3。Nevertheless，Idonotbelievethatasthingsareactually
transacted，improvementsinproductionareoften，ifever，
injurious，eventemporarily，tothelabouringclassesinthe
aggregate。Theywouldbesoiftheytookplacesuddenlytoa
greatamount，becausemuchofthecapitalsunkmustnecessarily
inthatcasebeprovidedfromfundsalreadyemployedas
circulatingcapital。Butimprovementsarealwaysintroducedvery
gradually，andareseldomornevermadebywithdrawing
circulatingcapitalfromactualproduction，butaremadebythe
employmentoftheannualincrease。Therearefewifanyexamples
ofagreatincreaseoffixedcapital，atatimeandplacewhere
circulatingcapitalwasnotrapidlyincreasinglikewise。Itis
notinpoororbackwardcountriesthatgreatandcostly
improvementsinproductionaremade。Tosinkcapitalinlandfor
apermanentreturn——tointroduceexpensivemachinery——are
actsinvolvingimmediatesacrificefordistantobjects;and
indicate，inthefirstplace，tolerablycompletesecurityof
property;inthesecond，considerableactivityofindustrial
enterprise;andinthethird，ahighstandardofwhathasbeen
calledthe"effectivedesireofaccumulation:"whichthreethings
aretheelementsofasocietyrapidlyprogressiveinitsamount
ofcapital。Although，therefore，thelabouringclassesmust
suffer，notonlyiftheincreaseoffixedcapitaltakesplaceat
theexpenseofcirculating，butevenifitissolargeandrapid
astoretardthatordinaryincreasetowhichthegrowthof
populationhashabituallyadapteditself;yet，inpointoffact，
thisisveryunlikelytohappen，sincethereisprobablyno
countrywhosefixedcapitalincreasesinaratiomorethan
proportionaltoitscirculating。Ifthewholeoftherailways
which，duringthespeculativemadnessof1845，obtainedthe
sanctionofParliament，hadbeenconstructedinthetimesfixed
forthecompletionofeach，thisimprobablecontingencywould，
mostlikely，havebeenrealized;butthisverycasehasafforded
astrikingexampleofthedifficultieswhichopposethediversion
intonewchannels，ofanyconsiderableportionofthecapital
thatsuppliestheold:difficultiesgenerallymuchmorethan
sufficienttoprevententerprisesthatinvolvethesinkingof
capital，fromextendingthemselveswithsuchrapidityasto
impairthesourcesoftheexistingemploymentforlabour。
Totheseconsiderationsmustbeadded，thatevenif
improvementsdidforatimedecreasetheaggregateproduceand
thecirculatingcapitalofthecommunity，theywouldnottheless
tendinthelongruntoaugmentboth。Theyincreasethereturnto
capital;andofthisincreasethebenefitmustnecessarilyaccrue
eithertothecapitalistingreaterprofits，ortothecustomer
indiminishedprices;affording，ineithercase，anaugmented
fundfromwhichaccumulationmaybemade，whileenlargedprofits
alsoholdoutanincreasedinducementtoaccumulation。Inthe
casewebeforeselected，inwhichtheimmediateresultofthe
improvementwastodiminishthegrossproducefromtwothousand
fourhundredquarterstoonethousandfivehundred，yetthe
profitofthecapitalistbeingnowfivehundredquartersinstead
offourhundred，theextraonehundredquarters，ifregularly
saved，wouldinafewyearsreplacetheonethousandquarters
subtractedfromhiscirculatingcapital。Nowtheextensionof
businesswhichalmostcertainlyfollowsinanydepartmentin
whichanimprovementhasbeenmade，affordsastronginducement
tothoseengagedinittoaddtotheircapital;andhence，atthe
slowpaceatwhichimprovementsareusuallyintroduced，agreat
partofthecapitalwhichtheimprovementultimatelyabsorbs，is
drawnfromtheincreasedprofitsandincreasedsavingswhichit
hasitselfcalledforth。
Thistendencyofimprovementsinproductiontocause
increasedaccumulation，andtherebyultimatelytoincreasethe
grossproduce，eveniftemporarilydiminishingit，willassumea
stillmoredecidedcharacterifit，shouldappearthatthereare
assignablelimitsbothtotheaccumulationofcapital，andtothe
increaseofproductionfromtheland，whichlimitsonceattained，
allfurtherincreaseofproducemuststop;butthatimprovements
inproduction，whatevermaybetheirothereffects，tendtothrow
oneorbothoftheselimitsfartheroff。Now，thesearetruths
whichwillappearintheclearestlightinasubsequentstageof
ourinvestigation。Itwillbeseen，thatthequantityofcapital
whichwill，orevenwhichcan，beaccumulatedinanycountry，and
theamountofgrossproducewhichwill，orevenwhichcan，be
raised，bearaproportiontothestateoftheartsofproduction
thereexisting;andthateveryimprovement，evenifforthetime
itdiminishthecirculatingcapitalandthegrossproduce，
ultimatelymakesroomforalargeramountofboth，thancould
possiblyhaveexistedotherwise。Itisthiswhichisthe
conclusiveanswertotheobjectionsagainstmachinery;andthe
proofthencearisingoftheultimatebenefittolabourersof
mechanicalinventionsevenintheexistingstateofsociety，will
hereafterbeseentobeconclusive。（3*）Butthisdoesnot
dischargegovernmentsfromtheobligationofalleviating，andif
possiblepreventing，theevilsofwhichthissourceofultimate
benefitisormaybeproductivetoanexistinggeneration。Ifthe
sinkingorfixingofcapitalinmachineryorusefulworkswere
evertoproceedatsuchapaceastoimpairmateriallythefunds
forthemaintenanceoflabour，itwouldbeincumbenton
legislatorstotakemeasuresformoderatingitsrapidity:and
sinceimprovementswhichdonotdiminishemploymentonthewhole，
almostalwaysthrowsomeparticularclassoflabourersoutofit，
therecannotbeamorelegitimateobjectofthelegislator’scare
thantheinterestsofthosewhoarethussacrificedtothegains
oftheirfellow—citizensandofposterity。
Toreturntothetheoreticaldistinctionbetweenfixedand
circulatingcapital。Sinceallwealthwhichisdestinedtobe
employedforreproductioncomeswithinthedesignationof
