisoflongstanding，
beinggenerallygreatlyundertherealvalueoftheland。It
rarelyhappensthatthelandthusheldiscultivatedbytheowner
ofthelease:insteadofthis，hesubletsitatarackrentto
smallmen，andlivesontheexcessoftherentwhichhereceives
overthatwhichhepays。Someoftheseleasesarealwaysrunning
out;andastheydrawtowardstheirclose，themiddlemanhasno
otherinterestinthelandthan，atanycostofpermanent
deteriorations，togettheutmostoutofitduringtheunexpired
periodoftheterm。Forthispurposethesmallcottiertenants
preciselyanswerhisturn。Middlemeninthispositionareas
anxioustoobtaincottiersastenants，asthelandlordsaretobe
ridofthem;andtheresultisatransferofthissortoftenant
fromoneclassofestatestotheother。Themovementisof
limiteddimensions，butitdoesexist，andsofarasitexists，
neutralizesthegeneraltendency。Perhapsitmaybethoughtthat
thissystemwillreproduceitself;thatthesamemotiveswhich
ledtotheexistenceofmiddlemenwillperpetuatetheclass;but
thereisnodangerofthis。Landownersarenowperfectlyaliveto
theruinousconsequencesofthissystem，howeverconvenietfora
time;andaclauseagainstsub—lettingisnowbecomingamatter
ofcourseineverylease。"——（PrivateCommunicationfrom
ProfessorCairnes。）
ThePrinciplesofPoliticalEconomy
byJohnStuartMill
Book2
Chapter11
OfWages
1。UndertheheadofWagesaretobeconsidered，first，the
causeswhichdetermineorinfluencethewagesoflabour
generally，andsecondly，thedifferencesthatexistbetweenthe
wagesofdifferentemployments。Itisconvenienttokeepthese
twoclassesofconsiderationsseparate;andindiscussingthelaw
ofwages，toproceedinthefirstinstanceasiftherewereno
otherkindoflabourthancommonunskilledlabour，oftheaverage
degreeofhardnessanddisagreeableness。
Wages，likeotherthings，mayberegulatedeitherby
competitionorbycustom。Inthiscountrytherearefewkindsof
labourofwhichtheremunerationwouldnotbelowerthanitis，
iftheemployertookthefulladvantageofcompetition。
Competition，however，mustberegarded，inthepresentstateof
society，astheprincipalregulatorofwages，andcustomor
individualcharacteronlyasamodifyingcircumstance，andthat
inacomparativelyslightdegree。
Wages，then，dependmainlyuponthedemandandsupplyof
labour;orasitisoftenexpressed，ontheproportionbetween
populationandcapital。Bypopulationisheremeantthenumber
onlyofthelabouringclass，orratherofthosewhoworkfor
hire;andbycapitalonlycirculatingcapital，andnoteventhe
wholeofthat，butthepartwhichisexpendedinthedirect
purchaseoflabour。Tothis，however，mustbeaddedallfunds
which，withoutformingapartofcapital，arepaidinexchange
forlabour，suchasthewagesofsoldiers，domesticservants，and
allotherunproductivelabourers。Thereisunfortunatelynomode
ofexpressingbyonefamiliarterm，theaggregateofwhathas
beencalledthewages—fundofacountry:andasthewagesof
productivelabourformnearlythewholeofthatfund，itisusual
tooverlookthesmallerandlessimportantpart，andtosaythat
wagesdependonpopulationandcapital。Itwillbeconvenientto
employthisexpression，remembering，however，toconsideritas
elliptical，andnotasaliteralstatementoftheentiretruth。
Withtheselimitationsoftheterms，wagesnotonlydepend
upontherelativeamountofcapitalandpopulation，butcannot，
undertheruleofcompetition，beaffectedbyanythingelse。
Wages（meaning，ofcourse，thegeneralrate）cannotrise，butby
anincreaseoftheaggregatefundsemployedinhiringlabourers，
oradiminutioninthenumberofthecompetitorsforhire;nor
fall，excepteitherbyadiminutionofthefundsdevotedto
payinglabour，orbyanincreaseinthenumberoflabourerstobe
paid。
2。Thereare，however，somefactsinapparentcontradiction
tothisdoctrine，whichitisincumbentonustoconsiderand
explain。
Forinstance，itisacommonsayingthatwagesarehighwhen
tradeisgood。Thedemandforlabourinanyparticularemployment
ismorepressing，andhigherwagesarepaid，whenthereisa
