Astheaboveshows，weknowpracticallynothingdefiniteaboutthefamilyandothersocialgroupingsoftheanthropoidapes。theevidenceisflatlycontradictory。Whichisnottobewonderedat。Theevidencewithregardtosavagehumantribesiscontradictoryenough，requiringverycriticalexaminationandsifting。andapesocietiesarefarmoredifficulttoobservethanhuman。Forthepresent，therefore，wemustrejectanyconclusiondrawnfromsuchcompletelyunreliablereports。
ThesentencequotedfromEspinas，however，providesabetterstartingpoint。Amongthehigheranimalstheherdandthefamilyarenotcomplementarytooneanother，butantagonistic。Espinasshowsverywellhowthejealousyofthemalesduringthematingseasonloosensthetiesofeverysocialherdortemporarilybreaksitup。
Whenthefamilybondiscloseandexclusive，herdsformonlyinexceptionalcases。Whenontheotherhandfreesexualintercourseorpolygamyprevails，theherdcomesintobeingalmostspontaneously……Beforeaherdcanbeformed，familytiesmustbeloosenedandtheindividualmusthavebecomefreeagain。Thisisthereasonwhyorganizedflocksaresorarelyfoundamongbirds……
Wefindmoreorlessorganizedsocietiesamongmammals，however，preciselybecauseheretheindividualisnotmergedinthefamily……Initsfirstgrowth，therefore，thecommonfeelingoftheherdhasnogreaterenemythanthecommonfeelingofthefamily。Westateitwithouthesitation：onlybyabsorbingfamilieswhichhadundergonearadicalchangecouldasocialformhigherthanthefamilyhavedeveloped。atthesametime，thesefamiliesweretherebyenabledlatertoconstitutethemselvesafreshunderinfinitelymorefavorablecircumstances。[Espinas，op。cit。，quotedbyGiraud-Teulon，Originesdumariageetdelafamille，1884，pp。
518-20]。
Hereweseethatanimalsocietiesare，afterall，ofsomevaluefordrawingconclusionsabouthumansocieties。butthevalueisonlynegative。Sofarasourevidencegoes，thehighervertebratesknowonlytwoformsoffamily——polygynyorseparatecouples。eachformallowsonlyoneadultmale，onlyonehusband。Thejealousyofthemale，whichbothconsolidatesandisolatesthefamily，setstheanimalfamilyinoppositiontotheherd。Thejealousyofthemalespreventstheherd，thehighersocialform，fromcomingintoexistence，orweakensitscohesion，orbreaksitupduringthematingperiod。atbest，itattestsitsdevelopment。Thisaloneissufficientproofthatanimalfamiliesandprimitivehumansocietyareincompatible，andthatwhenprimitivemenwereworkingtheirwayupfromtheanimalcreation，theyeitherhadnofamilyatalloraformthatdoesnotoccuramonganimals。Insmallnumbers，ananimalsodefenselessasevolvingmanmightstrugglealongeveninconditionsofisolation，withnohighersocialgroupingthanthesinglemaleandfemalepair，suchasWestermarck，followingthereportsofhunters，attributestothegorillasandthechimpanzees。Forman’sdevelopmentbeyondtheleveloftheanimals，fortheachievementofthegreatestadvancenaturecanshow，somethingmorewasneeded：thepowerofdefenselackingtotheindividualhadtobemadegoodbytheunitedstrengthandco-operationoftheherd。Toexplainthetransitiontohumanityfromconditionssuchasthoseinwhichtheanthropoidapeslivetodaywouldbequiteimpossible。itlooksmuchmoreasiftheseapeshadstrayedoffthelineofevolutionandweregraduallydyingoutoratleastdegenerating。Thataloneissufficientgroundforrejectingallattemptsbasedonparallelsdrawnbetweenformsoffamilyandthoseofprimitiveman。Mutualtolerationamongtheadultmales，freedomfromjealousy，wasthefirstconditionfortheformationofthoselarger，permanentgroupsinwhichaloneanimalscouldbecomemen。Andwhat，infact，dowefindtobetheoldestandmostprimitiveformoffamilywhosehistoricalexistencewecanindisputablyproveandwhichinoneortwopartsoftheworldwecanstillstudytoday？Groupmarriage，theformoffamilyinwhichwholegroupsofmenandwholegroupsofwomenmutuallypossessoneanother，andwhichleaveslittleroomforjealousy。Andatalaterstageofdevelopmentwefindtheexceptionalformofpolyandry，whichpositivelyrevoltseveryjealousinstinctandisthereforeunknownamonganimals。Butasallknownformsofgroupmarriageareaccompaniedbysuchpeculiarlycomplicatedregulationsthattheynecessarilypointtoearlierandsimplerformsofsexualrelations，andthereforeinthelastresorttoaperiodofpromiscuousintercoursecorrespondingtothetransitionfromtheanimaltothehuman，thereferencestoanimalmarriagesonlybringusbacktotheverypointfromwhichweweretobeledawayforgoodandall。
What，then，doespromiscuoussexualintercoursereallymean？Itmeanstheabsenceofprohibitionsandrestrictionswhichareorhavebeeninforce。Wehavealreadyseenthebarrierofjealousygodown。Ifthereisonethingcertain，itisthatthefeelingofjealousydevelopsrelativelylate。Thesameistrueoftheconceptionofincest。Notonlywerebrotherandsisteroriginallymanandwife。sexualintercoursebetweenparentsandchildrenisstillpermittedamongmanypeoplestoday。BancroftTheNativeRacesofthePacificStatesofNorthAmerica，1875，Vol。I，testifiestoitamongtheKadiaksontheBehringStraits，theKadiaksnearAlaska，andtheTinnehintheinteriorofBritishNorthAmerica。LetourneaucompiledreportsofitamongtheChippewaIndians，theCucusinChile，theCaribs，theKarensinBurma。tosaynothingofthestoriestoldbytheoldGreeksandRomansabouttheParthians，Persians，Scythians，Huns，andsoon。
Beforeincestwasinvented——forincestisaninvention，andaveryvaluableone，too——sexualintercoursebetweenparentsandchildrendidnotarouseanymorerepulsionthansexualintercoursebetweenotherpersonsofdifferentgenerations，andthatoccurstodayeveninthemostphilistinecountrieswithoutexcitinganygreathorror。evenoldmaidsofoversixty，iftheyarerichenough，sometimesmarryyoungmenintheirthirties。Butifweconsiderthemostprimitiveknownformsoffamilyapartfromtheirconceptionsofincest——conceptionswhicharetotallydifferentfromoursandfrequentlyindirectcontradictiontothem-thentheformofsexualintercoursecanonlybedescribedaspromiscuous——promiscuousinsofarastherestrictionslaterestablishedbycustomdidnotyetexist。Butineverydaypracticethatbynomeansnecessarilyimpliesgeneralmixedmating。
Temporarypairingsofonemanwithonewomanwerenotinanywayexcluded，justasinthecasesofgroupmarriagestodaythemajorityofrelationshipsareofthischaracter。AndwhenWestermarck，thelatestwritertodenytheexistenceofsuchaprimitivestate，appliesthetermmarriagetoeveryrelationshipinwhichthetwosexesremainmateduntilthebirthoftheoffspring，wemustpointoutthatthiskindofmarriagecanverywelloccurundertheconditionsofpromiscuousintercoursewithoutcontradictingtheprincipleofpromiscuity——theabsenceofanyrestrictionimposedbycustomonsexualintercourse。Westermarck，however，takesthestandpointthatpromiscuityinvolvesasuppressionofindividualinclinations，andthatthereforethemostgenuineformofitisprostitution。Inmyopinion，anyunderstandingofprimitivesocietyisimpossibletopeoplewhoonlyseeitasabrothel。Wewillreturntothispointwhendiscussinggroupmarriage。