capital，therearepartsofcapitalwhichdonotagreewiththe
definitionofeitherspeciesofit;forinstance，thestockof
finishedgoodswhichamanufacturerordealeratanytime
possessesunsoldinhiswarehouses。Butthis，thoughcapitalas
toitsdestination，isnotyetcapitalinactualexercise。itis
notengagedinproduction，buthasfirsttohesoldorexchanged，
thatis，convertedintoanequivalentvalueofsomeother
commodities;andthereforeisnotyeteitherfixedorcirculating
capital;butwillbecomeeitheroneortheother，orbe
eventuallydividedbetweenthem。Withtheproceedsofhis
finishedgoods，amanufacturerwillpartlypayhiswork—people，
partlyreplenishhisstockofthematerialsofhismanufacture，
andpartlyprovidenewbuildingsandmachinery，orrepairthe
old;buthowmuchwillbedevotedtoonepurpose，andhowmuchto
another，dependsonthenatureofthemanufacture，andthe
requirementsoftheparticularmoment。
Itshouldbeobservedfurther，thattheportionofcapital
consumedintheformofseedormaterial，though，unlikefixed
capital，itrequirestobeatoncereplacedfromthegross
produce，standsyetinthesamerelationtotheemploymentof
labour，asfixedcapitaldoes。Whatisexpendedinmaterialsis
asmuchwithdrawnfromthemaintenanceandremunerationof
labourers，aswhatisfixedinmachinery;andifcapitalnow
expendedinwagesweredivertedtotheprovidingofmaterials，
theeffectonthelabourerswouldbeasprejudicialasifitwere
convertedintofixedcapital。This，however，isakindofchange
whichseldom，ifever，takesplace。Thetendencyofimprovements
inproductionisalwaystoeconomize，nevertoincrease，the
expenditureofseedormaterialforagivenproduce;andthe
interestofthelabourershasnodetrimenttoapprehendfromthis
source。
NOTES:
1。Infra，bookii。chap。xvi。OnRent。
2。TheclearingawayofthesmallfarmersintheNorthof
Scotland，withinthepresentcentury，was，however，acaseofit;
andIreland，sincethepotatofamineandtherepealofthecorn
laws，isanother。Theremarkabledecreasewhichhaslately
attractednoticeinthegrossproduceofIrishagriculture，is，
toallappearance，partlyattributabletothediversionofland
frommaintaininghumanlabourerstofeedingcattle;anditcould
nothavetakenplacewithouttheremovalofalargepartofthe
Irishpopulationbyemigrationordeath。Wehavethustworecent
instances，inwhichwhatwasregardedasanagricultural
improvement，hasdiminishedthepowerofthecountrytosupport
itspopulation。Theeffect，however，ofalltheimprovementsdue
tomodernscienceistoincrease，oratallevents，notto
diminish，thegrossproduce。
3。Infra，bookiv。chap。v。
ThePrinciplesofPoliticalEconomy
byJohnStuartMill
Book1，Chapter7
OnWhatDependstheDegreeofProductivenessofProductiveAgents
1。Wehaveconcludedourgeneralsurveyoftherequisitesof
production。Wehavefoundthattheymaybereducedtothree:
labour，capital，andthematerialsandmotiveforcesaffordedby
nature。Ofthese，labourandtherawmaterialoftheglobeare
primaryandindispensable。Naturalmotivepowersmaybecalledin
totheassistanceoflabour，andareahelp，butnotan
essential，ofproduction。Theremainingrequisite，capital，is
itselftheproductoflabour:itsinstrumentalityinproduction
istherefore，inreality，thatoflabourinanshape。Itdoesnot
thelessrequiretobespecifiedseparately。Aprevious
applicationoflabourtoproducethecapitalrequiredfor
consumptionduringthework，isnolessessentialthanthe
applicationoflabourtotheworkitself。Ofcapital，again，one，
andbyfarthelargest，portion，conducestoproductiononlyby
sustaininginexistencethelabourwhichproduces:theremainder，
namelytheinstrumentsandmaterials，contributetoitdirectly，
inthesamemannerwithnaturalagents，andthematerials
suppliedbynature。
Wenowadvancetothesecondgreatquestioninpolitical
economy;onwhatthedegreeofproductivenessoftheseagents
depends。Foritisevidentthattheirproductiveefficacyvaries
greatlyatvarioustimesandplaces。Withthesamepopulationand
extentofterritory，somecountrieshaveamuchlageramountof
productionthanothers，andthesamecountryatonetimea
greateramountthanitselfatanother。CompareEnglandeither
withasimilarextentofterritoryinRussia，orwithanequal
populationofRussians。CompareEnglandnowwithEnglandinthe
MiddleAges;Sicily，NorthernAfrica，orSyriaatpresent，with
thesamecountriesatthetimeoftheirgreatestprosperity，
beforetheRomanConquest。Someofthecauseswhichcontributeto
thisdifferenceofproductivenessareobvious;othersnotsomuch
so。Weproceedtospecifyseveralofthem。
2。Themostevidentcauseofsuperiorproductivenessiswhat
arecallednaturaladvantages。Thesearevarious。Fertilityof
soilisoneoftheprincipal。Inthistherearegreatvarieties，
fromthedesertsofArabiatothealluvialplainsoftheGanges，
theNiger，andtheMississippi。Afavourableclimateisevenmore
importantthanarichsoil。Therearecountriescapableofbeing
inhabited，buttoocoldtobecompatiblewithagriculture。Their
inhabitantscannotpassbeyondthenomadicstate;theymustlive，
liketheLaplanders，bythedomesticationoftherein—deer，if
notbyhuntingorfishing，likethemiserableEsquimaux。There
arecountrieswhereoatswillripen，butnotwheat，suchasthe
NorthofScotland;otherswherewheatcanbegrown，butfrom
excessofmoistureandwantofsunshine，affordsbutaprecious
crop;asinpartsofIreland。Witheachadvancetowardsthe
south，or，intheEuropeantemperateregion，towardstheeast，
somenewbranchofagriculturebecomesfirstpossible，then
advantageous;thevine，maize，silk，figs，olives，rice，dates，
successivelypresentthemselves，untilwecometothesugar，
coffee，cotton，spices，&c。ofclimateswhichalsoafford，ofthe
morecommonagriculturalproducts，andwithonlyaslightdegree
ofcultivation，twooreventhreeharvestsinayear。Norisit
