PeriodCalculatedonthetotalpopulationRateper1000Comparedwithratein1870-72takenas100
　　1870-7236。7100。0
　　1880-8235。797。3
　　1890-9232。087。2
　　1900-0228。881。2
　　Calculatedonthefemalepopulation，aged15-45
　　yearsRateper1000Comparedwithratein1870-72takenas100
　　1870-72143。1100。0
　　1880-82140。698。3
　　1890-92124。687。1
　　1900-02111。477。8
　　Rural：112entirelyruralregistrationdistricts，withanaggregatepopulationof1，330，319personsatthedateoftheCensusof1901。
　　CalculatedonthetotalpopulationRateper1000Comparedwithratein1870-72takenas100
　　1870-7231。6100。0
　　1880-8230。395。6
　　1890-9227。888。0
　　1900-0226。083。3
　　Calculatedonthefemalepopulation，aged15-45
　　yearsRateper1000Comparedwithratein1870-72takenas100
　　1870-72158。9100。0
　　1880-82153。596。6
　　1890-92135。685。3
　　1900-02120。776。0
　　ThemovementsofthepopulationofFrancehavebeenstudiedwithexceptionalcare：andthegreatworkonthesubjectbyLevasseur，LaPopulationFran鏰ise，isamineofvaluableinformationasregardsothernationsbesidesFrance。Montesquieu，reasoningperhapsratherapriori，accusedthelawofprimogeniturewhichruledinhistimeinFranceofreducingthenumberofchildreninafamily：andlePlaybroughtthesamechargeagainstthelawofcompulsorydivision。Levasseurl。c。
　　Vol。iii，pp。171-7callsattentiontothecontrast。andremarkthatMalthus’expectationsoftheeffectoftheCivilCodeonpopulationwereinharmonywithMontesquieu’sratherthanlePlay’sdiagnosis。ButinfactthebirthratevariesmuchfromonepartofFrancetoanother。Itisgenerallylowerwherealargepartofthepopulationownslandthanwhereitdoesnot。IfhowevertheDepartmentsofFrancebearrangedingroupsinascendingorderofthepropertyleftatdeathvaleurssuccessoralespart阾ed’habitant，thecorrespondingbirth-ratedescendsalmostuniformly，being23perhundredmarriedwomenbetween15and50yearsforthetenDepartmentsinwhichthepropertyleftis48-57fr……and13。2fortheSeine，whereitis412fr。AndinParisitselfthearrondissementsinhabitedbythewell-to-doshowasmallerpercentageoffamilieswithmorethantwochildrenthanthepoorerarrondissementsshow。ThereismuchinterestinthecarefulanalysiswhichLevasseurgivesoftheconnectionbetweeneconomicconditionsandbirth-rate。hisgeneralconclusionbeingthatitisnotdirectbutindirect，throughthemutualinfluenceofthetwoonmannersandthehabitoflifemoeurs。Heappearstoholdthat，howevermuchthedeclineinthenumbersoftheFrenchrelativelytosurroundingnationsmayberegrettedfromthepoliticalandmilitarypointsofview，thereismuchgoodmixedwiththeevilinitsinfluencesonmaterialcomfortandevensocialprogress。
　　22。ThuswearetoldthataftertheBlackDeathof1349mostmarriageswereveryfertileRogers，HistoryofAgricultureandPrices，Vol。1，p。301。
　　23。ThereisnocertainknowledgetobehadastothedensityofpopulationinEnglandbeforetheeighteenthcentury。butthefollowingestimates，reproducedfromSteffenGeschichtederenglischenLohn-arbeiter，1，pp。463ff。，areprobablythebestasyetavailable。DomesdayBooksuggeststhatin1086thepopulationofEnglandwasbetweentwo，andtwo-and-a-halfmillions。JustbeforetheBlackDeath1348itmayhavebeenbetweenthree-and-a-half，andfour-and-a-halfmillions。andjustafterwardstwo-and-a-halfmillions。Itbegantorecoverquickly。
　　butmadeslowprogressbetween1400and1550：itincreasedratherfastinthenexthundredyears，andreachedfive-and-ahalfmillionsin1700。
　　IfwearetotrustHarrisonDescriptionofEngland，Bk。II，ch。XVI，themusterofmenableforservicein1574amountedto1，172，674。
　　TheBlackDeathwasEngland’sonlyverygreatcalamity。Shewasnot，liketherestofEurope，liabletodevastatingwars，suchastheThirtyYears’War，whichdestroyedmorethanhalfthepopulationofGermany，alosswhichitrequiredafullcenturytorecover。SeeR黰elin’sinstructivearticleonBev鰈kerungslehreinSch鰊berg’sHandbuch。
　　24。AdamSmithisjustlyindignantatthis。SeeWealthofNations，Bk。I，ch。X，PartII，andBookIV，ch。II。TheActrecites14CharlesII，c。12，A。D。1662thatbyreasonofsomedefectsinthelaw，poorpeoplearenotrestrainedfromgoingfromoneparishtoanother，andtherebydoendeavourtosettlethemselvesinthoseparisheswherethereisthebeststock，thelargestwastesorcommonstobuildcottages，andthemostwoodsforthemtoburnanddestroy：etc。anditisthereforeorderedthatuponcomplaintmade……withinfortydaysafteranysuchpersonorpersonscoming，soastosettleasaforesaid，inanytenementundertheyearlyvalueoftenpounds……itshallbelawfulforanytwojusticesofthePeace……
　　toremoveandconveysuchpersonorpersonstosuchparishwhereheortheywerelastlegallysettled。SeveralActspurportingtosoftenitsharshnesshadbeenpassedbeforeAdamSmith’stime。
　　buttheyhadbeenineffective。In1795howeveritwasorderedthatnooneshouldberemoveduntilhebecameactuallychargeable。
　　25。SomeinterestingremarksonthissubjectaremadebyEden，HistoryofthePoor，I，pp。560-4。
　　26。Butthisincreaseinthefiguresshownispartlyduetoimprovedregistrationofbirths。Farr，VitalStatistics，p。97。
　　27。ThefollowingtablesshowthegrowthofthepopulationofEnglandandWalesfromthebeginningoftheeighteenthcentury。
　　Thefiguresbefore1801arecomputedfromtheregistersofbirthsanddeaths，andthepollandhearthtaxreturns：thosesince1801
　　fromCensusreturns。Itwillbenoticedthatthenumbersincreasednearlyasmuchinthetwentyyearsfollowing1760asintheprecedingsixtyyears。Thepressureofthegreatwarandthehighpriceofcornisshownintheslowgrowthbetween1790and1801。andtheeffectsofindiscriminatepoorlawallowances，inspiteofgreaterpressure，isshownbytherapidincreaseinthenexttenyears，andthestillgreaterincreasewhenthatpressurewasremovedinthedecadeending1821。Thethirdcolumnshowsthepercentagewhichtheincreaseduringtheprecedingdecadewasofthepopulationatthebeginningofthatdecade。
　　YearPopulationIncrease000somittedpercent17005，475
　　17105，240-4。9
　　17205，5656。2
　　17305，7964。1
　　17406，0644。6
　　17506，4676。6
　　17606，7364。1
　　17707，42810。3
　　17807，9537。1
　　17908，6759。1
　　18018，8922。5
　　181110，16414。3
　　182112，00018。1
　　183113，89715。8
　　184115，90914。5
　　185117，92812。7
　　186120，06611。9
　　187122，71213。2
　　188125，97414。4
　　189129，02211。7
　　190132，52711。7
　　Thegreatgrowthofemigrationduringrecentyearsmakesitimportanttocorrectthefiguresforthelastthreedecadessoastoshowthenaturalincrease，viz。thatduetotheexcessofbirthsoverdeaths。ThenetemigrationfromtheUnitedKingdomduringthedecades1871-81and1881-91was1，480，000，and1，747，000respectively。
　　28。SeeFarr’s17thAnnualReportfor1854asRegistrar-General，ortheabstractofitinVitalStatisticspp。72-5。
　　29。Forinstance，representingthepriceofwheatinshillingsandthenumberofmarriagesinEnglandandWalesinthousands，wehavefor1801wheatat119andmarriagesat67，for1803wheatat59andmarriagesat94。for1805thenumbersare90and80，for1807theyare75and84，for1812theyare126and82，for1815
　　theyare66and100，for1917theyare97and88，for1822theyare45and99。
　　30。Since1820theaveragepriceofwheathasseldomexceeded60s。andnever75s。：andthesuccessiveinflationsofcommercewhichculminatedandbrokein1826，1836-9，1848，1856，1866and1873exercisedaninfluenceonthemarriagerateaboutequalwithchangesinthepriceofcorn。Whenthetwocausesacttogethertheeffectsareverystriking：thusbetween1829and1834，therewasarecoveryofprosperityaccompaniedbyasteadyfallinthepriceofwheatandmarriagesrosefromahundredandfourtoahundredandtwenty-onethousand。Themarriage-rateroseagainrapidlybetween1842and1845whenthepriceofwheatwasalittlelowerthanintheprecedingyears，andthebusinessofthecountrywasreviving。andagainundersimilarcircumstancesbetween1847and1853andbetween1862and1865。