AccordingtoMorgan，fromthisprimitivestateofpromiscuousintercoursetheredeveloped，probablyveryearly：
1。THECONSANGUINEFAMILY，THEFIRSTSTAGEOFTHEFAMILY
Herethemarriagegroupsareseparatedaccordingtogenerations：allthegrandfathersandgrandmotherswithinthelimitsofthefamilyareallhusbandsandwivesofoneanother。soarealsotheirchildren，thefathersandmothers。thelatter’schildrenwillformathirdcircleofcommonhusbandsandwives。andtheirchildren，thegreat-grandchildrenofthefirstgroup，willformafourth。Inthisformofmarriage，therefore，onlyancestorsandprogeny，andparentsandchildren，areexcludedfromtherightsanddutiesasweshouldsayofmarriagewithoneanother。Brothersandsisters，maleandfemalecousinsofthefirst，second，andmoreremotedegrees，areallbrothersandsistersofoneanother，andpreciselyforthatreasontheyareallhusbandsandwivesofoneanother。Atthisstagetherelationshipofbrotherandsisteralsoincludesasamatterofcoursethepracticeofsexualintercoursewithoneanother。[2]Initstypicalform，suchafamilywouldconsistofthedescendantsofasinglepair，thedescendantsofthesedescendantsineachgenerationbeingagainbrothersandsisters，andthereforehusbandsandwives，ofoneanother。
[NOTEbyENgels：Inaletterwritteninthespringof1882，MarxexpresseshimselfinthestrongesttermsaboutthecompletemisrepresentationofprimitivetimesinWager’stexttotheNibelangen：
Havesuchthingsbeenheard，thatbrotherembracedsisterasabride？
ToWagnerandhislecherousgodswho，quiteinthemodernmanner，spicetheirloveaffairswithalittleincest，Marxreplies：Inprimitivetimesthesisterwasthewife，andthatwasmoral。
[NOTEinFourthedition：AFrenchfriendofminewhoisanadmirerofWagnerisnotinagreementwiththisnote。HeobservesthatalreadyintheElderEdda，onwhichWagnerbasedhisstory，intheOEgisdrekka，LokimakesthereproachtoFreya：Inthesightofthegodsthoudidstembracethineownbrother。Marriagebetweenbrotherandsister，heargues，wasthereforeforbiddenalreadyatthattime。TheOEgisdrekkaistheexpressionofatimewhenbeliefintheoldmythshadcompletelybrokendown。itispurelyasatireonthegods，inthestyleofLucian。
IfLokiasMephistomakessuchareproachtoFreya，ittellsratheragainstWagner。LokialsosayssomelineslatertoNiordhr：Withthysisterdidstthoubreedson。vidhsysturthinnigaztuslikanmog
Niordhrisnot，indeed，anAsa，butaVana，andsaysintheYnglingasagathatmarriagesbetweenbrothersandsistersareusualinVanaland，whichwasnotthecaseamongtheAsas。ThiswouldseemtoshowthattheVanasweremoreancientgodstheAsas。Atanyrate，NiordhrlivesamongtheOEgisdrekkaisratheraproofthatatthetimewhentheNorsesagasofthegodsarose，marriagesbetweenbrothersandsisters，atanyrateamongthegods，didnotyetexciteanyhorror。IfonewantstofindexcusesforWagner，itwouldperhapsbebettertociteGoetheinsteadoftheEdda，forinhisballadoftheGodandtheBayadereGoethecommitsasimilarmistakeinregardtothereligioussurrenderofwomen，whichhemakesfartoosimilartomodernprostitution。]
Theconsanguinefamilyisextinct。Eventhemostprimitivepeoplesknowntohistoryprovidenodemonstrableinstanceofit。Butthatitmusthaveexisted，wearecompelledtoadmit：fortheHawaiiansystemofconsanguinitystillprevalenttodaythroughoutthewholeofPolynesiaexpressesdegreesofconsanguinitywhichcouldonlyariseinthisformoffamily。andthewholesubsequentdevelopmentofthefamilypresupposestheexistenceoftheconsanguinefamilyasanecessarypreparatorystage。
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THEFAMILY
2。THEPUNALUANFAMILY
Ifthefirstadvanceinorganizationconsistedintheexclusionofparentsandchildrenfromsexualintercoursewithoneanother，thesecondwastheexclusionofsisterandbrother。Onaccountofthegreaternearnessinage，thissecondadvancewasinfinitelymoreimportant，butalsomoredifficult，thanthefirst。Itwaseffectedgradually，beginningprobablywiththeexclusionfromsexualintercourseofownbrothersandsisterschildrenof，thesamemother
firstinisolatedcasesandthenbydegreesasageneralruleeveninthiscenturyexceptionswerefoundinHawaii，andendingwiththeprohibitionofmarriageevenbetweencollateralbrothersandsisters，or，asweshouldsay，betweenfirst，second，andthirdcousins。Itaffords，saysMorgan，agood’illustrationoftheoperationoftheprincipleofnaturalselection。Therecanbenoquestionthatthetribesamongwhominbreedingwasrestrictedbythisadvancewereboundtodevelopmorequicklyandmorefullythanthoseamongwhommarriagebetweenbrothersandsistersremainedtheruleandthelaw。Howpowerfullytheinfluenceofthisadvancemadeitselffeltisseenintheinstitutionwhicharosedirectlyoutofitandwentfarbeyondit——thegens，whichformsthebasisofthesocialorderofmost，ifnotall，barbarianpeoplesoftheearthandfromwhichinGreeceandRomewestepdirectlyintocivilization。
Afterafewgenerationsatmost，everyoriginalfamilywasboundtosplitup。Thepracticeoflivingtogetherinaprimitivecommunistichousehold，whichprevailedwithoutexceptiontilllateinthemiddlestageofbarbarism，setalimit，varyingwiththeconditionsbutfairlydefiniteineachlocality，tothemaximumsizeofthefamilycommunity。
Assoonastheconceptionarosethatsexualintercoursebetweenchildrenofthesamemotherwaswrong，itwasboundtoexertitsinfluencewhentheoldhouseholdssplitupandnewoneswerefoundedthoughthesedidnotnecessarilycoincidewiththefamilygroup。Oneormorelinesofsisterswouldformthenucleusoftheonehouseholdandtheirownbrothersthenucleusoftheother。ItmusthavebeeninsomesuchmannerasthisthattheformwhichMorgancallsthepunaluanfamilyoriginatedoutoftheconsanguinefamily。AccordingtotheHawaiiancustom，anumberofsisters，ownorcollateralfirst，secondormoreremotecousinswerethecommonwivesoftheircommonhusbands，fromamongwhom，however，theirownbrotherswereexcluded。thesehusbandsnownolongercalledthemselvesbrothers，fortheywerenolongernecessarilybrothers，butpunalua——thatis，intimatecompanion，orpartner。Similarly，alineofownorcollateralbrothershadanumberofwomen，nottheirsisters，ascommonwives，andthesewivescalledoneanotherpunalua。Thiswastheclassicformofatypeoffamily，inwhichlateranumberofvariationswaspossible，butwhoseessentialfeaturewas：mutuallycommonpossessionofhusbandsandwiveswithinadefinitefamilycircle，fromwhich，however，thebrothersofthewives，firstownandlateralsocollateral，andconverselyalsothesistersofthehusbands，wereexcluded。