briskdemandforthecommodityproduced;andthecontrarywhen
thereiswhatiscalledastagnation:thenworkpeopleare
dismissed，andthosewhoareretainedmustsubmittoareduction
ofwages:thoughinthesecasesthereisneithermorenorless
capitalthanbefore。Thisistrue;andisoneofthose
complicationsintheconcretephenomena，whichobscureand
disguisetheoperationofgeneralcauses:butitisnotreally
inconsistentwiththeprincipleslaiddown。Capitalwhichthe
ownerdoesnotemployinpurchasinglabour，butkeepsidleinhis
hands，isthesamethingtothelabourers，forthetimebeing，as
ifitdidnotexist。Allcapitalis，fromthevariationsof
trade，occasionallyinthisstate。Amanufacturer，findinga
slackdemandforhiscommodity，forbearstoemploylabourersin
increasingastockwhichhefindsitdifficulttodisposeof;or
ifhegoesonuntilallhiscapitalislockedupinunsoldgoods，
thenatleasthemustofnecessitypauseuntilhecangetpaid
forsomeofthem。Butnooneexpectseitherofthesestatestobe
permanent;ifhedid，hewouldatthefirstopportunityremove
hiscapitaltosomeotheroccupation，inwhichitwouldstill
continuetoemploylabour。Thecapitalremainsunemployedfora
time，duringwhichthelabourmarketisoverstocked，andwages
fall。Afterwardsthedemandrevives，andperhapsbecomes
unusuallybrisk，enablingthemanufacturertosellhiscommodity
evenfasterthanhecanproduceit:hiswholecapitalisthen
broughtintocompleteefficiency，andifheisable，heborrows
capitalinaddition，whichwouldotherwisehavegoneintosome
otheremployment。Atsuchtimeswages，inhisparticular
occupation，rise。Ifwesuppose，whatinstrictnessisnot
absolutelyimpossible，thatoneofthesefitsofbrisknessorof
stagnationshouldaffectalloccupationsatthesametime，wages
altogethermightundergoariseorafall。These，however，are
buttemporaryfluctuations:thecapitalnowlyingidlewillnext
yearbeinactiveemployment，thatwhichisthisyearunableto
keepupwiththedemandwillinitsturnbelockedupincrowded
warehouses;andwagesintheseseveraldepartmentswillebband
flowaccordingly:butnothingcanpermanentlyaltergeneral
wages，exceptanincreaseoradiminutionofcapitalitself
（alwaysmeaningbytheterm，thefundsofallsorts，devotedto
thepaymentoflabour）comparedwiththequantityoflabour
offeringitselftobehired。
Again，itisanothercommonnotionthathighpricesmakehigh
wages;becausetheproducersanddealers，beingbetteroff，can
affordtopaymoretotheirlabourers。Ihavealreadysaidthata
briskdemand，whichcausestemporaryhighprices，causesalso
temporaryhighwages。Buthighprices，inthemselves，canonly
raisewagesifthedealers，receivingmore，areinducedtosave
more，andmakeanadditiontotheircapital，oratleasttotheir
purchasesoflabour。Thisisindeedlikelyenoughtobethecase;
andifthehighpricescamedirectfromheaven，orevenfrom
abroad，thelabouringclassmighthebenefited，notbythehigh
pricesthemselves，butbytheincreaseofcapitaloccasionedby
them。Thesameeffect，however，isoftenattributedtoahigh
pricewhichistheresultofrestrictivelaws，orwhichisin
somewayorothertobepaidbytheremainingmembersofthe
community;theyhavingnogreatermeansthanbeforetopayit
with。Highpricesofthissort，iftheybenefitoneclassof
labourers，canonlydosoattheexpenseofothers;sinceifthe
dealersbyreceivinghighpricesareenabledtomakegreater
savings，orotherwiseincreasetheirpurchasesoflabour，all
otherpeoplebypayingthosehighpriceshavetheirmeansof
saving，orofpurchasinglabour，reducedinanequaldegree;and
itisamatterofaccidentwhethertheonealterationorthe
otherwillhavethegreatesteffectonthelabourmarket。Wages
willprobablybetemporarilyhigherintheemploymentinwhich
priceshaverisen，andsomewhatlowerinotheremployments:in
whichcase，whilethefirsthalfofthephenomenonexcites
notice，theotherisgenerallyoverlooked，orifobserved，isnot
ascribedtothecausewhichreallyproducedit。Norwillthe
partialriseofwageslastlong:forthoughthedealersinthat
oneemploymentgainmore，itdoesnotfollowthatthereisroom