　　Acomparisonofthemarriage-ratewiththeharvestsinSwedenfortheyears1749to1883isgivenbySirRawsonRawsonintheStatisticalJournalforDecember1885。Theharvestdoesnotdeclareitselftillpartoftheyear’staleofmarriagesismadeup。andfurthertheinequalitiesofharvestsaretosomeextentcompensatedforbythestorageofgrain。andthereforetheindividualharvestfiguresdonotcorrespondcloselywiththemarriage-rate。Butwhenseveralgoodorbadharvestscometogether，theeffectinincreasingordiminishingthemarriage-rateisveryclearlymarked。
　　31。Statisticsofexportsareamongthemostconvenientindicationsofthefluctuationsofcommercialcreditandindustrialactivity：andinthearticlealreadyquoted，Oglehasshownacorrespondencebetweenthemarriage-rateandtheexportsperhead。ComparediagramsinVol。II，p。12ofLevasseur’sLaPopulationFran鏰ise。andwithregardtoMassachusettsbyWillcoxinthePoliticalScienceQuarterly，Vol。VIII，pp。76-82。Ogle’sinquirieshavebeenextendedandcorrectedinapaperreadbyR。
　　H。HookerbeforetheManchesterStatisticalSociety，inJanuary1898。whopointsoutthatifthemarriage-ratefluctuates，thebirth-rateduringanascendingphaseofthemarriage-rateisapttocorrespondtothemarriage-ratenotforthatphase，butfortheprecedingphasewhenthemarriage-ratewasdeclining：andvicevers？Hencetheratioofbirthstomarriagesdeclineswhenthemarriage-rateisrisingandriseswhenthemarriage-ratefalls。Acurverepresentingtheratioofbirthstomarriageswillmoveinverselytothemarriage-rate。Hepointsoutthatthedeclineintheratioofbirthstomarriagesisnotgreat，andisaccountedforbytherapiddeclineofillegitimatebirths。Theratiooflegitimatebirthstomarriagesisnotdecliningperceptibly。
　　32。ThefollowingstatementsarebasedchieflyonstatisticsarrangedbythelateSignorBodio，byM。Levasseur，LaPopulationFran鏰ise，andbytheEnglishRegistrar-GeneralinhisReportfor1907。
　　33。MuchinstructiveandsuggestivematterconnectedwiththesubjectofthischapteriscontainedintheStatisticalMemorandaandChartsrelatingtoPublicHealthandSocialConditionspublishedbytheLocalGovernmentBoardin1909[Cd。4671]。
　　Chapter5
　　TheHealthandStrengthofthePopulation1。Wehavenexttoconsidertheconditionsonwhichdependhealthandstrength，physical，mentalandmoral。Theyarethebasisofindustrialefficiency，onwhichtheproductionofmaterialwealthdepends。whileconverselythechiefimportanceofmaterialwealthliesinthefactthat，whenwiselyused，itincreasesthehealthandstrength，physical，mentalandmoralofthehumanrace。
　　Inmanyoccupationsindustrialefficiencyrequireslittleelsethanphysicalvigour。thatis，muscularstrength，agoodconstitutionandenergetichabits。Inestimatingmuscular，orindeedanyotherkindofstrengthforindustrialpurposes，wemusttakeaccountofthenumberofhoursintheday，ofthenumberofdaysintheyear，andthenumberofyearsinthelifetime，duringwhichitcanbeexerted。Butwiththisprecautionwecanmeasureaman’smuscularexertionbythenumberoffeetthroughwhichhisworkwouldraiseapoundweight，ifitwereapplieddirectlytothisuse。orinotherwordsbythenumberoffootpoundsofworkthathedoes。1*
　　Althoughthepowerofsustaininggreatmuscularexertionseemstorestonconstitutionalstrengthandotherphysicalconditions，yetevenitdependsalsoonforceofwill，andstrengthofcharacter。Energyofthiskind，whichmayperhapsbetakentobethestrengthoftheman，asdistinguishedfromthatofhisbody，ismoralratherthanphysical。butyetitdependsonthephysicalconditionofnervousstrength。Thisstrengthofthemanhimself，thisresolution，energyandself-mastery，orinshortthisvigouristhesourceofallprogress：itshowsitselfingreatdeeds，ingreatthoughtsandinthecapacityfortruereligiousfeeling。2*
　　Vigourworksitselfoutinsomanyforms，thatnosimplemeasureofitispossible。Butweareallofusconstantlyestimatingvigour，andthinkingofonepersonashavingmorebackbone，morestuffinhim，orasbeingastrongerman
　　thananother。Businessmenevenindifferenttrades，andUniversitymenevenwhenengagedindifferentstudies，gettoestimateoneanother’sstrengthveryclosely。Itsoonbecomesknowniflessstrengthisrequiredtogetafirstclassinonestudythananother。
　　2。Indiscussingthegrowthofnumbersalittlehasbeensaidincidentallyofthecauseswhichdeterminelengthoflife：buttheyareinthemainthesameasthosewhichdetermineconstitutionalstrengthandvigour，andtheywilloccupyourattentionagaininthepresentchapter。
　　Thefirstofthesecausesistheclimate。Inwarmcountrieswefindearlymarriagesandhighbirth-rates，andinconsequencealowrespectforhumanlife：thishasprobablybeenthecauseofagreatpartofthehighmortalitythatisgenerallyattributedtotheinsalubrityoftheclimate。3*
　　Vigourdependspartlyonracequalities：butthese，sofarastheycanbeexplainedatall，seemtobechieflyduetoclimate。4*
　　3。Climatehasalsoalargeshareindeterminingthenecessariesoflife。thefirstofwhichisfood。Muchdependsontheproperpreparationoffood。andaskilledhousewifewithtenshillingsaweektospendonfoodwilloftendomoreforthehealthandstrengthofherfamilythananunskilledonewithtwenty。Thegreatmortalityofinfantsamongthepoorislargelyduetothewantofcareandjudgmentinpreparingtheirfood。andthosewhodonotentirelysuccumbtothiswantofmotherlycareoftengrowupwithenfeebledconstitutions。
　　Inallagesoftheworldexceptthepresent，wantoffoodhascausedwholesaledestructionofthepeople。EveninLondonintheseventeenthandeighteenthcenturiesthemortalitywaseightpercentgreaterinyearsofdearcornthaninyearsofcheapcorn。5*Butgraduallytheeffectsofincreasedwealthandimprovedmeansofcommunicationaremakingthemselvesfeltnearlyallovertheworld。theseverityoffaminesismitigatedeveninsuchacountryasIndia。andtheyareunknowninEuropeandintheNewWorld。InEnglandnowwantoffoodisscarcelyeverthedirectcauseofdeath：butitisafrequentcauseofthatgeneralweakeningofthesystemwhichrendersitunabletoresistdisease。anditisachiefcauseofindustrialinefficiency。
　　Wehavealreadyseenthatthenecessariesforefficiencyvarywiththenatureoftheworktobedone，butwemustnowexaminethissubjectalittlemoreclosely。
　　Asregardsmuscularworkinparticularthereisacloseconnectionbetweenthesupplyoffoodthatamanhas，andhisavailablestrength。Iftheworkisintermittent，asthatofsomedocklabourers，acheapbutnutritiousgraindietissufficient。
　　Butforveryheavycontinuousstrainsuchasisinvolvedinpuddlers’andthehardestnavvies’work，foodisrequiredwhichcanbedigestedandassimilatedevenwhenthebodyistired。Thisqualityisstillmoreessentialinthefoodofthehighergradesoflabour，whoseworkinvolvesgreatnervousstrain。thoughthequantityrequiredbythemisgenerallysmall。
　　Afterfood，thenextnecessariesoflifeandlabourareclothing，house-roomandfiring。Whentheyaredeficient，themindbecomestorpid，andultimatelythephysicalconstitutionisundermined。Whenclothingisveryscanty，itisgenerallywornnightandday。andtheskinisallowedtobeenclosedinacrustofdirt。Adeficiencyofhouse-room，oroffuel，causespeopletoliveinavitiatedatmospherewhichisinjurioustohealthandvigour。andnottheleastofthebenefitswhichEnglishpeoplederivefromthecheapnessofcoal，isthehabit，peculiartothem，ofhavingwell-ventilatedroomsevenincoldweather。
　　Badly-builthouseswithimperfectdrainagecausediseaseswhichevenintheirslighterformsweakenvitalityinawonderfulway。
　　andovercrowdingleadstomoralevilswhichdiminishthenumbersandlowerthecharacterofthepeople。
　　Restisasessentialforthegrowthofavigorouspopulationasthemorematerialnecessariesoffood，clothing，etc。Overworkofeveryformlowersvitality。whileanxiety，worry，andexcessivementalstrainhaveafatalinfluenceinunderminingtheconstitution，inimpairingfecundityanddiminishingthevigouroftherace。