ThisformofthefamilyprovideswiththemostcompleteexactnessthedegreesofconsanguinityexpressedintheAmericansystem。Thechildrenofmymother’ssistersarestillherchildren，justasthechildrenofmyfather’sbrothersarealsohischildren。andtheyareallmybrothersandsisters。Butthechildrenofmymother’sbrothersarenowhernephewsandnieces，thechildrenofmyfather’ssistersarehisnephewsandnieces，andtheyareallmymaleandfemalecousins。
Forwhilethehusbandsofmymother’ssistersarestillherhusbands，andthewivesofmyfather’sbrothersarestillhiswivesinright，ifnotalwaysinfact，thesocialbanonsexualintercoursebetweenbrothersandsistershasnowdividedthechildrenofbrothersandsisters，whohadhithertobeentreatedasownbrothersandsisters，intotwoclasses：thoseintheoneclassremainbrothersandsistersasbeforecollateral，accordingtooursystem。thoseintheotherclass，thechildrenofmymother’sbrotherintheonecaseandofmyfather’ssisterintheother，cannotbebrothersandsistersanylonger，theycannolongerhavecommonparents，neitherfathernormothernorboth，andthereforenowforthefirsttimetheclassofnephewsandnieces，maleandfemalecousinsbecomesnecessary，whichintheearliercompositionofthefamilywouldhavebeensenseless。TheAmericansystemofconsanguinity，whichappearspurelynonsensicalinanyformoffamilybasedonanyvarietyofmonogamy，finds，downtothesmallestdetails，itsrationalexplanationanditsnaturalfoundationinthepunaluanfamily。Thepunaluanfamilyoraformsimilartoitmusthavebeenattheveryleastaswidespreadasthissystemofconsanguinity。
Evidenceofthisformoffamily，whoseexistencehasactuallybeenprovedinHawaii，wouldprobablyhavebeenreceivedfromalloverPolynesiaifthepiousmissionaries，liketheSpanishmonksofformerdaysinAmerica，hadbeenabletoseeinsuchunchristianconditionsanythingmorethanasheerabomination。
[NOTEbyEngels：TherecannolongerbeanydoubtthatthetraceswhichBachofenthoughthehadfoundofunrestrictedsexualintercourse，orwhathecallsspontaneousgenerationintheslime，gobacktogroupmarriage。IfBachofenconsidersthesepunaluanmarriages’lawless，’amanofthatperiodwouldconsidermostofthepresent-daymarriagesbetweennearandremotecousinsonthefather’sormother’ssidetobeincestuous，asbeingmarriagesbetweenbloodbrothersandsisters。
Marx。]
Caesar’sreportoftheBritons，whowereatthattimeinthemiddlestageofbarbarism，everytenortwelvehavewivesincommon，especiallybrotherswithbrothersandparentswithchildren，isbestexplainedasgroupmarriage。Barbarianmothersdonothavetenortwelvesonsoftheirownoldenoughtokeepwivesincommon，buttheAmericansystemofconsanguinity，whichcorrespondstothepunaluanfamily，providesnumerousbrothers，becauseallaman’scousins，nearanddistant，arehisbrothers。Caesar’smentionofparentswithchildrenmaybeduetomisunderstandingonhispart。itisnot，however，absolutelyimpossibleunderthissystemthatfatherandsonormotheranddaughtershouldbeincludedinthesamemarriagegroup，thoughnotfatheranddaughterormotherandson。ThisorasimilarformofgroupmarriagealsoprovidesthesimplestexplanationoftheaccountsinHerodotusandotherancientwritersaboutcommunityofwivesamongsavagesandbarbarianpeoples。ThesameappliesalsotothereportsofWatsonandKayeintheirbook，ThePeopleofIndia，abouttheTeehursinOudhnorthoftheGanges：Bothsexeshavebutanominaltieoneachother，andtheychangeconnectionwithoutcompunction。livingtogether，almostindiscriminately，inmanylargefamilies。
Intheverygreatmajorityofcasestheinstitutionofthegensseemstohaveoriginateddirectlyoutofthepunaluanfamily。ItistruethattheAustralianclassificatorysystemalsoprovidesanoriginforit：theAustralianshavegentes，butnotyetthepunaluanfamily。
instead，theyhaveacruderformofgroupmarriage。Inallformsofgroupfamilyitisuncertainwhoisthefatherofachild。butitiscertainwhoitsmotheris。Thoughshecallsallthechildrenofthewholefamilyherchildrenandhasamother’sdutiestowardsthem，sheneverthelessknowsherownchildrenfromtheothers。Itisthereforeclearthatinsofarasgroupmarriageprevails，descentcanonlybeprovedonthemother’ssideandthatthereforeonlythefemalelineisrecognized。Andthisisinfactthecaseamongallpeoplesintheperiodofsavageryorinthelowerstageofbarbarism。ItisthesecondgreatmeritofBachofenthathewasthefirsttomakethisdiscovery。Todenotethisexclusiverecognitionofdescentthroughthemotherandtherelationsofinheritancewhichintimeresultedfromit，heusesthetermmother-right，whichforthesakeofbrevityI
retain。Thetermis，however，ill-chosen，sinceatthisstageofsocietytherecannotyetbeanytalkofrightinthelegalsense。
Ifwenowtakeoneofthetwostandardgroupsofthepunaluanfamily，namelyalineofownandcollateralsistersthatis，ownsisters’
childreninthefirst，secondorthirddegree，togetherwiththeirchildrenandtheirowncollateralbrothersonthemother’ssidewho，accordingtoourassumption，arenottheirhusbands，wehavetheexactcircleofpersonswhomwelaterfindasmembersofagens，intheoriginalformofthatinstitution。Theyallhaveacommonancestralmother，byvirtueoftheirdescentfromwhomthefemaleoffspringineachgenerationaresisters。Thehusbandsofthesesisters，however，cannolongerbetheirbrothersandthereforecannotbedescendedfromthesameancestralmother。consequently，theydonotbelongtothesameconsanguinegroup，thelatergens。Thechildrenofthesesisters，however，dobelongtothisgroup，becausedescentonthemother’ssidealonecounts，sinceitaloneiscertain。Assoonasthebanhadbeenestablishedonsexualintercoursebetweenallbrothersandsisters，includingthemostremotecollateralrelativesonthemother’sside，thisgrouptransformeditselfintoagens——thatis，itconstituteditselfafirmcircleofbloodrelationsinthefemaleline，betweenwhommarriagewasprohibited。andhenceforwardbyothercommoninstitutionsofasocialandreligiouscharacteritincreasinglyconsolidatedanddifferentiateditselffromtheothergentesofthesametribe。Moreofthislater。Whenwesee，then，thatthedevelopmentofthegensfollows，notonlynecessarily，butalsoperfectlynaturallyfromthepunaluanfamily，wemayreasonablyinferthatatonetimethisformoffamilyalmostcertainlyexistedamongallpeoplesamongwhomthepresenceofgentileinstitutionscanbeproved——thatis，practicallyallbarbariansandcivilizedpeoples。