inagriculturealonethatdifferencesofclimateaeimportant。
Theirinfluenceisfeltinmanyotherbranchesofproduction:in
thedurabilityofallworkwhichisexposedtotheair;of
buildings，forexample。IfthetemplesofKarnacandLuxorhad
notbeeninjuredbymen，theymighthavesubsistedintheir
originalperfectionalmostforever，fortheinscriptionsonsome
ofthem，thoughanteriortoallauthentichistory，arefresher
thanisinourclimateaninscriptionfiftyyearsold:whileat
St。Petersburg，themostmassiveworks，solidlyexecutedin
granitehardlyagenerationago，arealready，astravellerstell
us，almostinastatetorequirereconstruction，fromalternate
exposuretosummerheatandintensefrost。Thesuperiorityofthe
wovenfabricsofSouthernEuropeoverthoseofEnglandinthe
richnessandclearnessofmanyoftheircolours，isascribedto
thesuperiorqualityoftheatmosphere，forwhichneitherthe
knowledgeofchemistsnortheskillofdyershasbeenableto
provide，inourhazyanddampclimate，acompleteequivalent。
Anotherpartoftheinfluenceofclimateconsistsin
lesseningthephysicalrequirementsoftheproducers。Inhot
regions，mankindcanexistincomfortwithlessperfecthousing，
lessclothing;fuel，thatabsolutenecessaryoflifeincold
climates，theycanalmostdispensewith，exceptforindustrial
uses。Theyalsorequirelessaliment;asexperiencehadproved，
longbeforetheoryhadaccountedforitbyascertainingthatmost
ofwhatweconsumeasfoodisnotrequiredfortheactual
nutritionoftheorgans，butforkeepinguptheanimalheat，and
forsupplyingthenecessarystimulustothevitalfunctions，
whichinhotclimatesisalmostsufficientlysuppliedbyairand
sunshine。Much，therefore，ofthelabourelsewhereexpendedto
procurethemerenecessariesoflife，notbeingrequired，more
remainsdisposableforitshigherusesanditsenjoyments;ifthe
characteroftheinhabitantsdoesnotratherinducethemtouse
uptheseadvantagesinover—population，orintheindulgenceof
repose。
Amongnaturaladvantages，besidessoilandclimate，mustbe
mentionedabundanceofmineralproductions，inconvenient
situations，andcapableofbeingworkedwithmoderatelabour。
Sucharethecoal—fieldsofGreatBritain，whichdosomuchto
compensateitsinhabitantsforthedisadvantagesofclimate;and
thescarcelyinferiorresourcepossessedbythiscountryandthe
UnitedStates，inacopioussupplyofaneasilyreducedironore，
atnogreatdepthbelowtheearth’ssurface，andinclose
proximitytocoaldepositsavailableforworkingit。Inmountain
andhilldistricts，theabundanceofnaturalwater—powermakes
considerableamendsfortheusuallyinferiorfertilityofthose
regions。Butperhapsagreateradvantagethanalltheseisa
maritimesituation，especiallywhenaccompaniedwithgoodnatural
harbours;and，nexttoit，greatnavigablerivers。These
advantagesconsistindeedwhollyinsavingofcostofcarriage。
Butfewwhohavenotconsideredthesubject，haveanyadequate
notionhowgreatanextentofeconomicaladvantagethis
comprises;nor，withouthavingconsideredtheinfluenceexercised
onproductionbyexchanges，andbywhatiscalledthedivisionof
labour，canitbefullyestimated。Soimportantisit，thatit
oftendoesmorethancounterbalancesterilityofsoil，andalmost
everyothernaturalinferiority;especiallyinthatearlystage
ofindustryinwhichlabourandsciencehavenotyetprovided
artificialmeansofcommunicationcapableofrivallingthe
natural。Intheancientworld，andintheMiddleages，themost
prosperouscommunitieswerenotthosewhichhadthelargest
territory，orthemostfertilesoil，butratherthosewhichhad
beenforcedbynaturalsterilitytomaketheutmostuseofa
convenientmaritimesituation;asathens，Tyre，Marseilles，
Venice，thefreecitiesontheBaltic，andthelike。
3。Somuchfornaturaladvantages;thevalueofwhich，
caeterisparibus，istooobvioustobeeverunderrated。But
experiencetestifiesthatnaturaladvantagesscarcelyeverdofor
acommunity，nomorethanfortuneandstationdoforan
individual，anythinglikewhatitliesintheirnature，orin
theircapacity，todo。Neithernownorinformerageshavethe
nationspossessingthebestclimateandsoil，beeneitherthe
richestorthemostpowerful;but（insofarasregardsthemass
ofthepeople）generallyamongthepoorest，though，inthemidst
ofpoverty，probablyonthewholethemostenjoying。Humanlife
inthosecountriescanbesupportedonsolittle，thatthepoor
seldomsufferfromanxiety，andinclimatesinwhichmere
existenceisapleasure，theluxurywhichtheypreferisthatof
repose。Energy，atthecallofpassion，theypossessin
abundance，butnotthatwhichismanifestedinsustainedand
perseveringlabour:andastheyseldomconcernthemselvesenough
aboutremoteobjectstoestablishgoodpoliticalinstitutions，
theincentivestoindustryarefurtherweakenedbyimperfect
protectionofitsfruits。Successfulproduction，likemostother
kindsofsuccess，dependsmoreonthequalitiesofthehuman
agents，thanonthecircumstancesinwhichtheywork:anditis
difficulties，notfacilities，thatnourishbodilyandmental
energy。accordinglythetribesofmankindwhohaveoverrunand
conqueredothers，andcompelledthemtolabourfortheirbenefit，
havebeenmostlyrearedamidsthardship。Theyhaveeitherbeen
bredintheforestsofnorthernclimates，orthedeficiencyof
naturalhardshipshasbeensupplied，asamongtheGreeksand
Romans，bytheartificialonesofarigidmilitarydiscipline。
Fromthetimewhenthecircumstancesofmodernsocietypermitted
thediscontinuanceofthatdiscipline，theSouthhasnolonger
producedconqueringnations;militaryvigour，aswellas
speculativethoughtandindustrialenergy，haveallhadtheir
principalseatsinthelessfavouredNorth。
Asthesecond，therefore，ofthecausesofsuperior
productiveness，wemayrankthegreaterenergyoflabour。Bythis