　　4。Nextcomethreecloselyalliedconditionsofvigour，namely，hopefulness，freedom，andchange。Allhistoryisfulloftherecordofinefficiencycausedinvaryingdegreesbyslavery，serfdom，andotherformsofcivilandpoliticaloppressionandrepression。6*
　　Inallagescolonieshavebeenapttooutstriptheirmothercountriesinvigourandenergy。Thishasbeenduepartlytotheabundanceoflandandthecheapnessofnecessariesattheircommand。partlytothatnaturalselectionofthestrongestcharactersforalifeofadventure，andpartlytophysiologicalcausesconnectedwiththemixtureofraces：butperhapsthemostimportantcauseofallistobefoundinthehope，thefreedomandthechangefulnessoftheirlives。7*
　　Freedomsofarhasbeenregardedasfreedomfromexternalbonds。Butthathigherfreedom，whichcomesofself-mastery，isanevenmoreimportantconditionforthehighestwork。Theelevationoftheidealsoflifeonwhichthisdepends，isdueontheonesidetopoliticalandeconomiccauses，andontheothertopersonalandreligiousinfluences。amongwhichtheinfluenceofthemotherinearlychildhoodissupreme。
　　5。Bodilyandmentalhealthandstrengtharemuchinfluencedbyoccupation。8*Atthebeginningofthiscenturytheconditionsoffactoryworkwereneedlesslyunhealthyandoppressiveforall，andespeciallyforyoungchildren。ButFactoryandEducationActshaveremovedtheworstoftheseevilsfromfactories。thoughmanyofthemstilllingeraboutdomesticindustriesandthesmallerworkshops。
　　Thehigherwages，thegreaterintelligence，andthebettermedicalfacilitiesoftownspeopleshouldcauseinfantmortalitytobemuchloweramongthemthaninthecountry。Butitisgenerallyhigher，especiallywheretherearemanymotherswhoneglecttheirfamilydutiesinordertoearnmoneywages。
　　6。Inalmostallcountriesthereisaconstantmigrationtowardsthetowns。9*ThelargetownsandespeciallyLondonabsorbtheverybestbloodfromalltherestofEngland。themostenterprising，themosthighlygifted，thosewiththehighestphysique。andthestrongestcharactersgotheretofindscopefortheirabilities。Anincreasingnumberofthosewhoaremostcapableandhavemoststrengthofcharacter，liveinsuburbs，whereexcellentsystemsofdrainage，watersupplyandlighting，togetherwithgoodschoolsandopportunitiesforopenairplay，giveconditionsatleastasconducivetovigourasaretobefoundinthecountry。andthoughtherearestillmanytowndistrictsonlyalittlelessinjurioustovitalitythanwerelargetownsgenerallysometimeago，yetonthewholetheincreasingdensityofpopulationseemstobeforthepresentadiminishingsourceofdanger。Therecentrapidgrowthoffacilitiesforlivingfarfromthechiefcentresofindustryandtrademustindeedslackenintime。ButthereseemsnosignofanyslackeninginthemovementofindustriesoutwardstosuburbsandeventonewGardenCitiestoseekandtobringwiththemvigorousworkers。
　　Statisticalaveragesareindeedundulyfavourabletourbanconditions，partlybecausemanyofthetowninfluenceswhichlowervigourdonotmuchaffectmortality。andpartlybecausethemajorityofimmigrantsintothetownsareinthefullstrengthofyouth，andofmorethanaverageenergyandcourage。whileyoungpeoplewhoseparentsliveinthecountrygenerallygohomewhentheybecomeseriouslyill。10*
　　Thereisnobetteruseforpublicandprivatemoneythaninprovidingpublicparksandplaygroundsinlargecities，incontractingwithrailwaystoincreasethenumberoftheworkmen’strainsrunbythem，andinhelpingthoseoftheworkingclasseswhoarewillingtoleavethelargetownstodoso，andtotaketheirindustrieswiththem。11*
　　7。Andthereareyetothercausesforanxiety。Forthereissomepartialarrestofthatselectiveinfluenceofstruggleandcompetitionwhichintheearlierstagesofcivilizationcausedthosewhowerestrongestandmostvigoroustoleavethelargestprogenybehindthem。andtowhich，morethananyothersinglecause，theprogressofthehumanraceisdue。Inthelaterstagesofcivilizationtherulehasindeedlongbeenthattheupperclassesmarrylate，andinconsequencehavefewerchildrenthantheworkingclasses：butthishasbeencompensatedforbythefactthatamongtheworkingclassesthemselvestheoldrulewasheld。andthevigourofthenationthatistendingtobedampedoutamongtheupperclassesisthusreplenishedbythefreshstreamofstrengththatisconstantlywellingupfrombelow。ButinFranceforalongtime，andrecentlyinAmerica，andEngland，someoftheablerandmoreintelligentoftheworkingclasspopulationhaveshownsignsofadisinclinationtohavelargefamilies。andthisisasourceofdanger。12*
　　Thusthereareincreasingreasonsforfearing，thatwhiletheprogressofmedicalscienceandsanitationissavingfromdeathacontinuallyincreasingnumberofthechildrenofthosewhoarefeeblephysicallyandmentally。manyofthosewhoaremostthoughtfulandbestendowedwithenergy，enterpriseandself-controlaretendingtodefertheirmarriagesandinotherwaystolimitthenumberofchildrenwhomtheyleavebehindthem。
　　Themotiveissometimesselfish，andperhapsitisbestthathardandfrivolouspeopleshouldleavebutfewdescendantsoftheirowntype。Butmoreoftenitisadesiretosecureagoodsocialpositionfortheirchildren。Thisdesirecontainsmanyelementsthatfallshortofthehighestidealsofhumanaims，andinsomecases，afewthataredistinctlybase。butafterallithasbeenoneofthechieffactorsofprogress，andthosewhoareaffectedbyitincludemanyofthosewhosechildrenwouldprobablybeamongthebestandstrongestoftherace。
　　Itmustberememberedthatthemembersofalargefamilyeducateoneanother，theyareusuallymoregenialandbright，oftenmorevigorousineverywaythanthemembersofasmallfamily。Partly，nodoubt，thisisbecausetheirparentswereofunusualvigour。andforalikereasontheyintheirturnarelikelytohavelargeandvigorousfamilies。Theprogressoftheraceisduetoamuchgreaterextentthanappearsatfirstsighttothedescendantsofafewexceptionallylargeandvigorousfamilies。
　　Butontheotherhandthereisnodoubtthattheparentscanoftendobetterinmanywaysforasmallfamilythanalargeone。
　　Otherthingsbeingequal，anincreaseinthenumberofchildrenwhoareborncausesanincreaseofinfantilemortality。andthatisanunmixedevil。Thebirthofchildrenwhodieearlyfromwantofcareandadequatemeansisauselessstraintothemotherandaninjurytotherestofthefamily。13*
　　8。Thereareotherconsiderationsofwhichaccountoughttobetaken。butsofarasthepointsdiscussedinthischapterareconcerned，itseemsprimafacieadvisablethatpeopleshouldnotbringchildrenintotheworldtilltheycanseetheirwaytogivingthematleastasgoodaneducationbothphysicalandmentalastheythemselveshad。andthatitisbesttomarrymoderatelyearlyprovidedthereissufficientself-controltokeepthefamilywithintherequisiteboundswithouttransgressingmorallaws。Thegeneraladoptionoftheseprinciplesofaction，combinedwithanadequateprovisionoffreshairandofhealthyplayforourtownpopulations，couldhardlyfailtocausethestrengthandvigouroftheracetoimprove。Andweshallpresentlyfindreasonsforbelievingthatifthestrengthandvigouroftheraceimproves，theincreaseofnumberswillnotforalongtimetocomecauseadiminutionoftheaveragerealincomeofthepeople。
　　Thusthentheprogressofknowledge，andinparticularofmedicalscience，theever-growingactivityandwisdomofGovernmentinallmattersrelatingtohealth，andtheincreaseofmaterialwealth，alltendtolessenmortalityandtoincreasehealthandstrength，andtolengthenlife。Ontheotherhand，vitalityisloweredandthedeath-rateraisedbytherapidincreaseoftownlife，andbythetendencyofthehigherstrainsofthepopulationtomarrylaterandtohavefewerchildrenthanthelower。Iftheformersetofcauseswerealoneinaction，butsoregulatedastoavoidthedangerofover-population，itisprobablethatmanwouldquicklyrisetoaphysicalandmentalexcellencesuperiortoanythattheworldhasyetknown。whileifthelattersetactedunchecked，hewouldspeedilydegenerate。