AtthetimeMorganwrotehisbook，ourknowledgeofgroupmarriagewasstillverylimited。AlittleinformationwasavailableaboutthegroupmarriagesoftheAustralians，whowereorganizedinclasses，andMorganhadalready，in1871，publishedthereportshehadreceivedconcerningthepunaluanfamilyinHawaii。Thepunaluanfamilyprovided，ontheonehand，thecompleteexplanationofthesystemofconsanguinityinforceamongtheAmericanIndians，whichhadbeenthestartingpointofallMorgan’sresearches。ontheotherhand，theoriginofthematriarchalgenscouldbederiveddirectlyfromthepunaluanfamily。
further，thepunaluanfamilyrepresentedamuchhigherstageofdevelopmentthantheAustralianclassificatorysystem。ItisthereforecomprehensiblethatMorganshouldhaveregardeditasthenecessarystageofdevelopmentbeforepairingmarriageandshouldbelieveittohavebeengeneralinearliertimes。Sincethenwehavebecomeacquaintedwithanumberofotherformsofgroupmarriage，andwenowknowthatMorganherewenttoofar。However，inhispunaluanfamilyhehadhadthegoodfortunetostrikethehighest，theclassicformofgroupmarriage，fromwhichthetransitiontoahigherstagecanbeexplainedmostsimply。
ForthemostimportantadditionstoourknowledgeofgroupmarriageweareindebtedtotheEnglishmissionary，LorimerFison，whoforyearsstudiedthisformofthefamilyinitsclassichome，Australia。HefoundtheloweststageofdevelopmentamongtheAustralianaboriginesofMountGambierinSouthAustralia。Herethewholetribeisdividedintotwogreatexogamousclassesormoieties，KrokiandKumite。Sexualintercoursewithineachofthesemoietiesisstrictlyforbidden。ontheotherhand，everymanintheonemoietyisthehusbandbybirthofeverywomanintheothermoietyandsheisbybirthhiswife。Nottheindividuals，buttheentiregroupsaremarried，moietywithmoiety。
Andobservethatthereisnoexclusiononthegroundofdifferenceinageorparticulardegreesofaffinity，exceptsuchasisentailedbythedivisionofthetribeintotwoexogamousclasses。AKrokihaseveryKumitewomanlawfullytowife。but，ashisowndaughteraccordingtomother-rightisalsoaKumite，beingthedaughterofaKumitewoman，sheisbybirththewifeofeveryKrold，including，therefore，herfather。Atanyrate，thereisnobaragainstthisintheorganizationintomoietiesasweknowit。Either，then，thisorganizationaroseatatimewhen，inspiteoftheobscureimpulsetowardstherestrictionofinbreeding，sexualintercoursebetweenparentsandchildrenwasstillnotfelttobeparticularlyhorrible——inwhichcasethemoietysystemmusthaveoriginateddirectlyoutofastateofsexualpromiscuity。orelseintercoursebetweenparentsandchildrenwasalreadyforbiddenbycustomwhenthemoietiesarose，andinthatcasethepresentconditionspointbacktotheconsanguinefamilyandarethefirststepbeyondit。
Thelatterismoreprobable。Therearenot，tomyknowledge，anyinstancesfromAustraliaofsexualcohabitationbetweenparentsandchildren，andasarulethelaterformofexogamy，thematriarchalgens，alsotacitlypresupposestheprohibitionofthisrelationshipasalreadyinforcewhenthegenscameintobeing。
Thesystemoftwomoietiesisfound，notonlyatMountGambierinSouthAustralia，butalsoontheDarlingRiverfurthertotheeastandinQueenslandinthenortheast。itisthereforewidelydistributed。Itexcludesmarriagesonlybetweenbrothersandsisters，betweenthechildrenofbrothersandbetweenthechildrenofsistersonthemother’sside，becausethesebelongtothesamemoiety。thechildrenofsistersandbrothers，however，maymarry。AfurthersteptowardsthepreventionofinbreedingwastakenbytheKamilaroiontheDarlingRiverinNewSouthWales。thetwooriginalmoietiesaresplitupintofour，andagaineachofthesefoursectionsismarriedenbloctoanother。Thefirsttwosectionsarehusbandsandwivesofoneanotherbybirth。accordingtowhetherthemotherbelongedtothefirstorsecondsection，thechildrengointothethirdorfourth。thechildrenoftheselasttwosections，whicharealsomarriedtooneanother，comeagainintothefirstandsecondsections。Thusonegenerationalwaysbelongstothefirstandsecondsections，thenexttothethirdandfourth，andthegenerationafterthattothefirstandsecondagain。
Underthissystem，firstcousinsonthemother’ssidecannotbemanandwife，butsecondcousinscan。Thispeculiarlycomplicatedarrangementismadestillmoreintricatebyhavingmatriarchalgentesgraftedontoitatanyratelater，butwecannotgointothedetailsofthisnow。Whatissignificantishowtheurgetowardsthepreventionofinbreedingassertsitselfagainandagain，feelingitsway，however，quiteinstinctively，withoutclearconsciousnessofitsaim。
GroupmarriagewhichintheseinstancesfromAustraliaisstillmarriageofsections，massmarriageofanentiresectionofmen，oftenscatteredoverthewholecontinent，withanequallywidelydistributedsectionofwomen-thisgroupmarriage，seencloseathand，doesnotlookquitesoterribleasthephilistines，whosemindscannotgetbeyondbrothels，imagineittobe。Onthecontrary，foryearsitsexistencewasnotevensuspectedandhasnowquiterecentlybeenquestionedagain。Allthatthesuperficialobserverseesingroupmarriageisalooseformofmonogamousmarriage，hereandtherepolygyny，andoccasionalinfidelities。Ittakesyears，asittookFisonandHowlett，todiscoverbeneaththesemarriagecustoms，whichintheiractualpracticeshouldseemalmostfamiliartotheaverageEuropean，theircontrollinglaw：thelawbywhichtheAustralianaborigine，wanderinghundredsofmilesfrombisbomeamongpeoplewhoselanguagehedoesnotunderstand，neverthelessoftenfindsineverycampandeverytribewomenwhogivethemselvestohimwithoutresistanceandwithoutresentment。thelawbywhichthemanwithseveralwivesgivesoneupforthenighttohisguest。WheretheEuropeanseesimmoralityandlawlessness，strictlawrulesinreality。Thewomenbelongtothemarriagegroupofthestranger，andthereforetheyarehiswivesbybirth。thatsamelawofcustomwhichgivesthetwotooneanotherforbidsunderpenaltyofoutlawryallintercourseoutsidethemarriagegroupsthatbelongtogether。Evenwhenwivesarecaptured，asfrequentlyoccursinmanyplaces，thelawoftheexogamousclassesisstillcarefullyobserved。
