"Thevisualizingfacultyisanaturalgift，and，likeallnaturalgifts，hasatendencytobeinherited。Inthisfacultythetendencytoinheritanceisexceptionallystrong，asIhaveabundantevidencetoprove，especiallyinrespecttocertainratherrarepeculiarities，……which，whentheyexistatall，areusuallyfoundamongtwo，three，ormorebrothersandsisters，parents，children，unclesandaunts，andcousins。
"Sincefamiliesdiffersomuchinrespecttothisgift，wemaysupposethatraceswouldalsodiffer，andtherecanbenodoubtthatsuchisthecase。Ihardlyliketorefertocivilizednations，becausetheirnaturalfacultiesaretoomuchmodifiedbyeducationtoallowoftheirbeingappraisedinanoff-handfashion。Imay，however，speakoftheFrench，whoappeartopossessthevisualizingfacultyinahighdegree。Thepeculiarabilitytheyshowinprearrangingceremonialsandfê；tesofallkinds，andtheirundoubtedgeniusfortacticsandstrategy，showthattheyareabletoforeseeeffectswithunusualclearness。
Theiringenuityinalltechnicalcontrivancesisanadditionaltestimonyinthesamedirection，andsoistheirsingularclearnessofexpression。
Theirphraseis"figurez-vous，’or’picturetoyourself，’seemstoexpresstheirdominantmodeofperception。Ourequivalentof’Imagine’isambiguous……
"Ihavemanycasesofpersonsmentallyreadingoffscoreswhenplayingthepianoforte，ormanuscriptwhentheyaremakingspeeches。Onestatesmanhasassuredmethatacertainhesitationinutterancewhichhehasattimesisduetohisbeingplaguedbytheimageofhis[p。56]manuscriptspeechwithitsoriginalerasuresandcorrections。
Hecannotlaytheghost，andhepuzzlesintryingtodecipherit。
"Somefewpersonsseementallyinprinteverywordthatisuttered；theyattendtothevisualequivalentandnottothesoundofthewords，andtheyreadthemoffusuallyasfromalongimaginarystripofpaper，suchasisunwoundfromtelegraphicinstruments。"
ThereaderwillfindfurtherdetailsinMr。Galton’s’InquiriesintoHumanFaculty，’pp。83-114。[9]Ihavemyselfformanyyearscollectedfromeachandallofmypsychology-studentsdescriptionsoftheirownvisualimagination；andfoundtogetherwithsomecuriousidiosyncrasiescorroborationofallthevariationswhichMr。Galtonreports。
Asexamples，Isubjoinextractsfromtwocasesneartheendsofthescale。
Thewritersarefirstcousins，grandsonsofadistinguishedmanofscience。
Theonewhoisagoodvisualizersays:
"Thismorning’sbreakfast-tableisbothdimandbright；itisdimifItrytothinkofitwhenmyeyesareopenuponanyobject；itisperfectlyclearandbrightifIthinkofitwithmyeyesclosed——Alltheobjectsareclearatonce，yetwhenIconfinemyattentiontoanyoneobjectitbecomesfarmoredistinct——Ihavemorepowertorecallcolorthananyotheronething:if，forexample，I
weretorecallaplatedecoratedwithflowersIcouldreproduceinadrawingtheexacttone，etc。Thecolorofanythingthatwasonthetableisperfectlyvivid——Thereisverylittlelimitationtotheextentofmyimages:I
canseeallfoursidesofaroom，Icanseeallfoursidesoftwo，three，four，evenmoreroomswithsuchdistinctnessthatifyoushouldaskmewhatwasinanyparticularplaceinanyone，oraskmetocountthechairs，etc。，Icoulddoitwithouttheleasthesitation——ThemoreIlearnbyheartthemoreclearlydoIseeimagesofmypages。EvenbeforeIcanrecitethelinesIseethemsothatIcouldgivethemveryslowlywordforword，butmymindissooccupiedinlookingatmyprintedimagethatIhavenoideaofwhatIamsaying，ofthesenseofit，etc。WhenIfirstfoundmyselfdoingthisIusedtothinkitwasmerelybecauseIknewthelinesimperfectly；