　　Asitis，thetwosetsholdoneanotherverynearlyinbalance，theformerslightlypreponderating。WhilethepopulationofEnglandisgrowingnearlyasfastasever，thosewhoareoutofhealthinbodyormindarecertainlynotanincreasingpartofthewhole：therestaremuchbetterfedandclothed，and，exceptinover-crowdedindustrialdistricts，aregenerallygrowinginstrength。Theaveragedurationoflifebothformenandwomenhasbeenincreasingsteadilyformanyyears。
　　NOTES：
　　1。Thismeasurecanbeapplieddirectlytomostkindsofnavvies’
　　andporters’work，andindirectlytomanykindsofagriculturalwork。InacontroversythatwaswagedafterthegreatagriculturallockoutastotherelativeefficiencyofunskilledlabourintheSouthandNorthofEngland，themosttrustworthymeasurewasfoundinthenumberoftonsofmaterialthatamanwouldloadintoacartinaday。Othermeasureshavebeenfoundinthenumberofacresreapedormown，orthenumberofbushelsofcornreaped，etc。：buttheseareunsatisfactory，particularlyforcomparingdifferentconditionsofagriculture：sincetheimplementsused，thenatureofthecropandthemodeofdoingtheworkallvarywidely。Thusnearlyallcomparisonsbetweenmedievalandmodernworkandwagesbasedonthewagesofreaping，mowing，etc。arevaluelessuntilwehavefoundmeanstoallowfortheeffectsofchangesinthemethodsofagriculture。Itcostsforinstancelesslabourthanitdidtoreapbyhandacropthatyieldsahundredbushelsofcorn。becausetheimplementsusedarebetterthantheywere：butitmaynotcostlesslabourtoreapanacreofcorn。becausethecropsareheavierthantheywere。
　　Inbackwardcountries，particularlywherethereisnotmuchuseofhorsesorotherdraughtanimals，agreatpartofmen’sandwomen’sworkmaybemeasuredfairlywellbythemuscularexertioninvolvedinit。ButinEnglandlessthanone-sixthoftheindustrialclassesarenowengagedonworkofthiskind。whiletheforceexertedbysteam-enginesaloneismorethantwentytimesasmuchascouldbeexertedbythemusclesofallEnglishmen。
　　2。Thismustbedistinguishedfromnervousness，which，asarule，indicatesageneraldeficiencyofnervousstrength。thoughsometimesitproceedsfromnervousirritabilityorwantofbalance。Amanwhohasgreatnervousstrengthinsomedirectionsmayhavebutlittleinothers。theartistictemperamentinparticularoftendevelopsonesetofnervesattheexpenseofothers：butitistheweaknessofsomeofthenerves，notthestrengthoftheothers，thatleadstonervousness。Themostperfectartisticnaturesseemnottohavebeennervous：LeonardodaVinciandShakespeareforexample。Thetermnervousstrength
　　correspondsinsomemeasuretoHeartinEngel’sgreatdivisionoftheelementsofefficiencyintoaBody，bReason，andc
　　HeartLeib，VerstandundHerz。Heclassifiesactivitiesaccordingtothepermutationsa，ab，ac，abc，acb，b，ba，bc，bca，bac。c，ca，cb，cab，cba：theorderineachcasebeingthatofrelativeimportance，andaletterbeingomittedwherethecorrespondingelementplaysonlyaverysmallpart。
　　Inthewarof1870BerlinUniversitystudents，whoseemedtobeweakerthantheaveragesoldier，werefoundtobeabletobearfatiguebetter。
　　3。Awarmclimateimpairsvigour。Itisnotaltogetherhostiletohighintellectualandartisticwork：butitpreventspeoplefrombeingabletoendureveryhardexertionofanykindforalongtime。Moresustainedhardworkcanbedoneinthecoolerhalfofthetemperatezonethananywhereelse。andmostofallinplacessuchasEnglandandhercounterpartNewZealand，wheresea-breezeskeepthetemperaturenearlyuniform。ThesummerheatsandwintercoldsofmanypartsofEuropeandAmerica，wherethemeantemperatureismoderate，havetheeffectofshorteningtheyearforworkingpurposesbyabouttwomonths。Extremeandsustainedcoldisfoundtodulltheenergies，partlyperhapsbecauseitcausespeopletospendmuchoftheirtimeincloseandconfinedquarters：inhabitantsoftheArcticregionsaregenerallyincapableoflong-continuedsevereexertion。InEnglandpopularopinionhasinsistedthatawarmYuletidemakesfatchurchyard。butstatisticsprovebeyondquestionthatithastheoppositeeffect：theaveragemortalityishighestinthecoldestquarteroftheyear，andhigherincoldwintersthaninwarm。
　　4。Racehistoryisafascinatingbutdisappointingstudyfortheeconomist：forconqueringracesgenerallyincorporatedthewomenoftheconquered。theyoftencarriedwiththemmanyslavesofbothsexesduringtheirmigrations，andslaveswerelesslikelythanfreementobekilledinbattleortoadoptamonasticlife。
　　Inconsequencenearlyeveryracehadmuchservile，thatismixedbloodinit：andastheshareofservilebloodwaslargestintheindustrialclasses，aracehistoryofindustrialhabitsseemsimpossible。
　　5。ThiswasprovedbyFarr，whoeliminateddisturbingcausesbyaninstructivestatisticaldeviceVitalStatistics，p。139。
　　6。Freedomandhopeincreasenotonlyman’swillingnessbutalsohispowerforwork。physiologiststellusthatagivenexertionconsumeslessofthestoreofnervousenergyifdoneunderthestimulusofpleasurethanofpain：andwithouthopethereisnoenterprise。Securityofpersonandpropertyaretwoconditionsofthishopefulnessandfreedom。butsecurityalwaysinvolvesrestraintsonfreedom，anditisoneofthemostdifficultproblemsofcivilizationtodiscoverhowtoobtainthesecuritywhichisaconditionoffreedomwithouttoogreatasacrificeoffreedomitself。Changesofwork，ofscene，andofpersonalassociationsbringnewthoughts，callattentiontotheimperfectionsofoldmethods，stimulateadivinediscontent，
　　andineverywaydevelopcreativeenergy。
　　7。Byconversewithotherswhocomefromdifferentplaces，andhavedifferentCustoms，travellerslearntoputonitstrialmanyahabitofthoughtoractionwhichotherwisetheywouldhavealwaysacquiescedinasthoughitwerealawofnature。Moreover，ashiftingofplacesenablesthemorepowerfulandoriginalmindstofindfullscopefortheirenergiesandtorisetoimportantpositions：whereasthosewhostayathomeareoftenovermuchkeptintheirplaces。Fewmenareprophetsintheirownland。
　　neighboursandrelationsaregenerallythelasttopardonthefaultsandtorecognizethemeritsofthosewhoarelessdocileandmoreenterprisingthanthosearoundthem。ItisdoubtlesschieflyforthisreasonthatinalmosteverypartofEnglandadisproportionatelylargeshareofthebestenergyandenterpriseistobefoundamongthosewhowerebornelsewhere。
　　Butchangemaybecarriedtoexcess。andwhenpopulationshiftssorapidly，thatamanisalwaysshakinghimselfloosefromhisreputation，helosessomeofthebestexternalaidstotheformationofahighmoralcharacter。Theextremehopefulnessandrestlessnessofthosewhowandertonewcountriesleadtomuchwasteofeffortinhalfacquiringtechnicalskill，andhalffinishingtaskswhicharespeedilyabandonedinfavourofsomenewoccupation。
　　8。Therateofmortalityislowamongministersofreligionandschoolmasters。amongtheagriculturalclasses，andinsomeotherindustriessuchasthoseofwheelwrights，shipwrightsandcoalminers。Itishighinleadandtinmining，infile-makingandearthenwaremanufacture。ButneitherthesenoranyotherregulartradeshowashigharateofmortalityasisfoundamongLondongenerallabourersandcostermongers。whilethehighestofallisthatofservantsininns。Suchoccupationsarenotdirectlyinjurioustohealth，buttheyattractthosewhoareweakinphysiqueandincharacterandtheyencourageirregularhabits。A
　　goodaccountoftheinfluenceofoccupationondeath-ratesisgiveninthesupplementtotheforty-fifth1885AnnualReportoftheRegistrar-General，pp。xxv-lxiii。SeealsoFarr’sVitalStatistics，pp。392-411，Humphreys’paperonClassMortalityStatisticsintheStatisticalJournalforJune1887，andtheliteratureoftheFactoryActsgenerally。