Marriagebycapture，itmayberemarked，alreadyshowssignsofthetransitiontomonogamousmarriage，atleastintheformofpairingmarriage。Whentheyoungmanhascapturedorabductedagirl，withthehelpofhisfriends，sheisenjoyedbyalloftheminturn，butafterwardssheisregardedasthewifeoftheyoungmanwhoinstigatedhercapture。If，ontheotherhand，thecapturedwomanrunsawayfromherhusbandandiscaughtbyanotherman，shebecomeshiswifeandthefirsthusbandloseshisrights。Thuswhilegroupmarriagecontinuestoexistasthegeneralform，sidebysidewithgroupmarriageandwithinitexclusiverelationshipsbegintoform，pairingsforalongerorshorterperiod，alsopolygyny。thusgroupmarriageisdyingouthere，too，andtheonlyquestioniswhichwilldisappearfirstunderEuropeaninfluence：groupmarriageortheAustralianaborigineswhopracticeit。
Marriagebetweenentiresections，asitprevailsinAustralia，isinanycaseaverylowandprimitiveformofgroupmarriage，whereasthepunaluanfamily，sofarasweknow，representsitshigheststageofdevelopment。Theformerappearstobetheformcorrespondingtothesociallevelofvagrantsavages，whilethelatteralreadypresupposesrelativelypermanentsettlementsofcommunisticcommunitiesandleadsimmediatelytothesuccessivehigherphaseofdevelopment。Butweshallcertainlyfindmorethanoneintermediatestagebetweenthesetwoforms。hereliesanewlydiscoveredfieldofresearchwhichisstillalmostcompletelyunexplored。
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THEFAMILY
3。THEPAIRINGFAMILY
Acertainamountofpairing，foralongerorshorterperiod，alreadyoccurredingroupmarriageorevenearlier。themanhadachiefwifeamonghismanywivesonecanhardlyyetspeakofafavoritewife，andforherhewasthemostimportantamongherhusbands。Thisfacthascontributedconsiderablytotheconfusionofthemissionaries，whohaveregardedgroupmarriagesometimesaspromiscuouscommunityofwives，sometimesasunbridledadultery。Butthesecustomarypairingswereboundtogrowmorestableasthegensdevelopedandtheclassesofbrothersandsistersbetweenwhommarriagewasimpossiblebecamemorenumerous。Theimpulsegivenbythegenstothepreventionofmarriagebetweenbloodrelativesextendedstillfurther。ThusamongtheIroquoisandmostoftheotherIndiansatthelowerstageofbarbarismwefindthatmarriageisprohibitedbetweenallrelativesenumeratedintheirsystem——whichincludesseveralhundreddegreesofkinship。Theincreasingcomplicationoftheseprohibitionsmadegroupmarriagesmoreandmoreimpossible。theyweredisplacedbythepairingfamily。Inthisstage，onemanliveswithonewoman，buttherelationshipissuchthatpolygamyandoccasionalinfidelityremaintherightofthemen，eventhoughforeconomicreasonspolygamyisrare，whilefromthewomanthestrictestfidelityisgenerallydemandedthroughoutthetimesheliveswiththeman，andadulteryonherpartiscruellypunished。Themarriagetiecan，however，beeasilydissolvedbyeitherpartner。afterseparation，thechildrenstillbelong，asbefore，tothemotheralone。
Inthiseverextendingexclusionofbloodrelativesfromthebondofmarriage，naturalselectioncontinuesitswork。InMorgan’swords：
Theinfluenceofthenewpractice，whichbroughtunrelatedpersonsintothemarriagerelation，tendedtocreateamorevigorousstockphysicallyandmentally……Whentwoadvancingtribes，withstrongmentalandphysicalcharacters，arebroughttogetherandblendedintoonepeoplebytheaccidentsofbarbarouslife，thenewskullandbrainwouldwidenandlengthentothesumofthecapabilitiesofboth。[Morgan，Op。cit。，p。468——Ed。]
Tribeswithgentileconstitutionwerethusboundtogainsupremacyovermorebackwardtribes，orelsetocarrythemalongbytheirexample。
Thusthehistoryofthefamilyinprimitivetimesconsistsintheprogressivenarrowingofthecircle，originallyembracingthewholetribe，withinwhichthetwosexeshaveacommonconjugalrelation。Thecontinuousexclusion，firstofnearer，thenofmoreandmoreremoterelatives，andatlastevenofrelativesbymarriage，endsbymakinganykindofgroupmarriagepracticallyimpossible。Finally，thereremainsonlythesingle，stilllooselylinkedpair，themoleculewithwhosedissolutionmarriageitselfceases。Thisinitselfshowswhatasmallpartindividualsex-love，inthemodernsenseoftheword，playedintheriseofmonogamy。Yetstrongerproofisaffordedbythepracticeofallpeoplesatthisstageofdevelopment。Whereasintheearlierformsofthefamilymenneverlackedwomen，but，onthecontrary，hadtoomanyratherthantoofew，womenhadnowbecomescarceandhighlysoughtafter。Henceitiswiththepairingmarriagethattherebeginsthecaptureandpurchaseofwomen——widespreadsymptoms，butnomorethansymptoms，ofthemuchdeeperchangethathadoccurred。
Thesesymptoms，meremethodsofprocuringwives，thepedanticScot，McLennan，hastransmogrifiedintospecialclassesoffamiliesunderthenamesofmarriagebycaptureandmarriagebypurchase。Ingeneral，whetheramongtheAmericanIndiansorotherpeoplesatthesamestage，theconclusionofamarriageistheaffair，notofthetwopartiesconcerned，whoareoftennotconsultedatall，butoftheirmothers。Twopersonsareoftenthusaffianced。theyonlystruckwhenthetimeformarryingthebridegroomgivespresentstotheonthemother’sside，therefore，notwhichareregardedasgiftpaymentsentirelyunknowntoeachotherlearnthatthebargainhasbeenapproaches。Beforetheweddingbride’sgentilerelativestothosetothefatherandhisrelationsinreturnforthegirl。Themarriageisstillterminableatthedesireofeitherpartner，butamongmanytribes，theIroquois，forexample，publicopinionhasgraduallydevelopedagainstsuchseparations。whendifferencesarisebetweenhusbandandwife，thegensrelativesofbothpartnersactasmediators，andonlyiftheseeffortsprovefruitlessdoesaseparationtakeplace，thewifethenkeepingthechildrenandeachpartnerbeingfreetomarryagain。
Thepairingfamily，itselftooweakandunstabletomakeanindependenthouseholdnecessaryorevendesirable，innowisedestroysthecommunistichouseholdinheritedfrom。earliertimes。Communistichousekeeping，however，meansthesupremacyofwomeninthehouse。justastheexclusiverecognitionofthefemaleparent，owingtotheimpossibilityofrecognizingthemaleparentwithcertainty，meansthatthewomen——themothers——areheldinhighrespect。Oneofthemostabsurdnotionstakenoverfromeighteenth-centuryenlightenmentisthatinthebeginningofsocietywomanwastheslaveofman。Amongallsavagesandallbarbariansofthelowerandmiddlestages，andtoacertainextentoftheupperstagealso，thepositionofwomenisnotonlyfree，buthonorable。Astowhatitstillisinthepairingmarriage，letusheartheevidenceofAshurWright，formanyyearsmissionaryamongtheIroquoisSenecas：
Astotheirfamilysystem，whenoccupyingtheoldlong-houses[communistichouseholdscomprisingseveralfamilies]，itisprobablethatsomeoneclan[gens]predominated，thewomentakinginhusbands，however，fromtheotherclans[gentes]……Usually，thefemaleportionruledthehouse……Thestoreswereincommon。