isnottobeunderstoodoccasional，butregularandhabitual
energy。Nooneundergoes，withoutmurmuring，agreateramountof
occasionalfatigueandhardship，orhashisbodilypowers，and
suchfacultiesofmindashepossesses，keptlongeratattheir
utmoststretch，thantheNorthAmerican;yethisindolence
proverbial，wheneverhehasabriefrespitefromthepressureof
presentwants。Individuals，ornations，donotdiffersomuchin
theeffortstheyareableandwillingtomakeunderstrong
immediateincentives，asintheircapacityofpresentexertion
foradistantobject;andinthethoroughnessoftheir
applicationtoworkonordinaryoccasions。Someamountofthese
qualitiesisanecessaryconditionofanygreatimprovementamong
mankind。Tocivilizeasavage，hemustbeinspiredwithnewwants
anddesires，evenifnotofaveryelevatedkind，providedthat
theirgratificationcanbeamotivetosteadyandregularbodily
andmentalexertion。IfthenegroesofJamaicaandDemerara，
aftertheiremancipation，hadcontentedthemselves，asitwas
predictedtheywoulddo，withthenecessariesoflife，and
abandonedalllabourbeyondthelittlewhichinatropical
climate，withathinpopulationandabundanceoftherichest
land，issufficienttosupportexistence，theywouldhavesunk
intoaconditionmorebarbarous，thoughlessunhappy，thantheir
previousstateofslavery。Themotivewhichwasmostreliedon
forinducingthemtoworkwastheirloveoffineclothesand
personalornaments。Noonewillstandupforthistasteasworthy
ofbeingcultivated，andinmostsocietiesitsindulgencetends
toimpoverishratherthantoenrich;butinthestateofmindof
thenegroesitmighthavebeentheonlyincentivethatcouldmake
themvoluntarilyundergosystematiclabour，andsoacquireor
maintainhabitsofvoluntaryindustrywhichmaybeconvertedto
morevaluableends。InEngland，itisnotthedesireofwealth
thatneedstobetaught，buttheuseofwealth，andappreciation
oftheobjectsofdesirewhichwealthcannotpurchase，orfor
attainingwhichitisnotrequired。Everyrealimprovementinthe
characteroftheEnglish，whetheritconsistingivingthem
higheraspirations，oronlyajusterestimateofthevalueof
theirpresentobjectsofdesire，mustnecessarilymoderatethe
ardouroftheirdevotiontothepursuitofwealth。Thereisno
need，however，thatitshoulddiminishthestrenuousand
businesslikeapplicationtothematterathand，whichisfoundin
thebestEnglishworkmen，andistheirmostvaluablequality。
Thedesirablemediumisonewhichmankindhavenotoften
knownhowtohit:whentheylabour，todoitwithalltheir
might，andespeciallywithalltheirmind;buttodevoteto
labour，formerepecuniarygain，fewerhoursintheday，fewer
daysintheyear，andfeweryearsoflife。
4。Thethirdelementwhichdeterminestheproductivenessof
thelabourofacommunity，istheskillandknowledgetherein
existing;whetheritbetheskillandknowledgeofthelabourers
themselves，orofthosewhodirecttheirlabour。Noillustration
isrequisitetoshowhowtheefficacyofindustryispromotedby
themanualdexterityofthosewhoperformmereroutineprocesses;
bytheintelligenceofthoseengagedinoperationsinwhichthe
mindhasaconsiderablepart;andbytheamountofknowledgeof
naturalpowersandofthepropertiesofobjects，whichisturned
tothepurposesofindustry。Thattheproductivenessofthe
labourofapeopleislimitedbytheirknowledgeoftheartsof
life，isself—evident;andthatanyprogressinthosearts，any
improvedapplicationoftheobjectsorpowersofnatureto
industrialuses，enablesthesamequantityandintensityof
labourtoraiseagreaterproduce。
Oneprincipaldepartmentoftheseimprovementsconsistsin
theinventionanduseoftoolsandmachinery。Themannerinwhich
theseservetoincreaseproductionandtoeconomizelabour，needs
notbespeciallydetailedinaworklikethepresent:itwillbe
foundexplainedandexemplified，inamanneratoncescientific
andpopular，inMr。Babbage’swell—known"EconomyofMachinery
andManufactures。"AnentirechapterofMr。Babbage’sbookis
composedofinstancesoftheefficacyofmachineryin"exerting
forcestoogreatforhumanpower，andexecutingoperationstoo
delicateforhumantouch。"Buttofindexamplesofworkwhich
couldnotbeperformedatallbyunassistedlabour，weneednot
gosofar。Withoutpumps，workedbysteam—enginesorotherwise，
thewaterwhichcollectsinminescouldnotinmanysituationsbe
gotridofatall，andthemines，afterbeingworkedtoalittle
depth，mustbeabandoned:withoutshipsorboatstheseacould
neverhavebeencrossed;withouttoolsofsomesort，treescould
notbecutdown，norrocksexcavated;aplough，oratleasta
hoe，isnecessarytoanytillageoftheground。Verysimpleand
rudeinstruments，however，aresufficienttorenderliterally
possiblemostworkshithertoexecutedbymankind。andsubsequent
inventionshavechieflyservedtoenabletheworktobeperformed
ingreaterperfection，and，aboveall，withagreatlydiminished
quantityoflabour:thelabourthussavedbecomingdisposablefor
otheremployments。
Theuseofmachineryisfarfrombeingtheonlymodeinwhich
theeffectsofknowledgeinaidingproductionareexemplified。In
agricultureandhorticulture，machineryisonlynowbeginningto
showthatitcandoanythingofimportance，beyondtheinvention
andprogressiveimprovementoftheploughandafewothersimple
instruments。Thegreatestagriculturalinventionshaveconsisted
inthedirectapplicationofmorejudiciousprocessestotheland
itself，andtotheplantsgrowingonit;suchasrotationof
crops，toavoidthenecessityofleavingthelandforoneseason
ineverytwoorthree;improvedmanures，torenovateits
fertilitywhenexhaustedbycropping;ploughinganddrainingthe
subsoilaswellasthesurface;conversionofbogsandmarshes
intocultivableland;suchmodesofpruning，andoftrainingand
proppingupplantsandtrees，asexperiencehasshowntodeserve
thepreference;inthecaseofthemoreexpensivecultures，