　　9。DavenantBalanceofTrade，A。D。1699，p。20，followingGregoryKing，provesthataccordingtoofficialfiguresLondonhasanexcessofdeathsoverbirthsof2000ayear，butanimmigrationof5000。whichismorethanhalfofwhathecalculates，byaratherriskymethod，tobethetruenetincreaseofthepopulationofthecountry。Hereckonsthat530，000peopleliveinLondon，870，000intheothercitiesandmarkettowns，and4，100，000invillagesandhamlets。Comparethesefigureswiththecensusof1901forEnglandandWales。wherewefindLondonwithapopulationofover4，500，000。fivemoretownswithanaverageofover500，000。andsixty-ninemoreexceeding50，000withanaverageofover100，000。Noristhisall：formanysuburbswhosepopulationisnotcountedin，areoftenreallypartsofthebigtowns。andinsomecasesthesuburbsofseveraladjacenttownsrunintooneanother，makingthemallintoonegigantic，thoughratherscatteredtown。AsuburbofManchesteriscountedasalargetownwith220，000inhabitants。andthesameistrueofWestHam，asuburbofLondonwith275，000。Theboundariesofsomelargetownsareextendedatirregularintervalstoincludesuchsuburbs：andconsequentlythetruepopulationofalargetownmaybegrowingfast，whileitsnominalpopulationgrowsslowlyorevenrecedes，andthensuddenlyleapsforwards。ThusthenominalpopulationofLiverpoolwas552，000in1881。518，000in1891。and685，000in1901。
　　Similarchangesaretakingplaceelsewhere。ThusthepopulationofParishasgrowntwelvetimesasfastduringthenineteenthcenturyasthatofFrance。ThetownsofGermanyareincreasingattheexpenseofthecountrybyonehalfpercent。ofthepopulationyearly。IntheUnitedStatestherewasin1800notownwithmorethan75，000inhabitants。in1905therewerethreewhichtogethercontainedmorethan7，000，000andelevenmorewithabove300，000each。MorethanathirdofthepopulationofVictoriaarecollectedinMelbourne。
　　Itmustberecollectedthatthecharacteristicsoftownlifeincreaseinintensityforgoodandforevilwitheveryincreaseinthesizeofatown，anditssuburbs。FreshcountryairhastopassovermanymoresourcesofnoisomevapourbeforeitreachestheaverageLondonerthanbeforeitreachestheaverageinhabitantofasmalltown。TheLondonerhasgenerallytogofarbeforehecanreachthefreedomandtherestfulsoundsandsightsofthecountry。Londonthereforewith4，500，000inhabitantsaddstotheurbancharacterofEngland’slifefarmorethanahundredtimesasmuchasatownof45，000inhabitants。
　　10。ForreasonsofthiskindWeltonStatisticalJournal，1897
　　makestheextremeproposaltoomitallpersonsbetween15and35
　　yearsofageincomparingtheratesofmortalityindifferenttowns。ThemortalityoffemalesinLondonbetweentheagesoffifteenandthirty-fiveis，chieflyforthisreason，abnormallylow。Ifhoweveratownhasastationarypopulationitsvitalstatisticsaremoreeasilyinterpreted。andselectingCoventryasatypicaltown，Galtonhascalculatedthattheadultchildrenofartisantownsfolkarelittlemorethanhalfasnumerousasthoseoflabouringpeoplewholiveinhealthycountrydistricts。Whenaplaceisdecaying，theyoungandstrongandheartydriftawayfromit。leavingtheoldandtheinfirmbehindthem，andconsequentlythebirth-rateisgenerallylow。Ontheotherhand，acentreofindustrythatisattractingpopulationislikelytohaveaveryhighbirth-rate，becauseithasmorethanitsshareofpeopleinthefullvigouroflife。Thisisespeciallythecaseinthecoalandirontowns，partlybecausetheydonotsuffer，asthetextiletownsdo，fromadeficiencyofmales。andpartlybecauseminersasaclassmarryearly。Insomeofthem，thoughthedeath-rateishigh，theexcessofthebirth-rateoveritexceeds20perthousandofthepopulation。Thedeathrateisgenerallyhighestintownsofthesecondorder，chieflybecausetheirsanitaryarrangementsarenotyetasgoodasthoseoftheverylargesttowns。
　　Prof。HaycraftDarwinismandRaceProgressarguesintheoppositedirection。Helaysjuststressonthedangerstothehumanracewhichwouldresultfromadiminutionofthosediseases，suchasphthisisandscrofula，whichattackchieflypeopleofweakconstitution，andthusexerciseaselectiveinfluenceontherace，unlessitwereaccompaniedbycorrespondingimprovementsinotherdirections。Butphthisisdoesnotkillallitsvictims。thereissomenetgaininadiminutionofitspowerofweakeningthem。
　　11。SeeanarticleentitledWheretoHousetheLondonPoorbythepresentwriterintheContemporaryReview，Feb。1884。
　　12。IntheSouthernStatesofAmerica，manualworkbecamedisgracefultothewhiteman。sothat，ifunabletohaveslaveshimself，heledapaltrydegeneratelife，andseldommarried。
　　Again，onthePacificSlope，therewereatonetimejustgroundsforfearingthatallbuthighlyskilledworkwouldbelefttotheChinese。andthatthewhitemenwouldliveinanartificialwayinwhichafamilybecameagreatexpense。InthiscaseChineseliveswouldhavebeensubstitutedforAmerican，andtheaveragequalityofthehumanracewouldhavebeenlowered。
　　13。Theextentoftheinfantmortalitythatarisesfrompreventablecausesmaybeinferredfromthefactsthatthepercentageofdeathsunderoneyearofagetobirthsisgenerallyaboutathirdasmuchagaininurbanasinruraldistricts。andyetinmanyurbandistrictswhichhaveawell-to-dopopulationitislowerthantheaverageforthewholecountryRegistrarGeneral’sReportfor1905，pp。xlii-xlv。Afewyearsagoitwasfoundthat，whiletheannualdeathrateofchildrenunderfiveyearsofagewasonlyabouttwopercentinthefamiliesofpeersandwaslessthanthreepercentforthewholeoftheupperclasses，itwasbetweensixandsevenpercentforthewholeofEngland。OntheotherhandProfLeroyBeaulieusaysthatinFrancetheparentsofbutoneortwochildrenareapttoindulgethem，andbeover-carefulaboutthemtothedetrimentoftheirboldness，enterpriseandendurance。SeeStatisticalJournal，Vol。54，pp。378-9。
　　Chapter6
　　IndustrialTraining1。Havingdiscussedthecauseswhichgovernthegrowthofanumerousandvigorouspopulation，wehavenexttoconsiderthetrainingthatisrequiredtodevelopitsindustrialefficiency。
　　Thenaturalvigourthatenablesamantoattaingreatsuccessinanyonepursuitwouldgenerallyhaveservedhimingoodsteadinalmostanyother。Butthereareexceptions。Somepeople，forinstance，seemtobefittedfrombirthforanartisticcareer，andfornoother。andoccasionallyamanofgreatpracticalgeniusisfoundtobealmostdevoidofartisticsensibility。Butaracethathasgreatnervousstrengthseemsgenerallyable，underfavourableconditions，todevelopinthecourseofafewgenerationsabilityofalmostanykindthatitholdsinspeciallyhighesteem。Aracethathasacquiredvigourinwarorintheruderformsofindustrysometimesgainsintellectualandartisticpowerofahighorderveryquickly。andnearlyeveryliteraryandartisticepochofclassicalandmedievaltimeshasbeenduetoapeopleofgreatnervousstrength，whohavebeenbroughtintocontactwithnoblethoughtsbeforetheyhaveacquiredmuchtasteforartificialcomfortsandluxuries。
　　Thegrowthofthistasteinourownagehaspreventedusfromtakingfulladvantageoftheopportunitiesourlargelyincreasedresourcesgiveusofconsecratingthegreaterpartofthehighestabilitiesoftheracetothehighestaims。Butperhapstheintellectualvigouroftheageappearslessthanitreallyis，inconsequenceofthegrowthofscientificpursuits。Forinartandliteraturesuccessisoftenachievedwhilegeniusstillwearsthefascinatingaspectofyouth。butinmodernsciencesomuchknowledgeisrequiredfororiginality，thatbeforeastudentcanmakehismarkintheworld，hismindhasoftenlostthefirstbloomofitsfreshness。andfurthertherealvalueofhisworkisnotoftenpatenttothemultitudeasthatofapictureorpoemgenerallyis。1*Inthesamewaythesolidqualitiesofthemodernmachine-tendingartisanareratedmorecheaplythanthelightervirtuesofthemedievalhandicraftsman。Thisispartlybecauseweareapttoregardascommonplacethoseexcellenceswhicharecommoninourowntime。andtooverlookthefactthatthetermunskilledlabourerisconstantlychangingitsmeaning。