butwoetothelucklesshusbandorloverwhowastooshiftlesstodohisshareoftheproviding。Nomatterhowmanychildren，orwhatevergoodshemighthaveinthehouse，hemightatanytimebeorderedtopickuphisblanketandbudge。andaftersuchordersitwouldnotbehealthfulforhimtoattempttodisobey。Thehousewouldbetoohotforhim。and……hemustretreattohisownclan[gens]。or，aswasoftendone，goandstartanewmatrimonialallianceinsomeother。Thewomenwerethegreatpoweramongtheclans[gentes]，aseverywhereelse。Theydidnothesitate，whenoccasionrequired，toknockoffthehorns，asitwastechnicallycalled，fromtheheadofachief，andsendhimbacktotheranksofthewarriors。[QuotedbyMorgan，OP。cit。，P。464——Ed。]
Thecommunistichousehold，inwhichmostorallofthewomenbelongtooneandthesamegens，whilethemencomefromvariousgentes，isthematerialfoundationofthatsupremacyofthewomenwhichwasgeneralinprimitivetimes，andwhichitisBachofen’sthirdgreatmerittohavediscovered。Thereportsoftravelersandmissionaries，Imayadd，totheeffectthatwomenamongsavagesandbarbariansareoverburdenedwithworkinnowaycontradictwhathasbeensaid。Thedivisionoflaborbetweenthetwosexesisdeterminedbyquiteothercausesthanbythepositionofwomaninsociety。Amongpeopleswherethewomenhavetoworkfarharderthanwethinksuitable，thereisoftenmuchmorerealrespectforwomenthanamongourEuropeans。Theladyofcivilization，surroundedbyfalsehomageandestrangedfromallrealwork，hasaninfinitelylowersocialpositionthanthehard-workingwomanofbarbarism，whowasregardedamongherpeopleasarealladylady，frowa，Frau——mistressandwhowasalsoaladyincharacter。
WhetherpairingmarriagehascompletelysupplantedgroupmarriageinAmericatodayisaquestiontobedecidedbycloserinvestigationamongthepeoplesstillattheupperstageofsavageryinthenorthwest，andparticularlyinSouthAmerica。Amongthelatter，somanyinstancesofsexuallicensearerelatedthatonecanhardlyassumetheoldgroupmarriagetohavebeencompletelyovercomehere。Atanyrate，alltracesofithavenotyetdisappeared。InatleastfortyNorthAmericantribesthemanwhomarriesaneldestsisterhastherighttotakeallherothersistersashiswivesassoonastheyareoldenough-arelicofthetimewhenawholelineofsistershadhusbandsincommon。AndBancroftreportsoftheIndiansoftheCaliforniapeninsulaupperstageofsavagerythattheyhavecertainfestivalswhenseveraltribescometogetherforthepurposeofpromiscuoussexualintercourse。Thesetribesareclearlygentes，whopreserveinthesefeastsadimmemoryofthetimewhenthewomenofonegenshadallthemenoftheotherastheircommonhusbands，andconversely。ThesamecustomstillprevailsinAustralia。Wefindamongsomepeoplesthattheoldermen，thechieftainsandthemagician-priests，exploitthecommunityofwivesandmonopolizemostofthewomenforthemselves。
atcertainfestivalsandgreatassembliesofthepeople，however，theyhavetorestoretheoldcommunityofwomenandallowtheirwivestoenjoythemselveswiththeyoungmen。WestermarckHistoryofHumanMarriage，I891，Pp。28，29quotesawholeseriesofinstancesofsuchperiodicSaturnalianfeasts，whenforashorttimetheoldfreedomofsexualintercourseisagainrestored：examplesaregivenamongtheHos，theSantals，thePunjasandKotarsinIndia，amongsomeAfricanpeoples，andsoforth。Curiouslyenough，Westermarckdrawstheconclusionthatthesearesurvivals，notofthegroupmarriage，whichhetotallyrejects，butofthematingseasonwhichprimitivemanhadincommonwiththeotheranimals。
HerewecometoBachofen’sfourthgreatdiscovery——thewidespreadtransitionalformbetweengroupmarriageandpairing。WhatBachofenrepresentsasapenanceforthetransgressionoftheolddivinelaws——
thepenancebywhichthewomanpurchasestherightofchastity——isinfactonlyamysticalexpressionofthepenancebywhichthewomanbuysherselfoutoftheoldcommunityofhusbandsandacquirestherighttogiveherselftoonemanonly。Thispenanceconsistsinalimitedsurrender：theBabylonianwomenhadtogivethemselvesonceayearinthetempleofMylitta。otherpeoplesofAsiaMinorsenttheirgirlsforyearstothetempleofAnaitis，wheretheyhadtopracticefreelovewithfavoritesoftheirownchoosingbeforetheywereallowedtomarry。
SimilarcustomsinreligiousdisguisearecommontoalmostallAsiaticpeoplesbetweentheMediterraneanandtheGanges。Thesacrificeofatonementbywhichthewomanpurchasesherfreedombecomesincreasinglylighterincourseoftime，asBachofenalreadynoted：
Insteadofbeingrepeatedannually，theofferingismadeonceonly。thehetaerismofthematronsissucceededbythehetaerismofthemaidens。hetaerismduringmarriagebyhetaerismbeforemarriage。surrendertoallwithoutchoicebysurrendertosome。
Mutterrecht，p。xix。
Amongotherpeoplesthereligiousdisguiseisabsent。Insomecases——
amongtheThracians，Celts，andothers，inclassicaltimes，manyoftheoriginalinhabitantsofIndia，andtothisdayamongtheMalayanpeoples，theSouthSeaIslandersandmanyAmericanIndians——thegirlsenjoythegreatestsexualfreedomuptothetimeoftheirmarriage。
ThisisespeciallythecasealmosteverywhereinSouthAmerica，aseveryonewhohasgoneanydistanceintotheinteriorcantestify。ThusAgassizAJourneyinBrazil，BostonandNewYork，1868，p。266tellsthisstoryofarichfamilyofIndianextraction：whenhewasintroducedtothedaughter，heaskedafterherfather，presuminghimtobehermother’shusband，whowasfightingasanofficerinthewaragainstParaguay。butthemotheransweredwithasmile：Naotempai，efilhadafortunaShehasnofather。Sheisachildofchance：
ItisthewaytheIndianorhalf-breedwomenherealwaysspeakoftheirillegitimatechildren……withoutanintonationofsadnessorofblame……Sofaristhisfrombeinganunusualcase，that……
theoppositeseemstheexception。Childrenarefrequentlyquiteignorantoftheirparentage。Theyknowabouttheirmother，forallthecareandresponsibilityfallsuponher，buttheyhavenoknowledgeoftheirfather。nordoesitseemtooccurtothewomanthatsheorherchildrenhaveanyclaimuponhim。
Whatseemsstrangeheretocivilizedpeopleissimplytheruleaccordingtomother-rightandingroupmarriage。
Amongotherpeoples，again，thefriendsandrelativesofthebridegroom，ortheweddingguests，claimtheirtraditionalrighttothebrideattheweddingitself，andthebridegroom’sturnonlycomeslast。