butIhavequiteconvincedmyselfthatIreallydoseeanimage。Thestrongestproofthatsuchisreallythefactis，Ithink，thefollowing:
"Icanlookdownthementallyseenpageandseethewordsthatcommenceallthelines，andfromanyoneofthesewordsIcancontinue[p。57]theline。Ifindthismucheasiertodoifthewordsbeginillastraightlinethaniftherearebreaks。
Example:
É；tantfait……Tous……Ades……Quefit……Cé；resAvec……Unfleur……Comme……LaFontaine8。iv。"
Thepoorvisualizersays:
"Myabilitytoformmentalimagesseems，fromwhatIhavestudiedofotherpeople’simages，tobedefective，andsomewhatpeculiar。TheprocessbywhichIseemtorememberanyparticulareventisnotbyxseriesofdistinctimages，butasortofpanorama，thefaintestimpressionsofwhichareperceptiblethroughathickfog——I
cannotshutmyeyesandgetadistinctimageofanyone，althoughIusedtobeabletoafewyearsago，andthefacultyseemstohavegraduallyslippedaway——Inmymostvividdreams，wheretheeventsappearlikethemostrealfacts，Iamoftentroubledwithdimnessofsightwhichcausestheimagestoappearindistinct——Tocometothequestionofthebreakfast-table，thereisnothingdefiniteaboutit。Everythingisvague。IcannotsaywhatIsee。Icouldnotpossiblycountthechairs，butIhappentoknowthatthereareten。Iseenothingindetail——ThechiefthingisingeneralimpressionthatIcannottellexactlywhatIdosee。Thecoloringisaboutthesame，asfarasIcanrecallit，onlyverymuchwashedout。PerhapstheonlycolorIcanseeatalldistinctlyisthatofthetablecloth，andIcouldprobablyseethecolorofthewall-paperifIcouldrememberwhatcoloritwas。"
Apersonwhosevisualimaginationisstrongfindsithardtounderstandhowthosewhoarewithoutthefacultycanthinkatall。Somepeopleundoubtedlyhavenovisualimagesatallworthyofthename，[10]andinsteadofseeingtheirbreakfast-table，theytellyouthattheyrememberitorknowwhatwasonit。
Thisknowingandrememberingtakes[p。58]placeundoubtedlybymeansofverbalimages，aswasexplainedalreadyinChapterIX，pp。265-6。
ThestudyofAphasiaseep。54hasoflateyearsshownhowunexpectedlygreatarethedifferencesbetweenindividualsinrespectofimagination。Andatthesametimethediscrepanciesbetweenlesionandsymptomindifferentcasesofthediseasehavebeenlargelyclearedup。Insomeindividualsthehabitual’thought-stuff，’ifonemaysocallit，isvisual；inothersitisauditory，articulatory，ormotor；inmost，perhaps，itisevenlymixed。Thesamelocalcerebralinjurymustneedsworkdifferentpracticalresultsinpersonswhodifferinthisway。Inoneitwillthrowamuchusedbrain-tractoutofgear；intheotheritmayaffectanunimportantregion。AparticularlyinstructivecasewaspublishedbyCharcotin1883。[11]ThepatientwasMr。X。，amerchant，borninVienna，highlyeducated，masterofGerman，Spanish，French，Greek，andLatin。UptothebeginningofthemaladywhichtookhimtoProfessorCharcot，hereadHomeratsight。Hecould，startingfromanyverseoutofthefirstbookoftheIliad，repeatthefollowingverseswithouthesitating，byheart。VirgilandHoracewerefamiliar。HealsoknewenoughofmodernGreekforbusinesspurposes。