　　2。Verybackwardracesareunabletokeeponatanykindofworkforalongtime。andeventhesimplestformofwhatweregardasunskilledworkisskilledworkrelativelytothem。fortheyhavenottherequisiteassiduity，andtheycanacquireitonlybyalongcourseoftraining。Butwhereeducationisuniversal，anoccupationmayfairlybeclassedasunskilled，thoughitrequiresaknowledgeofreadingandwriting。Again，indistrictsinwhichmanufactureshavelongbeendomiciled，ahabitofresponsibility，ofcarefulnessandpromptitudeinhandlingexpensivemachineryandmaterialsbecomesthecommonpropertyofall。andthenmuchoftheworkoftendingmachineryissaidtobeentirelymechanicalandunskilled，andtocallforthnohumanfacultythatisworthyofesteem。Butinfactitisprobablethatnotone-tenthofthepresentpopulationsoftheworldhavethementalandmoralfaculties，theintelligence，and，theself-controlthatarerequiredforit：perhapsnotone-halfcouldbemadetodotheworkwellbysteadytrainingfortwogenerations。Evenofamanufacturingpopulationonlyasmallpartarecapableofdoingmanyofthetasksthatappearatfirstsighttobeentirelymonotonous。Machine-weaving，forinstance，simpleasitseems，isdividedintohigherandlowergrades。andmostofthosewhoworkinthelowergradeshavenotthestuffinthem
　　thatisrequiredforweavingwithseveralcolours。Andthedifferencesareevengreaterinindustriesthatdealwithhardmaterials，wood，metals，orceramics。
　　Somekindsofmanualworkrequirelong-continuedpracticeinonesetofoperations，butthesecasesarenotverycommon，andtheyarebecomingrarer：formachineryisconstantlytakingoverworkthatrequiresmanualskillofthiskind。Itisindeedtruethatageneralcommandovertheuseofone’sfingersisaveryimportantelementofindustrialefficiency。butthisistheresultchieflyofnervousstrength，andself-mastery。Itisofcoursedevelopedbytraining，butthegreaterpartofthismaybeofageneralcharacterandnotspecialtotheparticularoccupation。justasagoodcricketersoonlearnstoplaytenniswell，soaskilledartisancanoftenmoveintoothertradeswithoutanygreatandlastinglossofefficiency。
　　Manualskillthatissospecializedthatitisquiteincapableofbeingtransferredfromoneoccupationtoanotherisbecomingsteadilyalessandlessimportantfactorinproduction。
　　Puttingasideforthepresentthefacultiesofartisticperceptionandartisticcreation，wemaysaythatwhatmakesoneoccupationhigherthananother，whatmakestheworkersofonetownorcountrymoreefficientthanthoseofanother，ischieflyasuperiorityingeneralsagacityandenergywhicharenotspecializedtoanyoneoccupation。
　　Tobeabletobearinmindmanythingsatatime，tohaveeverythingreadywhenwanted，toactpromptlyandshowresourcewhenanythinggoeswrong，toaccommodateoneselfquicklytochangesindetailoftheworkdone，tobesteadyandtrustworthy，tohavealwaysareserveofforcewhichwillcomeoutinemergency，thesearethequalitieswhichmakeagreatindustrialpeople。Theyarenotpeculiartoanyoccupation，butarewantedinall。andiftheycannotalwaysbeeasilytransferredfromonetradetootherkindredtrades，thechiefreasonisthattheyrequiretobesupplementedbysomeknowledgeofmaterialsandfamiliaritywithspecialprocesses。
　　Wemaythenusethetermgeneralabilitytodenotethosefacultiesandthatgeneralknowledgeandintelligencewhichareinvaryingdegreesthecommonpropertyofallthehighergradesofindustry。whilethatmanualdexterityandthatacquaintancewithparticularmaterialsandprocesseswhicharerequiredforthespecialpurposesofindividualtradesmaybeclassedasspecializedability。
　　3。Generalabilitydependslargelyonthesurroundingsofchildhoodandyouth。Inthisthefirstandfarthemostpowerfulinfluenceisthatofthemother。2*Nextcomestheinfluenceofthefather，ofotherchildren，andinsomecasesofservants。3*
　　Asyearspassonthechildoftheworkingmanlearnsagreatdealfromwhatheseesandhearsgoingonaroundhim。andwhenweinquireintotheadvantagesforstartinginlifewhichchildrenofthewell-to-doclasseshaveoverthoseofartisans，andwhichtheseintheirturnhaveoverthechildrenofunskilledlabourers，weshallhavetoconsidertheseinfluencesofhomemoreindetail。Butatpresentwemaypasstoconsiderthemoregeneralinfluencesofschooleducation。
　　Littleneedbesaidofgeneraleducation。thoughtheinfluenceevenofthatonindustrialefficiencyisgreaterthanitappears。Itistruethat。thechildrenoftheworkingclassesmustveryoftenleaveschool，whentheyhavebutlearnttheelementsofreading，writing，arithmeticanddrawing。anditissometimesarguedthatpartofthelittletimespentonthesesubjectswouldbebettergiventopracticalwork。Buttheadvancemadeatschoolisimportantnotsomuchonitsownaccount，asforthepoweroffutureadvancewhichaschooleducationgives。
　　Foratrulyliberalgeneraleducationadaptsthemindtouseitsbestfacultiesinbusinessandtousebusinessitselfasameansofincreasingculture。thoughitdoesnotconcernitselfwiththedetailsofparticulartrades：thatisleftfortechnicaleducation。4*
　　4。Technicaleducationhasinlikemannerraiseditsaimsinrecentyears。Itusedtomeanlittlemorethanimpartingthatmanualdexterityandthatelementaryknowledgeofmachineryandprocesseswhichanintelligentladquicklypicksupforhimselfwhenhisworkhasbegun。thoughifhehaslearntitbeforehand，hecanperhapsearnafewshillingsmoreatstartingthanifhehadbeenquiteignorant。Butsuchso-callededucationdoesnotdevelopfaculties。itratherhindersthemfrombeingdeveloped。A
　　lad，whohaspickeduptheknowledgeforhimself，haseducatedhimselfbysodoing。andheislikelytomakebetterprogressinthefuturethanonewhohasbeentaughtinaschoolofthisold-fashionedkind。Technicaleducationishoweveroutgrowingitsmistakes。andisaiming，firstly，atgivingageneralcommandovertheuseofeyesandfingersthoughtherearesignsthatthisworkisbeingtakenoverbygeneraleducation，towhichitproperlybelongs。andsecondlyatimpartingartisticskillandknowledge，andmethodsofinvestigation，whichareusefulinparticularoccupations，butareseldomproperlyacquiredinthecourseofpracticalwork。Itishowevertoberememberedthateveryadvanceintheaccuracyandversatilityofautomaticmachinerynarrowstherangeofmanualworkinwhichcommandoverhandandeyeisatahighpremium。andthatthosefacultieswhicharetrainedbygeneraleducationinitsbestformsareeverrisinginimportance。5*
　　AccordingtothebestEnglishopinions，technicaleducationforthehigherranksofindustryshouldkeeptheaimofdevelopingthefacultiesalmostasconstantlybeforeitasgeneraleducationdoes。Itshouldrestonthesamebasisasathoroughgeneraleducation，butshouldgoontoworkoutindetailspecialbranchesofknowledgeforthebenefitofparticulartrades。6*OuraimshouldbetoaddthescientifictraininginwhichthecountriesofWesternEuropeareaheadofustothatdaringandrestlessenergyandthosepracticalinstincts，whichseldomflourishunlessthebestyearsofyoutharespentintheworkshop。recollectingalwaysthatwhateverayouthlearnsforhimselfbydirectexperienceinwell-conductedworks，teacheshimmoreandstimulateshismentalactivitymorethanifitweretaughthimbyamasterinatechnicalschoolwithmodelinstruments。7*
　　Theoldapprenticeshipsystemisnotexactlysuitedtomodernconditionsandithasfallenintodisuse。butasubstituteforitiswanted。Withinthelastfewyearsmanyoftheablestmanufacturershavebeguntosetthefashionofmakingtheirsonsworkthrougheverystageinsuccessionofthebusinesstheywillultimatelyhavetocontrol。butthissplendideducationcanbehadonlybyafew。Somanyandvariousarethebranchesofanygreatmodernindustrythatitwouldbeimpossiblefortheemployerstoundertake，astheyusedtodo，thateveryyouthcommittedtotheircareshouldlearnall。andindeedaladofordinaryabilitywouldbebewilderedbytheattempt。Butitdoesnotseemimpracticabletorevivetheapprenticeshipsysteminamodifiedform。8*
　　Thegreatepoch-makinginventionsinindustrycametillrecentlyalmostexclusivelyfromEngland。Butnowothernationsarejoiningintherace。TheexcellenceofthecommonschoolsoftheAmericans，thevarietyoftheirlives，theinterchangeofideasbetweendifferentracesamongthem，andthepeculiarconditionsoftheiragriculturehavedevelopedarestlessspiritofinquiry。whiletechnicaleducationisnowbeingpushedonwithgreatvigour。Ontheotherhand，thediffusionofscientificknowledgeamongthemiddleandeventheworkingclassesofGermany，combinedwiththeirfamiliaritywithmodernlanguagesandtheirhabitsoftravellinginpursuitofinstruction，hasenabledthemtokeepupwithEnglishandAmericanmechanicsandtotaketheleadinmanyoftheapplicationsofchemistrytobusiness。9*