plantingtherootsorseedsfurtherapart，andmorecompletely
pulverizingthesoilinwhichtheyareplaced，&c。In
manufacturesandcommerce，someofthemostimportant
improvementsconsistineconomizingtime;inmakingthereturn
followmorespeedilyuponthelabourandoutlay。Thereareothers
ofwhichtheadvantageconsistsineconomyofmaterial。
5。Buttheeffectsoftheincreasedknowledgeofacommunity
inincreasingitswealth，needthelessillustrationastheyhave
becomefamiliartothemostuneducated，fromsuchconspicuous
instancesasrailwaysandsteam—ships。Athingnotyetsowell
understoodandrecognised，istheeconomicalvalueofthegeneral
diffusionofintelligenceamongthepeople。Thenumberofpersons
fittedtodirectandsuperintendanyindustrialenterprise，or
eventoexecuteanyprocesswhichcannotbereducedalmosttoan
affairofmemoryandroutine，isalwaysfarshortofthedemand;
asisevidentfromtheenormousdifferencebetweenthesalaries
paidtosuchpersons，andthewagesofordinarylabour。The
deficiencyofpracticalgoodsense，whichrendersthemajorityof
thelabouringclasssuchbadcalculators——whichmakes，for
instance，theirdomesticeconomysoimprovident，lax，and
irregular——mustdisqualifythemforanybutalowgradeof
intelligentlabour，andrendertheirindustryfarlessproductive
thanwithequalenergyitotherwisemightbe。Theimportance，
eveninthislimitedaspect，ofpopulareducation，iswellworthy
oftheattentionofpoliticians，especiallyinEngland;since
competentobservers，accustomedtoemploylabourersofvarious
nations，testifythatintheworkmenofothercountriesthey
oftenfindgreatintelligencewhollyapartfrominstruction，but
thatifanEnglishlabourerisanythingbutahewerofwoodanda
drawerofwater，heisindebtedforittoeducation，whichinhis
caseisalmostalwaysself—education。Mr。Escher，ofZurich（an
engineerandcottonmanufactureremployingnearlytwothousand
workingmenofmanydifferentnations），inhisevidenceannexed
totheReportofthePoorLawCommissioners，in1840，onthe
trainingofpauperchildren，givesacharacterofEnglishas
contrastedwithContinentalworkmen，whichallpersonsofsimilar
experiencewill，Ibelieve，confirm。
"TheItalians’quicknessofperceptionisshowninrapidly
comprehendinganynewdescriptionsoflabourputintotheir
hands，inapowerofquicklycomprehendingthemeaningoftheir
employer，ofadaptingthemselvestonewcircumstances，much
beyondwhatanyotherclasseshave。TheFrenchworkmenhavethe
likenaturalcharacteristics，onlyinasomewhatlowerdegree。
TheEnglish，Swiss，German，andDutchworkmen，wefind，haveall
muchslowernaturalcomprehension。Asworkmenonly，the
preferenceisundoubtedlyduetotheEnglish;because，aswefind
them，theyarealltrainedtospecialbranches，onwhichthey
havehadcomparativelysuperiortraining，andhaveconcentrated
alltheirthoughts。Asmenofbusinessorofgeneralusefulness，
andasmenwithwhomanemployerwouldbestliketobe
surrounded，Ishould，however，decidedlyprefertheSaxonsand
theSwiss，butmoreespeciallytheSaxons，becausetheyhavehad
averycarefulgeneraleducation，whichhasextendedtheir
capacitiesbeyondanyspecialemployment，andrenderedthemfit
totakeup，afterashortpreparation，anyemploymenttowhich
theymaybecalled。IfIhaveanEnglishworkmanengagedinthe
erectionofasteam—engine，hewillunderstandthat，andnothing
else;andforothercircumstancesorotherbranchesofmechanics，
howevercloselyallied，hewillbecomparativelyhelplessto
adapthimselftoallthecircumstancesthatmayarise，tomake
arrangementsforthem，andgivesoundadviceorwriteclear
statementsandlettersonhisworkinthevariousrelated
branchesofmechanics。"
Ontheconnexionbetweenmentalcultivationandmoral
trustworthinessinthelabouringclass，thesamewitnesssays，
"Thebettereducatedworkmen，wefind，aredistinguishedby
superiormoralhabitsineveryrespect。Inthefirstplace，they
areentirelysober;theyarediscreetintheirenjoyments，which
areofamorerationalandrefinedkind;theyhaveatastefor
muchbettersociety，whichtheyapproachrespectfully，and
consequentlyfindmuchreadieradmittancetoit;theycultivate
music;theyread;theyenjoythepleasuresofscenery，andmake
partiesforexcursionsintothecount;theyareeconomical，and
theireconomyextendsbeyondtheirownpursetothestockof
theirmaster;theyare，consequently，honestandtrustworthy。"
AndinanswertoaquestionrespectingtheEnglishworkmen，
"Whilstinrespecttotheworktowhichtheyhavebeenspecially
trainedtheyarethemostskilful，theyareinconductthemost
disorderly，debauched，andunruly，andleastrespectableand
trustworthyofanynationwhatsoeverwhomwehaveemployed;and
insayingthis，Iexpresstheexperienceofeverymanufactureron
theContinenttowhomIhavespoken，andespeciallyofthe
Englishmanufacturers，whomaketheloudestcomplaints。These
characteristicsofdepravitydonotapplytotheEnglishworkmen
whohavereceivedaneducation，butattachtotheothersinthe
degreeinwhichtheyareinwantofit。Whentheuneducated
Englishworkmenarereleasedfromthebondsofirondisciplinein
whichtheyhavebeenrestrainedbytheiremployersinEngland，
andaretreatedwiththeurbanityandfriendlyfeelingwhichthe
moreeducatedworkmenontheContinentexpectandreceivefrom
theiremployers，they，theEnglishworkmen，completelylosetheir
balance:theydonotunderstandtheirposition，andaftera
certaintimebecometotallyunmanageableanduseless。"*This
resultofobservationisborneoutbyexperienceinEngland
itself。Assoonasanyideaofequalityentersthemindofan
uneducatedEnglishworkingman，hisheadisturnedbyit。Whenhe
ceasestobeservile，hebecomesinsolent。
Themoralqualitiesofthelabourersarefullyasimportant
totheefficiencyandworthoftheirlabour，astheintellectual。