toemployagreateramountofsavingsintheirownbusiness:
theirincreasingcapitalwillprobablyflowoverintoother
employments，andtherecounterbalancethediminutionpreviously
madeinthedemandforlabourbythediminishedsavingsofother
classes。
Anotheropinionoftenmaintainedis，thatwages（meaningof
coursemoneywages）varywiththepriceoffood;risingwhenit
rises，andfallingwhenitfalls。Thisopinionis，Iconceive，
onlypartiallytrue;andinsofarastrue，innowayaffectsthe
dependenceofwagesontheproportionbetweencapitalandlabour:
sincethepriceoffood，whenitaffectswagesatall，affects
themthroughthatlaw。Dearorcheapfood，causedbyvarietyof
seasons，doesnotaffectwages（unlesstheyareartificially
adjustedtoitbylaworcharity）:orrather，ithassome
tendencytoaffecttheminthecontrarywaytothatsupposed;
sinceintimesofscarcitypeoplegenerallycompetemore
violentlyforemployment，andlowerthelabourmarketagainst
themselves。Butdearnessorcheapnessoffood，whenofa
permanentcharacter，andcapableofbeingcalculatedon
beforehand，mayaffectwages。Inthefirstplace，ifthe
labourershave，asisoftenthecase，nomorethanenoughtokeep
theminworkingcondition，andenablethembarelytosupportthe
ordinarynumberofchildren，itfollowsthatiffoodgrows
permanentlydear。erwithoutariseofwages，agreaternumberof
thechildrenwillprematurelydie;andthuswageswillultimately
behigher，butonlybecausethenumberofpeoplewillbesmaller，
thaniffoodhadremainedcheap。But，secondly，eventhoughwages
werehighenoughtoadmitoffood’sbecomingmorecostlywithout
deprivingthelabourersandtheirfamiliesofnecessaries;though
theycouldbear，physicallyspeaking，tobeworseoff，perhaps
theywouldnotconsenttobeso。Theymighthavehabitsof
comfortwhichweretothemasnecessaries，andsoonerthanforego
which，theywouldputanadditionalrestraintontheirpowerof
multiplication;sothatwageswouldrise，notbyincreaseof
deathsbutbydiminutionofbirths。Inthesecases，then，wages
doadaptthemselvestothepriceoffood，thoughafteran
intervalofalmostageneration。Mr。Ricardoconsidersthesetwo
casestocomprehendallcases。Heassume，thatthereis
everywhereaminimumrateofwages:eitherthelowestwithwhich
itisphysicallypossibletokeepupthepopulation，orthe
lowestwithwhichthepeoplewillchoosetodoso。Tothis
minimumheassumesthatthegeneralrateofwagesalwaystends;
thattheycanneverbelower，beyondthelengthoftimerequired
foradiminishedrateofincreasetomakeitselffelt，andcan
neverlongcontinuehigher。Thisassumptioncontainssufficient
truthtorenderitadmissibleforthepurposesofabstract
science;andtheconclusionwhichMr。Ricardodrawsfromit，
namely，thatwagesinthelongrunriseandfallwiththe
permanentpriceoffood，is，likealmostallhisconclusions，
truehypothetically，thatis，grantingthesuppositionsfrom
whichhesetsout。Butintheapplicationtopractice，itis
necessarytoconsiderthattheminimumofwhichhespeaks，
especiallywhenitisnotaphysical，butwhatmaybetermeda
moralminimum，isitselfliabletovary。Ifwageswerepreviously
sohighthattheycouldbearreduction，towhichtheobstaclewas
ahighstandardofcomforthabitualamongthelabourers，arise
inthepriceoffood，oranyotherdisadvantageouschangein
theircircumstances，mayoperateintwoways:itmaycorrect
itselfbyariseofwagesbroughtaboutthroughagradualeffect
ontheprudentialchecktopopulation;oritmaypermanently
lowerthestandardoflivingoftheclass，incasetheirprevious
habitsinrespectofpopulationprovestrongerthantheir
previoushabitsinrespectofcomfort。Inthatcasetheinjury
donetothemwillbepermanent，andtheirdeterioratedcondition
willbecomeanewminimum，tendingtoperpetuateitselfasthe
moreampleminimumdidbefore。Itistobefearedthatofthetwo
modesinwhichthecausemayoperate，thelastisthemost
frequent，oratalleventssufficientlyso，torenderall
propositionsascribingaself—repairingqualitytothecalamities