　　5。Itistruethattherearemanykindsofworkwhichcanbedoneasefficientlybyanuneducatedasbyaneducatedworkman：
　　andthatthehigherbranchesofeducationareoflittledirectuseexcepttoemployersandforemenandacomparativelysmallnumberofartisans。Butagoodeducationconfersgreatindirectbenefitsevenontheordinaryworkman。Itstimulateshismentalactivity。itfostersinhimahabitofwiseinquisitiveness。itmakeshimmoreintelligent，moreready，moretrustworthyinhisordinarywork。itraisesthetoneofhislifeinworkinghoursandoutofworkinghours。itisthusanimportantmeanstowardstheproductionofmaterialwealth。atthesametimethat，regardedasanendinitself，itisinferiortononeofthosewhichtheproductionofmaterialwealthcanbemadetosubserve。
　　Wemusthoweverlookinanotherdirectionforapart，perhapsthegreaterpart，oftheimmediateeconomicgainwhichthenationmayderivefromanimprovementinthegeneralandtechnicaleducationofthemassofthepeople。Wemustlooknotsomuchatthosewhostayintherankandfileoftheworkingclasses，asatthosewhorisefromahumblebirthtojointhehigherranksofskilledartisans，tobecomeforemenoremployers，toadvancetheboundariesofscience，orpossiblytoaddtothenationalwealthinartandliterature。
　　Thelawswhichgovernthebirthofgeniusareinscrutable。Itisprobablethatthepercentageofchildrenoftheworkingclasseswhoareendowedwithnaturalabilitiesofthehighestorderisnotsogreatasthatofthechildrenofpeoplewhohaveattainedorhaveinheritedahigherpositioninsociety。Butsincethemanuallabourclassesarefourorfivetimesasnumerousasallotherclassesputtogether，itisnotunlikelythatmorethanhalfthebestnaturalgeniusthatisbornintothecountrybelongstothem。andofthisagreatpartisfruitlessforwantofopportunity。Thereisnoextravagancemoreprejudicialtothegrowthofnationalwealththanthatwastefulnegligencewhichallowsgeniusthathappenstobebornoflowlyparentagetoexpenditselfinlowlywork。Nochangewouldconducesomuchtoarapidincreaseofmaterialwealthasanimprovementinourschools，andespeciallythoseofthemiddlegrades，provideditbecombinedwithanextensivesystemofscholarships，whichwillenablethecleversonofaworkingmantorisegraduallyfromschooltoschooltillhehasthebesttheoreticalandpracticaleducationwhichtheagecangive。
　　TotheabilitiesofchildrenoftheworkingclassesmaybeascribedthegreaterpartofthesuccessofthefreetownsintheMiddleAgesandofScotlandinrecenttimes。EvenwithinEnglanditselfthereisalessonofthesamekindtobelearnt：progressismostrapidinthosepartsofthecountryinwhichthegreatestproportionoftheleadersofindustryarethesonsofworkingmen。Forinstance，thebeginningofthemanufacturingerafoundsocialdistinctionsmorecloselymarkedandmorefirmlyestablishedintheSouththanintheNorthofEngland。IntheSouthsomethingofaspiritofcastehasheldbacktheworkingmenandthesonsofworkingmenfromrisingtopostsofcommand。
　　andtheoldestablishedfamilieshavebeenwantinginthatelasticityandfreshnessofmindwhichnosocialadvantagescansupply，andwhichcomesonlyfromnaturalgifts。Thisspiritofcaste，andthisdeficiencyofnewbloodamongtheleadersofindustry，havemutuallysustainedoneanother。andtherearenotafewtownsintheSouthofEnglandwhosedecadencewithinlivingmemorycanbetracedinagreatmeasuretothiscause。
　　6。Educationinartstandsonasomewhatdifferentfootingfromeducationinhardthinking：forwhilethelatternearlyalwaysstrengthensthecharacter，theformernotunfrequentlyfailstodothis。Neverthelessthedevelopmentoftheartisticfacultiesofthepeopleisinitselfanaimoftheveryhighestimportance，andisbecomingachieffactorofindustrialefficiency。
　　Wearehereconcernedalmostexclusivelywiththosebranchesofartwhichappealtotheeye。Forthoughliteratureandmusiccontributeasmuchandmoretothefulnessoflife，yettheirdevelopmentdoesnotdirectlyaffect，anddoesnotdependupon，themethodsofbusiness，theprocessesofmanufactureandtheskillofartisans。
　　TheartisanofEuropeintheMiddleAges，andofeasterncountriesnow，hasperhapsobtainedcreditformoreoriginalitythanhehasreallypossessed。Easterncarpets，forinstance，arefullofgrandconceptions：butifweexamineagreatmanyexamplesoftheartofanyoneplace，selectedperhapsfromtheworkofseveralcenturies，weoftenfindverylittlevarietyintheirfundamentalideas。Butinthemoderneraofrapidchanges——somecausedbyfashionandsomebythebeneficialmovementsofindustrialandsocialprogress——everyonefeelsfreetomakeanewdeparture，everyonehastorelyinthemainonhisownresources：thereisnoslowlymaturedpubliccriticismtoguidehim。10*
　　Thisishowevernottheonly，perhapsnotthechiefdisadvantageunderwhichartisticdesignlaboursinourownage。
　　ThereisnogoodreasonforbelievingthatthechildrenofordinaryworkmenintheMiddleAgeshadmorepowerofartisticoriginationthanthoseofordinaryvillagecarpentersorblacksmithsofto-day。butifoneamongtenthousandhappenedtohavegenius，itfoundventinhisworkandwasstimulatedbythecompetitionofthegildsandinotherways。Butthemodernartisanisapttobeoccupiedinthemanagementofmachinery。andthoughthefacultieswhichhedevelopsmaybemoresolidandmayhelpmoreinthelongruntowardsthehighestprogressofthehumanrace，thandidthetasteandfancyofhismedievalpredecessor，yettheydonotcontributedirectlytowardstheprogressofart。Andifheshouldfindinhimselfahigherorderofabilitythanamonghisfellows，hewillprobablyendeavourtotakealeadingpartinthemanagementofatrades-unionorsomeothersociety，ortocollecttogetheralittlestoreofcapitalandtoriseoutofthattradeinwhichhewaseducated。Thesearenotignobleaims。buthisambitionwouldperhapshavebeennoblerandmorefruitfulofgoodtotheworld，ifhehadstayedinhisoldtradeandstriventocreateworksofbeautywhichshouldliveafterhehadgone。
　　Itmusthoweverbeadmittedthathewouldhavegreatdifficultiesindoingthis。Theshortnessofthetimewhichweallowourselvesforchangesintheartsofdecorationisscarcelyagreaterevilthanthewidthoftheareaoftheworldoverwhichtheyarespread。forthatcausesafurtherdistractionofthehastyandhurriedeffortsofthedesigner，bycompellinghimtobealwayswatchingtheworldmovementsofthesupplyofanddemandforartproducts。Thisisataskforwhichtheartisan，whoworkswithhisownhands，isnotwellfitted。andinconsequencenow-a-daystheordinaryartisanfindsitbesttofollowandnottolead。EventhesupremeskilloftheLyonsweavershowsitselfnowalmostexclusivelyinaninheritedpowerofdelicatemanipulation，andfineperceptionofcolour，thatenablehimtocarryoutperfectlytheideasofprofessionaldesigners。
　　Increasingwealthisenablingpeopletobuythingsofallkindstosuitthefancy，withbutasecondaryregardtotheirpowersofwearing。sothatinallkindsofclothingandfurnitureitiseverydaymoretruethatitisthepatternwhichsellsthethings。TheinfluenceofthelateWilliamMorrisandothers，combinedwiththeleadwhichmanyEnglishdesignershavederivedfromOrientalandespeciallyPersianandIndianmastersofcolourisacknowledgedbyFrenchmenthemselvestohaveattainedthefirstrankforcertainclassesofEnglishfabricsanddecorativeproducts。ButinotherdirectionsFranceissupreme。SomeEnglishmanufacturerswhoholdtheirownagainsttheworldwould，itissaid，bedrivenoutofthemarketiftheyhadtodependonEnglishpatterns。ThisispartlyduetothefactthatParishavingtheleadinfashions，astheresultofaninheritedquickandsubtletasteinwomen’sdress，aParisiandesignislikelytobeinharmonywiththecomingfashionsandtosellbetterthanadesignofequalintrinsicworthfromelsewhere。11*