UptowithinayearfromthetimeCharcotsawhimheenjoyedanexceptionalvisualmemory，Henosoonerthoughtofpersonsorthings，butfeatures，forms，andcolorsarosewiththesameclearness，sharpness，andaccuracyasiftheobjectsstoodbeforehim。Whenhetriedtorecallafactorafigureinhisvoluminouspolyglotcorrespondence，thelettersthemselvesappearedbeforehimwiththeirentirecontent，irregularities，erasuresandall。Atschoolherecitedfromamentallyseenpagewhichbereadofflinebylineandletterbyletter。Inmakingcomputations，heranhismentaleyedownimaginarycolumnsoffigures，andperformedinthiswaythemostvariedoperationsofarithmetic。Hecouldneverthinkofapassageinaplaywithouttheentirescene，stage，actors，andaudienceappearingtohim。Hehadbeenagreattraveller。Beingagooddraughtsman，heusedtosketchviewswhichpleasedhim；andhismemoryalwaysbroughtbacktheentirelandscapeexactly。Ifliethoughtofaconversation，asaying，anengagement，theplace，thepeople，theentirescenerosebeforehismind。
Hisauditorymemorywasalwaysdeficient，oratleastsecondary。Hehadnotasteformusic。[p。59]
Ayearandahalfprevioustoexamination，afterbusiness-anxieties，lossofsleep，appetite，etc。，henoticedsuddenlyonedayailextraordinarychangeinhimself。Aftercompleteconfusion，therecameaviolentcontrastbetweenhisoldandhisnewstate。Everythingabouthimseemedsonewandforeignthat，atfirsthethoughthemustbegoingmad。Hewasnervousandirritable。Althoughhesawallthingsdistinct，hehadentirelylosthismemoryforformsandcolors。Onascertainingthis，hebecamereassuredastohissanity。Hesoondiscoveredthathecouldcarryonhisaffairsbyusinghismemoryinanaltogethernewway。Hecannowdescribeclearlythedifferencebetweenhistwoconditions。
EverytimehereturnstoA。，fromwhichplacebusinessoftencallshim，heseemstohimselfasifenteringastrangecity。Heviewsthemonuments，houses，andstreetswiththesamesurpriseasifhesawthemfortilefirsttime。Gradually，however，hismemoryreturns，andhefindshimselfathomeagain。Whenaskedtodescribetheprincipalpublicplaceofthetown，heanswered，"Iknowthatitisthere，butitisimpossibletoimagineit，andIcantellyounothingaboutit。"HehasoftendrawntheportofA。To-dayhevainlytriestotraceitsprincipaloutlines。Askedtodrawaminaret，liereflects，saysitisasquaretower，anddraws，rudely，fourlines，oneforground，onefortop，andtwoforsides。Askedtodrawanarcade，hesays，"Irememberthatitcontainssemi-circulararches，andthattwoofthemmeetingatananglemakeavault，buthowitlooksIamabsolutelyunabletoimagine。"Theprofileofamanwhichhedrewbyrequestwasasifdrawnbyalittlechild；andyetheconfessedthathehadbeenhelpedtodrawitbylookingatthebystanders。
Similarlyliedrewashapelessscribbleforatree。
Hecannomorerememberhiswife’sandchildren’sfacesthanhecanremembertheportofA。Evenafterbeingwiththemsometimetheyseemunusualtohim。Heforgetshisownface，andoncespoketohisimageinamirror，takingitforastranger。Hecomplainsofhislossoffeelingforcolors。"Mywifehasblackhair，thisIknow；
butIcannomorerecallitscolorthanIcanherpersonandfeatures。"
Thisvisualamnesiaextendstodatingobjectsfromhischildhood’syears——paternalmansion，etc。，forgotten。