whichbefalthelabouringclasses，practicallyofnovalidity。
Thereisconsiderableevidencethatthecircumstancesofthe
agriculturallabourersinEnglandhavemorethanonceinour
historysustainedgreatpermanentdeterioration，fromcauses
whichoperatedbydiminishingthedemandforlabour，andwhich，
ifpopulationhadexerciseditspowerofself—adjustmentin
obediencetothepreviousstandardofcomfort，couldonlyhave
hadatemporaryeffect:butunhappilythepovertyinwhichthe
classwasplungedduringalongseriesofyearsbroughtthat
previousstandardintodisuse;andthenextgeneration，growing
upwithouthavingpossessedthosepristinecomforts，multiplied
inturnwithoutanyattempttoretrievethem。（1*）
Theconversecaseoccurwhen，byimprovementsinagriculture，
therepealofcornlaws，orothersuchcauses，thenecessariesof
thelabourersarecheapened，andtheyareenabled，withthesame
wages，tocommandgreatercomfortsthanbefore。Wageswillnot
fallimmediately;itisevenpossiblethattheymayrise;but
theywillfallatlast，soastoleavethelabourersnobetter
offthanbefore，unlessduringthisintervalofprosperitythe
standardofcomfortregardedasindispensablebytheclass，is
permanentlyraised。Unfortunatelythissalutaryeffectisbyno
meanstobecountedupon;itisamuchmoredifficultthingto
raise，thantolower，thescaleoflivingwhichthelabourerwill
considerasmoreindispensablethanmarryingandhavingafamily。
Iftheycontentthemselveswithenjoyingthegreatercomfort
whileitlasts，butdonotlearntorequireit，theywillpeople
downtotheiroldscaleofliving。Iffrompovertytheirchildren
hadpreviouslybeeninsufficientlyfedorimproperlynursed，a
greaternumberwillnowbereared，andthecompetitionofthese，
whentheygrowup，willdepresswages，probablyinfull
proportiontothegreatercheapnessoffood。Iftheeffectisnot
producedinthismode，itwillbeproducedbyearlierandmore
numerousmarriages，orbyanincreasednumberofbirthstoa
marriage。accordingtoallexperience，agreatincrease
invariablytakesplaceinthenumberofmarriages，inseasonsof
cheapfoodandfullemployment。Icannot，therefore，agreeinthe
importancesooftenattachedtotherepealofthecornlaws，
consideredmerelyasalabourers’question，ortoanyofthe
schemes，ofwhichsomeoneorotherisatalltimesinvogue，for
makingthelabourersaverylittlebetteroff。Thingswhichonly
affectthemaverylittle，makenopermanentimpressionupon
theirhabitsandrequirements，andtheysoonslidebackinto
theirformerstate。Toproducepermanentadvantage，thetemporary
causeoperatinguponthemmustbesufficienttomakeagreat
changeintheircondition—achangesuchaswillbefeltformany
years，notwithstandinganystimuluswhichitmaygiveduringone
generationtotheincreaseofpeople。When，indeed，the
improvementisofthissignalcharacter，andagenerationgrows
upwhichhasalwaysbeenusedtoanimprovedscaleofcomfort，
thehabitsofthisnewgenerationinrespecttopopulationbecome
formeduponahigherminimum，andtheimprovementintheir
conditionbecomespermanent。Ofcasesinpoint，themost
remarkableisFranceaftertheRevolution。Themajorityofthe
populationbeingsuddenlyraisedfrommisery，toindependenceand
comparativecomfort;theimmediateeffectwasthatpopulation，
notwithstandingthedestructivewarsoftheperiod，started
forwardwithunexampledrapidity，partlybecauseimproved
circumstancesenabledmanychildrentoberearedwhowould
otherwisehavedied，andpartlyfromincreaseofbirths。The
succeedinggenerationhowevergrewupwithhabitsconsiderably
altered;andthoughthecountrywasneverbeforeinsoprosperous
astate，theannualnumberofbirthsisnownearly
stationary，（2*）andtheincreaseofpopulationextremely
slow。（3*）
3。Wagesdepend，then，ontheproportionbetweenthenumber
ofthelabouringpopulation，andthecapitalorotherfunds
devotedtothepurchaseoflabour。wewillsay，forshortness，
thecapital。Ifwagesarehigheratonetimeorplacethanat
another，ifthesubsistenceandcomfortoftheclassofhired
labourersaremoreample，itisfornootherreasonthanbecause