Independentlyoftheeffectsofintemperanceupontheirbodily
andmentalfaculties，andofflighty，unsteadyhabitsuponthe
energyandcontinuityoftheirwork（pointssoeasilyunderstood
asnottorequirebeinginsistedupon），itiswellworthyof
meditation，howmuchoftheaggregateeffectoftheirlabour
dependsontheirtrustworthiness。Allthelabournowexpendedin
watchingthattheyfulfiltheirengagement，orinverifyingthat
theyhavefulfilledit，issomuchwithdrawnfromthereal
businessofproduction，tobedevotedtoasubsidiaryfunction
renderedneedfulnotbythenecessityofthings，butbythe
dishonestyofmen。Norarethegreatestoutwardprecautionsmore
thanveryimperfectlyefficacious，where，asisnowalmost
invariablythecasewithhiredlabourers，theslightest
relaxationofvigilanceisanopportunityeagerlyseizedfor
eludingperformanceoftheircontract。Theadvantagetomankind
ofbeingabletotrustoneanother，penetratesintoeverycrevice
andcrannyofhumanlife:theeconomicalisperhapsthesmallest
partofit，yeteventhisiSincalculable。Toconsideronlythe
mostobviouspartofthewasteofwealthoccasionedtosocietyby
humanimprobity;thereisinallrichcommunitiesapredatory
population，wholivebypillagingoroverreachingotherpeople;
theirnumberscannotbeauthenticallyascertained，butonthe
lowestestimate，inacountrylikeEngland，itisverylarge。The
supportofthesepersonsisadirectburthenonthenational
industry。Thepolice，andthewholeapparatusofpunishment，and
ofcriminalandpartlyofciviljustice，areasecondburthen
renderednecessitybythefirst。Theexorbitantly—paidprofession
oflawyers，sofarastheirworkisnotcreatedbydefectsinthe
law，oftheirowncontriving，arerequiredandsupported
principallybythedishonestyofmankind。Asthestandardof
integrityinacommunityriseshigher，alltheseexpensesbecome
less。Butthispositivesavingwouldbefaroutweighedbythe
immenseincreaseintheproduceofaUkindsoflabour，andsaving
oftimeandexpenditure，whichwouldbeobtainedifthelabourers
honestlyperformedwhattheyundertake;andbytheincreased
spirit，thefeeingofpowerandconfidence，withwhichworksof
allsortswouldbeplannedandcarriedonbythosewhofeltthat
allwhoseaidwasrequiredwoulddotheirpartfaithfully
accordingtotheircontracts。Conjointactionispossiblejustin
proportionashumanbeingscanrelyoneachother。Thereare
countriesinEurope，offirst—rateindustrialcapabilities，where
themostseriousimpedimenttoconductingbusinessconcernsona
largescale，istherarityofpersonswhoaresupposedfittobe
trustedwiththereceiptandexpenditureoflargesumsofmoney。
Therearenationswhosecommoditiesarelookedshilyuponby
merchants，becausetheycannotdependonfindingthequalityof
thearticleconformabletothatofthesample。Suchshort—sighted
fraudsarefarfromunexampledinEnglishexports。Everyonehas
heardof"devil’sdust:"andamongotherinstancesgivenbyMr。
Babbage，isoneinwhichabranchofexporttradewasforalong
timeactuallystoppedbytheforgeriesandfraudswhichhad
occurredinit。Ontheotherhand，thesubstantialadvantage
derivedinbusinesstransactionsfromprovedtrustworthiness，is
notlessremarkablyexemplifiedinthesamework。"Atoneofour
largesttowns，salesandpurchasesonaveryextensivescaleare
madedailyinthecourseofbusinesswithoutanyoftheparties
everexchangingawrittendocument。"*Spreadoverayear’s
transactions，howgreatareturn，insavingoftime，trouble，and
expense，isbroughtintotheproducersanddealersofsucha
townfromtheirownintegrity。"Theinfluenceofestablished
characterinproducingconfidenceoperatedinaveryremarkable
manneratthetimeoftheexclusionofBritishmanufacturesfrom
theContinentduringthelastwar。Oneofourlargest
establishmentshadbeeninthehabitofdoingextensivebusiness
withahouseinthecentreofGermany;butontheclosingofthe
Continentalportsagainstourmanufactures，heavypenaltieswere
inflictedonallthosewhocontravenedtheBerlinandMilan
decrees。TheEnglishmanufacturercontinued，nevertheless，to
receiveorders，withdirectionshowtoconsignthem，and
appointmentsforthetimeandmodeofpayment，inletters，the
handwritingofwhichwasknowntohim，butwhichwerenever
signedexceptbytheChristiannameofoneofthefirm，andeven
insomeinstancestheywerewithoutanysignatureatall。These
orderswereexecuted，andinnoinstancewastheretheleast
irregularityinthepayments。"（1*）
6。Amongthesecondarycauseswhichdeterminethe
productivenessofproductiveagents，themostimportantis
Security。BysecurityImeanthecompletenessoftheprotection
whichsocietyaffordstoitsmembers。Thisconsistsofprotection
bythegovernment，andprotectionagainstthegovernment。The
latteristhemoreimportant。Whereapersonknowntopossess
anythingworthtakingaway，canexpectnothingbuttohaveit
tornfromhim，witheverycircumstanceoftyrannicalviolence，by
theagentsofarapaciousgovernment，itisnotlikelythatmany
willexertthemselvestoproducemuchmorethannecessaries。This
istheacknowledgedexplanationofthepovertyofmanyfertile
tractsofAsia，whichwereonceprosperousandpopulous。From
thistothedegreeofsecurityenjoyedinthebestgovernedparts
ofEurope，therearenumerousgradations。Inmanyprovincesof
France，beforetheRevolution，avicioussystemoftaxationon
theland，andstillmoretheabsenceofredressagainstthe
arbitraryexactionswhichweremadeundercolourofthetaxes，
renderedittheinterestofeverycultivatortoappearpoor，and
thereforetocultivatebadly。Theonlyinsecuritywhichis
altogetherparalysingtotheactiveenergiesofproducers，is
thatarisingfromthegovernment，orfrompersonsinvestedwith
itsauthority。Againstallotherdepredatorsthereisahopeof
defendingoneself。GreeceandtheGreekcoloniesintheancient