　　Technicaleducation，then，thoughitcannotaddmuchdirectlytothesupplyofgeniusinart，anymorethanitcaninscienceorinbusiness，canyetsavemuchnaturalartisticgeniusfromrunningtowaste。anditiscalledontodothisallthemorebecausethetrainingthatwasgivenbytheolderformsofhandicraftcanneverberevivedonalargescale。12*
　　7。Wemaythenconcludethatthewisdomofexpendingpublicandprivatefundsoneducationisnottobemeasuredbyitsdirectfruitsalone。Itwillbeprofitableasamereinvestment，togivethemassesofthepeoplemuchgreateropportunitiesthantheycangenerallyavailthemselvesof。Forbythismeansmany，whowouldhavediedunknown，areenabledtogetthestartneededforbringingouttheirlatentabilities。Andtheeconomicvalueofonegreatindustrialgeniusissufficienttocovertheexpensesoftheeducationofawholetown。foronenewidea，suchasBessemer’schiefinvention，addsasmuchtoEngland’sproductivepowerasthelabourofahundredthousandmen。Lessdirect，butnotlessinimportance，istheaidgiventoproductionbymedicaldiscoveriessuchasthoseofJennerorPasteur，whichincreaseourhealthandworkingpower。andagainbyscientificworksuchasthatofmathematicsorbiology，eventhoughmanygenerationsmaypassawaybeforeitbearsvisiblefruitingreatermaterialwell-being。AllthatisspentduringmanyyearsinopeningthemeansofhighereducationtothemasseswouldbewellpaidforifitcalledoutonemoreNewtonorDarwin，ShakespeareorBeethoven。
　　TherearefewpracticalproblemsinwhichtheeconomisthasamoredirectinterestthanthoserelatingtotheprinciplesonwhichtheexpenseoftheeducationofchildrenshouldbedividedbetweentheStateandtheparents。Butwemustnowconsidertheconditionsthatdeterminethepowerandthewilloftheparentstobeartheirshareoftheexpense，whateveritmaybe。
　　Mostparentsarewillingenoughtodofortheirchildrenwhattheirownparentsdidforthem。andperhapseventogoalittlebeyonditiftheyfindthemselvesamongneighbourswhohappentohavearatherhigherstandard。Buttodomorethanthisrequires，inadditiontothemoralqualitiesofunselfishnessandawarmthofaffectionthatareperhapsnotrare，acertainhabitofmindwhichisasyetnotverycommon。Itrequiresthehabitofdistinctlyrealizingthefuture，ofregardingadistanteventasofnearlythesameimportanceasifitwerecloseathanddiscountingthefutureatalowrateofinterest。thishabitisatonceachiefproductandachiefcauseofcivilization，andisseldomfully。developedexceptamongthemiddleandupperclassesofthemorecultivatednations。
　　8。Parentsgenerallybringuptheirchildrentooccupationsintheirowngrade，andthereforethetotalsupplyoflabourinanygradeinonegenerationisinagreatmeasuredeterminedbythenumbersinthatgradeintheprecedinggeneration，yetwithinthegradeitselfthereisgreater。mobility。Iftheadvantagesofanyoneoccupationinitriseabovetheaverage，thereisaquickinfluxofyouthfromotheroccupationswithinthegrade。Theverticalmovementfromonegradetoanotherisseldomveryrapidoronaverylargescale。but，whentheadvantagesofagradehaverisenrelativelytothedifficultyoftheworkrequiredofit，manysmallstreamsoflabour，bothyouthfulandadult，willbegintoflowtowardsit。andthoughnoneofthemmaybeverylarge，theywilltogetherhaveasufficientvolumetosatisfybeforelongtheincreaseddemandforlabourinthatgrade。
　　Wemustdefertoalaterstageafullerdiscussionoftheobstacleswhichtheconditionsofanyplaceandtimeopposetothefreemobilityoflabour，andalsooftheinducementswhichtheyoffertoanyonetochangehisoccupationortobringuphissontoanoccupationdifferentfromhisown。Butwehaveseenenoughtoconcludethat，otherthingsbeingequal，anincreaseintheearningsthataretobegotbylabourincreasesitsrateofgrowth。or，inotherwords，ariseinitsdemandpriceincreasesthesupplyofit。Ifthestateofknowledge，andofethical，socialanddomestichabitsbegiven。thenthevigourofthepeopleasawholeifnottheirnumbers，andboththenumbersandvigourofanytradeinparticular，maybesaidtohaveasupplypriceinthissense，thatthereisacertainlevelofthedemandpricewhichwillkeepthemstationary。thatahigherpricewouldcausethemtoincrease，andthatalowerpricewouldcausethemtodecrease。Thuseconomiccausesplayapartingoverningthegrowthofpopulationasawholeaswellasthesupplyoflabourinanyparticulargrade。Buttheirinfluenceonthenumbersofthepopulationasawholeislargelyindirect。andisexertedbywayoftheethical，socialanddomestichabitsoflife。Forthesehabitsarethemselvesinfluencedbyeconomiccausesdeeply，thoughslowly，andinwayssomeofwhicharedifficulttotrace，andimpossibletopredict。13*
　　NOTES：
　　1。Inthisconnectionitisworthwhiletonoticethatthefullimportanceofanepoch-makingideaisoftennotperceivedinthegenerationinwhichitismade：itstartsthethoughtsoftheworldonanewtrack，butthechangeofdirectionisnotobviousuntiltheturning-pointhasbeenleftsomewaybehind。Inthesamewaythemechanicalinventionsofeveryageareapttobeunderratedrelativelytothoseofearliertimes。Foranewdiscoveryisseldomfullyeffectiveforpracticalpurposestillmanyminorimprovementsandsubsidiarydiscoverieshavegatheredthemselvesaroundit：aninventionthatmakesanepochisveryoftenagenerationolderthantheepochwhichitmakes。Thusitisthateachgenerationseemstobechieflyoccupiedinworkingoutthethoughtsoftheprecedingone。whilethefullimportanceofitsownthoughtsisasyetnotclearlyseen。
　　2。AccordingtoGaltonthestatementthatallgreatmenhavehadgreatmothersgoestoofar：butthatshowsonlythatthemother’sinfluencedoesnotoutweighallothers。notthatitisnotgreaterthananyoneofthem。Hesaysthatthemother’sinfluenceismosteasilytraceableamongtheologiansandmenofscience，becauseanearnestmotherleadsherchildtofeeldeeplyaboutgreatthings。andathoughtfulmotherdoesnotrepress，butencouragesthatchildishcuriositywhichistherawmaterialofscientifichabitsofthought。
　　3。Therearemanyfinenaturesamongdomesticservants。Butthosewholiveinveryrichhousesareapttogetself-indulgenthabits，tooverestimatetheimportanceofwealth，andgenerallytoputtheloweraimsoflifeabovethehigher，inawaythatisnotcommonwithindependentworkingpeople。Thecompanyinwhichthechildrenofsomeofourbesthousesspendmuchoftheirtime，islessennoblingthanthatoftheaveragecottage。Yetintheseveryhouses，noservantwhoisnotspeciallyqualified，isallowedtotakechargeofayoungretrieverorayounghorse。
　　4。Theabsenceofacarefulgeneraleducationforthechildrenoftheworkingclasses，hasbeenhardlylessdetrimentaltoindustrialprogressthanthenarrowrangeoftheoldgrammar-schooleducationofthemiddleclasses。Tillrecentlyindeeditwastheonlyonebywhichtheaverageschoolmastercouldinducehispupilstousetheirmindsinanythinghigherthantheabsorptionofknowledge。Itwasthereforerightlycalledliberal，becauseitwasthebestthatwastobehad。Butitfailedinitsaimoffamiliarizingthecitizenwiththegreatthoughtsofantiquity。itwasgenerallyforgottenassoonasschool-timewasover。anditraisedaninjuriousantagonismbetweenbusinessandculture。Nowhowevertheadvanceofknowledgeisenablingustousescienceandarttosupplementthecurriculumofthegrammar-school，andtogivetothosewhocanafforditaneducationthatdevelopstheirbestfaculties，andstartsthemonthetrackofthoughtswhichwillmoststimulatethehigheractivitiesoftheirmindsinafter-life。Thetimespentonlearningtospellisalmostwasted：ifspellingandpronunciationarebroughtintoharmonyintheEnglishlanguageasinmostothers，aboutayearwillbeaddedtotheeffectiveschooleducationwithoutanyadditionalcost。
　　5。AsNasmythsays。ifalad，havingdroppedtwopeasatrandomonatable，canreadilyputathirdpeamidwayinalinebetweenthem，heisonthewaytobecomeagoodmechanic。CommandovereyeandhandisgainedintheordinaryEnglishgames，nolessthanintheplayfulworkoftheKinder-garten。Drawinghasalwaysbeenontheborderlinebetweenworkandplay。