capitalbearsagreaterproportiontopopulation。Itisnotthe
absoluteamountofaccumulationorofproduction，thatisof
importancetothelabouringclass;itisnottheamountevenof
thefundsdestinedfordistributionamongthelabourers:itis
theproportionbetweenthosefundsandthenumbersamongwhom
theyareshared。Theconditionoftheclasscanbebetteredinno
otherwaythanbyalteringthatproportiontotheiradvantage;
andeveryschemefortheirbenefit，whichdoesnotproceedon
thisasitsfoundation，is，forallpermanentpurposes，a
delusion。
IncountrieslikeNorthAmericaandtheAustraliancolonies，
wheretheknowledgeandartsofcivilizedlife，andahigh
effectivedesireofaccumulation，co—existwithaboundless
extentofunoccupiedland，thegrowthofcapitaleasilykeeps
pacewiththeutmostpossibleincreaseofpopulation，andis
chieflyretardedbytheimpracticabilityofobtaininglabourers
enough。All，therefore，whocanpossiblybeborn，canfind
employmentwithoutoverstockingthemarket:everylabouring
familyenjoysinabundancethenecessaries，manyofthecomforts，
andsomeoftheluxuriesoflife;and，unlessincaseof
individualmisconduct，oractualinabilitytowork，povertydoes
not，anddependenceneednot，exist。Asimilaradvantage，though
inalessdegree，isoccasionallyenjoyedbysomespecialclass
oflabourersinoldcountries，fromanextraordinarilyrapid
growth，notofcapitalgenerally，butofthecapitalemployedin
aparticularoccupation。Sogigantichasbeentheprogressofthe
cottonmanufacturesincetheinventionsofWattandArkwright，
thatthecapitalengagedinithasprobablyquadrupledinthe
timewhichpopulationrequiresfordoubling。While，therefore，it
hasattractedfromotheremploymentsnearlyallthehandswhich
geographicalcircumstancesandthehabitsorinclinationsofthe
peoplerenderedavailable;andwhilethedemanditcreatedfor
infantlabourhasenlistedtheimmediatepecuniaryinterestof
theoperativesinfavourofpromoting，insteadofrestraining，
theincreaseofpopulation;neverthelesswagesinthegreatseats
ofthemanufacturearegenerallysohigh，thatthecollective
earningsofafamilyamounts，onanaverageofyears，toavery
satisfactorysum;andthereis，asyet，nosignofpermanent
decrease，whiletheeffecthasalsobeenfeltinraisingthe
generalstandardofagriculturalwagesinthecountiesadjoining。
Butthosecircumstancesofacountry，orofanoccupation，in
whichpopulationcanwithimpunityincreaseatitsutmostrate，
arerare，andtransitory。Veryfewarethecountriespresenting
theneedfulunionofconditions。Eithertheindustrialartsare
backwardandstationary，andcapitalthereforeincreasesslowly;
ortheeffectivedesireofaccumulationbeinglow，theincrease
soonreachesitslimit;or，eventhoughboththeseelementsare
attheirhighestknowndegree，theincreaseofcapitalis
checked，becausethereisnotfreshlandtoberesortedto，ofas
goodqualityasthatalreadyoccupied。Thoughcapitalshouldfor
atimedoubleitselfsimultaneouslywithpopulation，ifallthis
capitalandpopulationaretofindemploymentonthesameland，
theycannotwithoutanunexampledsuccessionofagricultural
inventionscontinuedoublingtheproduce;therefore，ifwagesdo
notfall，profitsmust;andwhenprofitsfall，increaseof
capitalisslackened。Besides，evenifwagesdidnotfall，the
priceoffood（aswillbeshownmorefullyhereafter）wouldin
thesecircumstancesnecessarilyrise;whichisequivalenttoa
fallofwages。
Except，therefore，intheverypeculiarcaseswhichIhave
justnoticed，ofwhichtheonlyoneofanypracticalimportance
isthatofanewcolony，oracountryincircumstancesequivalent
toit;itisimpossiblethatpopulationshouldincreaseatits
utmostratewithoutloweringwages。Norwillthefallbestopped
atanypoint，shortofthatwhicheitherbyitsphysicalorits
moraloperation，checkstheincreaseofpopulation。Innoold
country，therefore，doespopulationincreaseatanythinglikeits
utmostrate;inmost，ataverymoderaterate:insomecountries，
notatall。Thesefactsareonlytobeaccountedforintwoways。