world。FlandersandItalyintheMiddleAges，bynomeansenjoyed
whatanyonewithmodernideaswouldcallsecurity:thestateof
societywasmostunsettledandturbulent;personandproperty
wereexposedtoathousanddangers。Buttheywerefreecountries;
theywereingeneralneitherarbitrarilyoppressed，nor
systematicallyplunderedbytheirgovernments。Againstother
enemiestheindividualenergywhichtheirinstitutionscalled
forth，enabledthemtomakesuccessfulresistance:theirlabour，
therefore，waseminentlyproductive，andtheirriches，whilethey
remainedfree，wereconstantlyontheincrease。TheRoman
despotism，puttinganendtowarsandinternalconflicts
throughouttheempire，relievedthesubjectpopulationfrommuch
oftheformerinsecurity。butbecauseitleftthemunderthe
grindingyokeofitsownrapacity，theybecameenervatedand
impoverished，untiltheywereaneasypreytobarbarousbutfree
invaders。Theywouldneitherfightnorlabour，becausetheywere
nolongersufferedtoenjoythatforwhichtheyfoughtand
laboured。
Muchofthesecurityofpersonandpropertyinmodernnations
istheeffectofmannersandopinionratherthanoflaw。There
are，orlatelywere，countriesinEuropewherethemonarchwas
nominallyabsolute，butwhere，fromtherestraintsimposedby
establishedusage，nosubjectfeltpracticallyinthesmallest
dangerofhavinghispossessionsarbitrarilyseizedora
contributionleviedonthembythegovernment。Theremust，
however，beinsuchgovernmentsmuchpettyplunderandother
tyrannybysubordinateagents，forwhichredressisnotobtained，
owingtothewantofpublicitywhichistheordinarycharacterof
absolutegovernments。InEnglandthepeoplearetolerablywell
protected，bothbyinstitutionsandmanners，againsttheagents
ofgovernment;but，forthesecuritytheyenjoyagainstother
evil—doers，theyareverylittleindebtedtotheirinstitutions。
Thelawscannotbesaidtoaffordprotectiontoproperty，when
theyafforditonlyatsuchacostasrenderssubmissionto
injuryingeneralthebettercalculation。Thesecurityof
propertyinEnglandisowing（exceptasregardsopenviolence）to
opinion，andthefearofexposure，muchmorethantothedirect
operationofthelawandthecourtsofjustice。
Independentlyofallimperfectioninthebulwarkswhich
societypurposelythrowsroundwhatitrecognisesasproperty，
therearevariousothermodesinwhichdefectiveinstitutions
impedetheemploymentoftheproductiveresourcesofacountryto
thebestadvantage。Weshallhaveoccasionfornoticingmanyof
theseintheprogressofoursubject。Itissufficienthereto
remark，thattheefficiencyofindustrymaybeexpectedtobe
great，inproportionasthefruitsofindustryareinsuredtothe
personexertingit:andthatallsocialarrangementsare
conducivetousefulexertion，accordingastheyprovidethatthe
rewardofeveryoneforhislabourshallbeproportionedasmuch
aspossibletothebenefitwhichitproduces。Alllawsorusages
whichfavouroneclassorsortofpersonstothedisadvantageof
others;whichchainuptheeffortsofanypartofthecommunity
inpursuitoftheirowngood，orstandbetweenthoseeffortsand
theirnaturalfruitsare（independentlyofallothergroundsof
condemnation）violationsofthefundamentalprinciplesof
economicalpolicy;tendingtomaketheaggregateproductive
powersofthecommunityproductiveinalessdegreethanthey
wouldotherwisebe。
NOTES:
1。SomeminorinstancesnoticedbyMr。Babbagemaybecitedin
furtherillustrationofthewasteoccasionedtosocietythrough
theinabilityofitsmemberstotrustoneanother。
"Thecosttothepurchaseristhepricehepaysforany
article，addedtothecostofverifyingthefactofitshaving
thatdegreeofgoodnessforwhichhecontracts。Insomecases，
thegoodnessofthearticleisevidentonmereinspection;andin
thosecasesthereisnotmuchdifferenceofpriceatdifferent
shops。Thegoodnessofloafsugar，forinstance，canbediscerned
almostataglance;andtheconsequenceis，thatthepriceisso
uniform，andtheprofituponitsosmall，thatnogrocerisat
allanxioustosellit;whilstontheotherhand，tea，ofwhich
itisexceedinglydifficulttojudge，andwhichcanbe
adulteratedbymixturesoastodeceivetheskillevenofa
practisedeye，hasagreatvarietyofdifferentprices，andis
thatarticlewhicheverygrocerismostanxioustoselltohis
customers。Thedifficultyandexpenseofverificatonareinsome
intancessogreat，astojustifythedeviationfrom
well—establishedprinciples。Thusitisageneralmaximthat
Governmentcanpurchaseanyarticleatacheaperratethanthat
atwhichtheycanmanufactureitthemselves。Butithas，
nevertheless，beenconsideredmoreeconomicaltobuildextensive
flour—mills（suchasthoseatDeptford），andtogrindtheirown
corn，thantoverifyeachsackofpurchasedflour，andtoemploy
personsindevisingmethodsofdetectingthenewmodesof
adulterationwhichmightdepriveanation，suchastheUnited
States，ofalargeexporttradeinflour。
Again:"Someyearssince，amodeofpreparingoldcloverand
trefoilseedsbyaprocesscalleddoctoringbecamesoprevalent
astoexcitetheattentionoftheHouseofCommons。Itappeared
inevidencebeforeaCommittee，thattheoldseedofthewhite
cloverwasdoctoredbyfirstwettingitslightly，andthendrying
itbythefumesofburningsulphur;andthattheredcloverseed
haditscolourimprovedbyshakingitinasackwithasmall
quantityofindigo;butthisbeingdetectedafteratime，the
doctorsthenusedapreparationoflogwood，finedbyalittle
copperas，andsometimesbyverdigris;thusatonceimprovingthe
appearanceoftheoldseed，anddiminishing，ifnotdestroying，
itsvegetativepower，alreadyenfeebledbyage。Supposingno
injuryhadresultedtogoodseedsoprepared，itwasprovedthat，
fromtheimprovedappearance，themarketpricewouldbeenhanced
bythisprocessfromfivetotwenty—fiveshillingsa
hundred—weight。Butthegreatestevilarosefromthecircumstance