thiswasthecustomintheBalearicIslandsandamongtheAugilersofAfricainancienttimes。itisstillobservedamongtheBareasofAbyssinia。Inothercases，anofficialpersonage，theheadofthetribeorthegens，cacique，shaman，priest，princeorwhateverhemaybecalled，representsthecommunityandexercisestherightofthefirstnightwiththebride。Despiteallnecromanticwhitewashing，thisjusprimenoctis[Rightoffirstnight——Ed。]stillpersiststodayasarelicofgroupmarriageamongmostofthenativesoftheAlaskaregionBancroft，NativeRaces，I，p。8i，theTahusofNorthMexicoIbid。，P。584andotherpeoples。andatanyrateinthecountriesoriginallyCeltic，whereitwashandeddowndirectlyfromgroupmarriage，itexistedthroughoutthewholeofthemiddleages，forexample，inAragon。WhileinCastilethepeasantswereneverserfs，inAragontherewasserfdomofthemostshamefulkindrightuptillthedecreeofFerdinandtheCatholicin1486。Thisdocumentstates：
Wejudgeanddeclarethattheaforementionedlordssenors，barons……whenthepeasanttakeshimselfawife，shallneithersleepwithheronthefirstnight。norshalltheyduringthewedding-night，whenthewifehaslaidherselfinherbed，stepoveritandtheaforementionedwifeasasignoflordship。norshalltheaforementionedlordsusethedaughterorthesonofthepeasant，withpaymentorwithoutpayment，againsttheirwill。
QuotedintheoriginalCatalanbySugenheim，Serfdom，Petersburg，1861，p。35
BachofenisalsoperfectlyrightwhenheconsistentlymaintainsthatthetransitionfromwhathecallsHetaerismorSumpfzeugungtomonogamywasbroughtaboutprimarilythroughthewomen。Themorethetraditionalsexualrelationslostthenativeprimitivecharacterofforestlife，owingtothedevelopmentofeconomicconditionswithconsequentunderminingoftheoldcommunismandgrowingdensityofpopulation，themoreoppressiveandhumiliatingmustthewomenhavefeltthemtobe，andthegreatertheirlongingfortherightofchastity，oftemporaryorpermanentmarriagewithonemanonly，asawayofrelease。Thisadvancecouldnotinanycasehaveoriginatedwiththemen，ifonlybecauseithasneveroccurredtothem，eventothisday，torenouncethepleasuresofactualgroupmarriage。Onlywhenthewomenhadbroughtaboutthetransitiontopairingmarriagewerethemenabletointroducestrictmonogamy——thoughindeedonlyforwomen。
Thefirstbeginningsofthepairingfamilyappearonthedividinglinebetweensavageryandbarbarism。theyaregenerallytobefoundalreadyattheupperstageofsavagery，butoccasionallynotuntilthelowerstageofbarbarism。Thepairingfamilyistheformcharacteristicofbarbarism，asgroupmarriageischaracteristicofsavageryandmonogamyofcivilization。Todevelopitfurther，tostrictmonogamy，othercauseswererequiredthanthosewehavefoundactivehitherto。Inthesinglepairthegroupwasalreadyreducedtoitsfinalunit，itstwo-atommolecule：onemanandonewoman。Naturalselection，withitsprogressiveexclusionsfromthemarriagecommunity，hadaccomplisheditstask。therewasnothingmoreforittodointhisdirection。
Unlessnew，socialforcescameintoplay，therewasnoreasonwhyanewformoffamilyshouldarisefromthesinglepair。Butthesenewforcesdidcomeintoplay。
WenowleaveAmerica，theclassicsoilofthepairingfamily。Nosignallowsustoconcludethatahigherformoffamilydevelopedhere，orthattherewaseverpermanentmonogamyanywhereinAmericapriortoitsdiscoveryandconquest。ButnotsointheOldWorld。
Herethedomesticationofanimalsandthebreedingofherdshaddevelopedahithertounsuspectedsourceofwealthandcreatedentirelynewsocialrelations。Uptothelowerstageofbarbarism，permanentwealthhadconsistedalmostsolelyofhouse，clothing，crudeornamentsandthetoolsforobtainingandpreparingfood——boat，weapons，anddomesticutensilsofthesimplestkind。Foodhadtobewonafreshdaybyday。Now，withtheirherdsofhorses，camels，asses，cattle，sheep，goats，andpigs，theadvancingpastoralpeoples——theSemitesontheEuphratesandtheTigris，andtheAryansintheIndiancountryoftheFiveStreamsPunjab，intheGangesregion，andinthesteppesthenmuchmoreabundantlywateredoftheOxusandtheJaxartes——hadacquiredpropertywhichonlyneededsupervisionandtherudestcaretoreproduceitselfinsteadilyincreasingquantitiesandtosupplythemostabundantfoodintheformofmilkandmeat。Allformermeansofprocuringfoodnowrecededintothebackground。hunting，formerlyanecessity，nowbecamealuxury。
Buttowhomdidthisnewwealthbelong？Originallytothegens，withoutadoubt。Privatepropertyinherdsmusthavealreadystartedatanearlyperiod，however。Itisdifficulttosaywhethertheauthoroftheso-calledfirstbookofMosesregardedthepatriarchAbrahamastheownerofhisherdsinhisownrightasheadofafamilycommunityorbyrightofhispositionasactualhereditaryheadofagens。Whatiscertainisthatwemustnotthinkofhimasapropertyownerinthemodernsenseoftheword。Anditisalsocertainthatatthethresholdofauthentichistorywealreadyfindtheherdseverywhereseparatelyownedbyheadsoffamilies，asaretheartisticproductsofbarbarism——metalimplements，luxuryarticlesand，finally，thehumancattle——
theslaves。
Fornowslaveryhadalsobeeninvented。Tothebarbarianofthelowerstage，aslavewasvalueless。HencethetreatmentofdefeatedenemiesbytheAmericanIndianswasquitedifferentfromthatatahigherstage。Themenwerekilledoradoptedasbrothersintothetribeofthevictors。thewomenweretakenaswivesorotherwiseadoptedwiththeirsurvivingchildren。Atthisstagehumanlabor-powerstilldoesnotproduceanyconsiderablesurplusoverandaboveitsmaintenancecosts。Thatwasnolongerthecaseaftertheintroductionofcattle-breeding，metalworking，weavingand，lastly，agriculture。justasthewiveswhomithadformerlybeensoeasytoobtainhadnowacquiredanexchangevalueandwerebought，soalsowiththeforcesoflabor，particularlysincetheherdshaddefinitelybecomefamilypossessions。Thefamilydidnotmultiplysorapidlyasthecattle。
Morepeoplewereneededtolookafterthem。forthispurposeusecouldbemadeoftheenemiescapturedinwar，whocouldalsobebredjustaseasilyasthecattlethemselves。
Onceithadpassedintotheprivatepossessionoffamiliesandthererapidlybeguntoaugment，thiswealthdealtasevereblowtothesocietyfoundedonpairingmarriageandthematriarchalgens。Pairingmarriagehadbroughtanewelementintothefamily。Bythesideofthenaturalmotherofthechilditplaceditsnaturalandattestedfather，withabetterwarrantofpaternity，probably，thanthatofmanyafathertoday。Accordingtothedivisionoflaborwithinthefamilyatthattime，itwastheman’sparttoobtainfoodandtheinstrumentsoflabornecessaryforthepurpose。Hethereforealsoownedtheinstrumentsoflabor，andintheeventofhusbandandwifeseparating，hetookthemwithhim，justassheretainedherhouseholdgoods。
Therefore，accordingtothesocialcustomofthetime，themanwasalsotheownerofthenewsourceofsubsistence，thecattle，andlaterofthenewinstrumentsoflabor，theslaves。Butaccordingtothecustomofthesamesociety，hischildrencouldnotinheritfromhim。Forasregardsinheritance，thepositionwasasfollows：