Eitherthewholenumberofbirthswhichnatureadmitsof，and
whichhappeninsomecircumstances，donottakeplace;orifthey
do，alargeproportionofthosewhoareborn，die。The
retardationofincreaseresultseitherfrommortalityor
prudence;fromMr。Malthus’spositive，orfromhispreventive
check:andoneortheotherofthesemustanddoesexist，and
verypowerfullytoo，inalloldsocieties。Whereverpopulationis
notkeptdownbytheprudenceeitherofindividualsorofthe
state，itiskeptdownbystarvationordisease。
Mr。Malthushastakengreatpainstoascertain，foralmost
everycountryintheworld，whichofthesechecksitisthat
operates;andtheevidencewhichhecollectedonthesubject，in
hisEssayonPopulation，mayevennowbereadwithadvantage。
ThroughoutAsia，andformerlyinmostEuropeancountriesinwhich
thelabouringclasseswerenotinpersonalbondage，thereis，or
was，norestrainerofpopulationbutdeath。Themortalitywasnot
alwaystheresultofpoverty:muchofitproceededfromunskilful
andcarelessmanagementofchildren，fromuncleanlyandotherwise
unhealthyhabitsoflifeamongtheadultpopulation，andfromthe
almostperiodicaloccurrenceofdestructiveepidemics。Throughout
Europethesecausesofshortenedlifehavemuchdiminished，but
theyhavenotceasedtoexist。Untilaperiodnotveryremote，
hardyanyofourlargetownskeptupitspopulation，
independentlyofthestreamalwaysflowingintothemfromthe
ruraldistricts:thiswasstilltrueofLiverpooluntilvery
recently;andeveninLondon，themortalityislarger，andthe
averagedurationoflifeshorter，thaninruraldistrictswhere
thereismuchgreaterpoverty。InIreland，epidemicfevers，and
deathsfromtheexhaustionoftheconstitutionbyinsufficient
nutriment，havealwaysaccompaniedeventhemostmoderate
deficiencyofthepotatocrop。Nevertheless，itcannotnowbe
saidthatinanypartofEurope，populationisprincipallykept
downbydisease，stilllessbystarvation，eitherinadirector
inanindirectform。Theagencybywhichitislimitedischiefly
preventive，not（inthelanguageofMr。Malthus）positive。But
thepreventiveremedyseldom，Ibelieve，consistsintheunaided
operationofprudentialmotivesonaclasswhollyormainly
composedoflabourersforhire，andlookingforwardtonoother
lot。InEngland，forexample，Imuchdoubtifthegeneralityof
agriculturallabourerspractiseanyprudentialrestraint
whatever。Theygenerallymarryasearly，andhaveasmany
childrentoamarriage，astheywouldorcoulddoiftheywere
settlersintheUnitedStates。Duringthegenerationwhich
precededtheenactmentofthepresentPoorLaw，theyreceivedthe
mostdirectencouragementtothissortofimprovidence:beingnot
onlyassuredofsupport，oneasyterms，wheneveroutof
employment，but，evenwheninemployment，verycommonlyreceiving
fromtheparishaweeklyallowanceproportionedtotheirnumber
ofchildren;andthemarriedwithlargefamiliesbeingalways，
fromashort—sightedeconomy，employedinpreferencetothe
unmarried;whichlastpremiumonpopulationstillexists。Under
suchprompting，therurallabourersacquiredhabitsof
recklessness，whicharesocongenialtotheuncultivatedmind
thatinwhatevermannerproduced，theyingenerallongsurvive
theirimmediatecauses。Therearesomanynewelementsatworkin
society，eveninthosedeeperstratawhichareinaccessibleto
themeremovementsonthesurface，thatitishazardoustoaffirm
anythingpositiveonthementalstateorpracticalimpulsesof
classesandbodiesofmen，whenthesameassertionmaybetrue
to—day，andmayrequiregreatmodificationinafewyearstime。
Itdoes，however，seem，thatiftherateofincreaseof
populationdependedsolelyontheagriculturallabourers，it
would，asfarasdependentonbirths，andunlessrepressedby
deaths，beasrapidinthesoutherncountiesofEnglandasin
America。Therestrainingprincipleliesintheverygreat
proportionofthepopulationcomposedofthemiddleclassesand
theskilledartizans，whointhiscountryalmostequalinnumber
thecommonlabourers，andonwhomprudentialmotivesdo，ina
considerabledegree，operate。