oftheseprocessesrenderingoldandworthlessseedequalin
appearancetothebest。Onewitnesshadtriedsomedoctoredseed，
andfoundthatnotaboveonegraininahundredgrew，andthat
thosewhichdidvegetatediedawayafterwards;whilstabout
eightyorninetypercentofgoodseedusuallygrows。Theseedso
treatedwassoldtoretaildealersinthecountry，whoofcourse
endeavouredtopurchaseatthecheapestrate，andfromthemit
gotintothehandsoffarmers，neitheroftheseclassesbeing
capableofdistinguishingthefraudulentfromthegenuineseed。
Manycultivatorsinconsequencediminishedtheirconsumptionof
thearticles，andotherswereobligedtopayahigherprice
tothosewhohadskilltodistinguishthemixedseed，andwhohad
integrityandcharactertopreventthemfromdealingit。"
ThesamewriterstatesthatIrishflax，thoughinnatural
qualityinferiortonone，sells，ordidlatelysell，inthe
marketatapennytotwopenceperpoundlessthanforeignor
Britishflax;partofthedifferencearisingfromnegligencein
itspreparation，butpartfromthecausementionedinthe
evidenceofMr。Corry，manyyearsSecretarytotheIrishLinen
Board:"Theownersoftheflax，whoarealmostalwayspeoplein
thelowerclassesoflife，believethattheycanbestadvance
theirowninterestsbyimposingonthebuyers。Flaxbeingsoldby
weight，variousexpedientsareusedtoincreaseit;andevery
expedientisinjurious，particularlythedampingofit;avery
commonpractice，whichmakestheflaxafterwardsheat。Theinside
ofeverybundle（andthebundlesallvaryinbulk）isoftenfull
ofpeebles，ordirtofvariouskinds，toincreasetheweight。In
thisstateitispurchasedandexportedtoGreatBritain。"
ItwasgiveninevidencebeforeaCommitteeoftheHouseof
CommonsthatthelacetradeatNottinghamhadgreatlyfallenoff，
fromthemakingoffraudulentandbadarticles:that"akindof
lacecalledsingle—presswasmanufatured，"（IstillquoteMr。
Babbage，）"whichalthoughgoodtotheeye，becamenearlyspoiled
inwashingbytheslippingofthethreads;thatnotonepersonin
athousandcoulddistinguishthedifferencebetweensingle—press
anddouble—presslace;thatevenworkmenandmanufacturerswere
obligedtoemployamagnifying—glassforthatpurpose;andthat
inanothersimilararticle，calledwarp—lace，suchaidwas
essential。"
ThePrinciplesofPoliticalEconomy
byJohnStuartMill
Book1，Chapter8
OfCo—operation，ortheCombinationofLabour
1。Intheenumerationofthecircumstanceswhichpromotethe
productivenessoflabour，wehaveleftoneuntouched，which，
becauseofitsimportance，andofthemanytopicsofdiscussion
whichitinvolves，requirestobetreatedapart。Thisis，
co—operation，orthecombinedactionofnumbers。Ofthisgreat
aidtoproduction，asingledepartment，knownbythenameof
DivisionofLabour，hasengagedalargeshareoftheattentionof
politicaleconomists;mostdeservedlyindeed，buttothe
exclusionofothercasesandexemplificationsofthesame
comprehensivelaw。Mr。Wakefieldwas，Ibelieve，thefirstto
pointout，thatapartofthesubjecthad，withinjuriouseffect，
beenmistakenforthewhole;thatamorefundamentalprinciple
liesbeneaththatofthedivisionoflabour，andcomprehendsit。
Co—operation，heobserves，（1*）is"oftwodistinctkinds:
first，suchco—operationastakesplacewhenseveralpersonshelp
eachotherinthesameemployment;secondly，suchco—operationas
takesplacewhenseveralpersonshelpeachotherindifferent
employments。ThesemaybetermedSimpleCo—operationandComplex
Co—operation。
"Theadvantageofsimpleco—operationisillustratedbythe
caseoftwogreyhoundsrunningtogether，which，itissaid，will
killmoreharesthanfourgreyhoundsrunningseparately。Ina
vastnumberofsimpleoperationsperformedbyhumanexertion，it
isquiteobviousthattwomenworkingtogetherwilldomorethan
four，orfourtimesfourmen，eachofwhomshouldworkalone。In
theliftingofheavyweights，forexample，inthefellingof
trees，inthesawingoftimber，inthegatheringofmuchhayor
cornduringashortperiodoffineweather，indrainingalarge
extentoflandduringtheshortseasonwhensuchaworkmaybe
properlyconducted，inthepullingofropesonboardship，inthe
rowingoflargeboats，insomeminingoperations，intheerection
ofascaffoldingforbuilding，andinthebreakingofstonesfor
therepairofaroad，sothatthewholeoftheroadshallalways
bekeptingoodorder:inallthesesimpleoperations，and
thousandsmore，itisabsolutelynecessarythatmanypersons
shouldworktogether，atthesametime，inthesameplace，andin
thesameway。ThesavagesofNewHollandneverhelpeachother，
eveninthemostsimpleoperations;andtheirconditionishardly
superior，insomerespectsitisinferior，tothatofthewild
animalswhichtheynowandthencatch。Letanyoneimaginethat
thelabourersofEnglandshouldsuddenlydesistfromhelpingeach
otherinsimpleemployments，andhewillseeatoncethe
prodigiousadvantagesofsimpleco—operation。Inacountless
numberofemployments，theproduceoflabouris，uptoacertain
point，inproportiontosuchmutualassistanceamongstthe
workmen。Thisisthefirststepinsocialimprovement。"The
secondis，when"onebodyofmenhavingcombinedtheirlabourto
raisemorefoodthantheyrequire，anotherbodyofmenare
inducedtocombinetheirlabourforthepurposeofproducingmore
clothesthantheyrequire，andwiththosesurplusclothesbuying
thesurplusfoodoftheotherbodyoflabourers;while，ifboth
bodiestogetherhaveproducedmorefoodandclothesthanthey
bothrequire，bothbodiesobtain，bymeansofexchange，aproper
capitalforsettingmorelabourerstoworkintheirrespective
occupations。"Tosimpleco—operationisthussuperaddedwhatMr。
WakefieldtermsComplexCo—operation。Theoneisthecombination
ofseverallabourerstohelpeachotherinthesamesetof
operations;theotheristhecombinationofseverallabourersto
helponeanotherbyadivisionofoperations。