Atfirst，accordingtomother-right——solong，therefore，asdescentwasreckonedonlyinthefemaleline——andaccordingtotheoriginalcustomofinheritancewithinthegens，thegentilerelativesinheritedfromadeceasedfellowmemberoftheirgens。Hispropertyhadtoremainwithinthegens。Hiseffectsbeinginsignificant，theyprobablyalwayspassedinpracticetohisnearestgentilerelations——thatis，tohisbloodrelationsonthemother’sside。Thechildrenofthedeadman，however，didnotbelongtohisgens，buttothatoftheirmother。itwasfromherthattheyinherited，atfirstconjointlywithherotherbloodrelations，laterperhapswithrightsofpriority。theycouldnotinheritfromtheirfather，becausetheydidnotbelongtohisgens，withinwhichhispropertyhadtoremain。Whentheowneroftheherdsdied，therefore，hisherdswouldgofirsttohisbrothersandsistersandtohissister’schildren，ortotheissueofhismother’ssisters。
Buthisownchildrenweredisinherited。
Thus，ontheonehand，inproportionaswealthincreased，itmadetheman’spositioninthefamilymoreimportantthanthewoman’s，andontheotherhandcreatedanimpulsetoexploitthisstrengthenedpositioninordertooverthrow，infavorofhischildren，thetraditionalorderofinheritance。This，however，wasimpossiblesolongasdescentwasreckonedaccordingtomother-right。Mother-right，therefore，hadtobeoverthrown，andoverthrownitwas。Thiswasbynomeanssodifficultasitlookstoustoday。Forthisrevolution——oneofthemostdecisiveeverexperiencedbyhumanity——couldtakeplacewithoutdisturbingasingleoneofthelivingmembersofagens。Allcouldremainastheywere。Asimpledecreesufficedthatinthefuturetheoffspringofthemalemembersshouldremainwithinthegens，butthatofthefemaleshouldbeexcludedbybeingtransferredtothegensoftheirfather。
Thereckoningofdescentinthefemalelineandthematriarchallawofinheritanceweretherebyoverthrown，andthemalelineofdescentandthepaternallawofinheritanceweresubstitutedforthem。Astohowandwhenthisrevolutiontookplaceamongcivilizedpeoples，wehavenoknowledge。Itfallsentirelywithinprehistorictimes。Butthatitdidtakeplaceismorethansufficientlyprovedbytheabundanttracesofmother-rightwhichhavebeencollected，particularlybyBachofen。
HoweasilyitisaccomplishedcanbeseeninawholeseriesofAmericanIndiantribes，whereithasonlyrecentlytakenplaceandisstilltakingplaceundertheinfluence，partlyofincreasingwealthandachangedmodeoflifetransferencefromforesttoprairie，andpartlyofthemoralpressureofcivilizationandmissionaries。OfeightMissouritribes，sixobservethemalelineofdescentandinheritance，twostillobservethefemale。AmongtheShawnees，MiamisandDelawaresthecustomhasgrownupofgivingthechildrenagentilenameoftheirfather’sgensinordertotransferthemintoit，thusenablingthemtoinheritfromhim。
Man’sinnatecasuistry！Tochangethingsbychangingtheirnames！
Andtofindloopholesforviolatingtraditionwhilemaintainingtradition，whendirectinterestsuppliedsufficientimpulse。
Marx。
Theresultwashopelessconfusion，whichcouldonlyberemediedandtoacertainextentwasremediedbythetransitiontofather-right。Ingeneral，thisseemstobethemostnaturaltransition。Marx。ForthetheoriesprofferedbycomparativejurisprudenceregardingthemannerinwhichthischangewaseffectedamongthecivilizedpeoplesoftheOldWorld——thoughtheyarealmostpurehypothesizeM。Kovalevsky，Tableaudesoriginesetdel’evolutiondelafamilleetdelapropriete。
Stockholm，1890。
Theoverthrowofmother-rightwastheworldhistoricaldefeatofthefemalesex。Themantookcommandinthehomealso。thewomanwasdegradedandreducedtoservitude，shebecametheslaveofhislustandamereinstrumentfortheproductionofchildren。Thisdegradedpositionofthewoman，especiallyconspicuousamongtheGreeksoftheheroicandstillmoreoftheclassicalage，hasgraduallybeenpalliatedandglozedover，andsometimesclothedinamilderform。innosensehasitbeenabolished。
Theestablishmentoftheexclusivesupremacyofthemanshowsitseffectsfirstinthepatriarchalfamily，whichnowemergesasanintermediateform。Itsessentialcharacteristicisnotpolygyny，ofwhichmorelater，buttheorganizationofanumberofpersons，bondandfree，intoafamily，underpaternalpower，forthepurposeofholdinglands，andforthecareofflocksandherds……IntheSemiticformthechiefs，atleast，livedinpolygamy……Thoseheldtoservitude，andthoseemployedasservants，livedinthemarriagerelation。[Morgan，Op。cit。，p。474]
Itsessentialfeaturesaretheincorporationofunfreepersons，andpaternalpower。hencetheperfecttypeofthisformoffamilyistheRoman。Theoriginalmeaningofthewordfamilyfamiliaisnotthatcompoundofsentimentalityanddomesticstrifewhichformstheidealofthepresent-dayphilistine。amongtheRomansitdl’dnotatfirstevenrefertothemarriedpairandtheirchildren，butonlytotheslaves。
Famulusmeansdomesticslave，andfamiliaisthetotalnumberofslavesbelongingtooneman。AslateasthetimeofGaius，thefamilia，idestpatrimoniumfamily，thatis，thepatrimony，theinheritance
wasbequeathedbywill。ThetermwasinventedbytheRomanstodenoteanewsocialorganism，whoseheadruledoverwifeandchildrenandanumberofslaves，andwasinvestedunderRomanpaternalpowerwithrightsoflifeanddeathoverthemall。
Thisterm，therefore，isnoolderthantheiron-cladfamilysystemoftheLatintribes，whichcameinafterfieldagricultureandafterlegalizedservitude，aswellasaftertheseparationofGreeksandLatins。[Morgan，Op。cit。，p。478]
Marxadds：
Themodernfamilycontainsingermnotonlyslaveryservitus，butalsoserfdom，sincefromthebeginningitisrelatedtoagriculturalservices。Itcontainsinminiatureallthecontradictionswhichlaterextendthroughoutsocietyanditsstate。
Suchaformoffamilyshowsthetransitionofthepairingfamilytomonogamy。Inordertomakecertainofthewife’sfidelityandthereforeofthepaternityofthechildren，sheisdeliveredoverunconditionallyintothepowerofthehusband。ifhekillsher，heisonlyexercisinghisrights。
Withthepatriarchalfamily，weenterthefieldofwrittenhistoryafieldwherecomparativejurisprudencecangivevaluablehelp。Andithasinfactbroughtanimportantadvanceinourknowledge。WeowetoMaximKovalevskyTableauetc。delamineetdepropriete，Stockholm，1890，pp。60-100，theproofthatthepatriarchalhouseholdcommunity，aswestillfindittodayamongtheSerbsandtheBulgarsunderthenameofzadrugawhichmayberoughlytranslatedbondoffriendship
orbratstvobrotherhood，andinamodifiedformamongtheOrientalpeoples，formedthetransitionalstagebetweenthematriarchalfamilyderivingfromgroupmarriageandthesinglefamilyofthemodernworld。