Nootherdisturbancesbutthislossofvisualimages。Nowwhenheseekssomethinginhiscorrespondence，hemustrummageamongtheletterslikeothermen，untilhemeetsthepassage。HecanrecallonlythefirstfewversesoftheIliad，andmustgropetoreadHomer，Virgil，andHorace。Figureswhichheaddshemustnowwhispertohimself。Herealizesclearlythathemusthelphismemoryoutwithauditoryimages，whichhedoeswitheffort。Thewordsandexpressionswhichherecallsseemnowtoechoinhisear，analtogethernovelsensationsforhim。Ifhewishestolearnbyheartanything，aseriesofphrasesforexample，hemustreadthemseveraltimesaloud，soastoimpresshisear。Whenlaterherepeatsthethinginquestion，thesensationofin-[p。60]wardhearingwhichprecedesarticulationrisesupinhismind。Thisfeelingwasformerlyunknowntohim。HespeaksFrenchfluently；
butaffirmsthathecallnolongerthinkinFrench；butmustgethisFrenchwordsbytranslatingthemfromSpanishorGerman，thelanguagesofhischildhood。Hedreamsnomoreinvisualterms，butonlyinwords，usuallySpanishwords。Acertaindegreeofverbalblindnessaffectshim——heistroubledbytheGreekalphabet，etc。[12]
Ifthispatienthadpossessedtheauditorytypeofimaginationfromthestart，itisevidentthattheinjury，whateveritwas，tohiscentresforopticalimagination，wouldhaveaffectedhispracticallifemuchlessprofoundly。
"Theauditorytype，"saysM。A。Binet，[13]"appearstoberarerthanthevisual。Personsofthistypeimaginewhattheythinkofinthelanguageofsound。Inordertorememberalessontheyimpressupontheirmind，notthelookofthepage，butthesoundoftilewords。Theyreason，aswellasremember，byear。Inperformingamentaladditiontheyrepeatverballythenamesofthefigures，andadd，asitwere，thesounds，withoutanythoughtofthegraphicsigns。Imaginationalsotakestheauditoryform。’WhenIwriteascene，’saidLegouvé；toScribe，’Ihear；butyousee。IneachphrasewhichIwrite，thevoiceofthepersonagewhospeaksstrikesmyear。’Vous，quiê；teslethé；â；tremê；me，youractorswalk，gesticulatebeforeyoureyes；Iamalistener，youaspectator。’——’Nothingmoretrue，’saidScribe；’doyouknowwhereIamwhenIwriteapiece？Inthemiddleoftheparterre。’Itisclearthatthepureaudile，seekingtodeveloponlyasingleoneofhisfaculties，may，likethepurevisualizer，performastoundingfeatsofmemory——Mozart，forexample，notingfrommemorytheMiserereoftheSistineChapelaftertwohearings；thedeafBeethoven，composingandinwardlyrepeatinghisenormoussymphonies。Ontheotherhand，themanofauditorytype，likethevisual，isexposedtoseriousdangers；forifhelosehisauditoryimages，heiswithoutresourceandbreaksdowncompletely。
"Itispossiblethatpersonswithhallucinationsofhearing，andin-[p。61]dividualsafflictedwiththemaniathattheyarevictimsofpersecution，mayallbelongtotheauditorytype；andthatthepredominanceofacertainkindofimaginationmaypredisposetoacertainorderofhallucinations，andperhapsofdelirium。
"Themotortyperemains——perhapsthemostinterestingofall，andcertainlytheoneofwhichleastisknown。
Personswhobelongtothistype[lesmoters，inFrench，motiles，asMr。GaltonproposestocalltheminEnglish][14]makeuse，inmemory，reasoning，andalltheirintellectualoperations，ofimagesderivedfrommovement。Inordertounderstandthisimportantpoint，itisenoughtorememberthat’allourperceptions，andinparticulartheimportantones，thoseofsightandtouch，containasintegralelementsthemovementsofoureyesandlimbs；andthat，ifmovementiseveranessentialfactorinourreallyseeinganobject，itmustbeanequallyessentialfactorwhenweseethesameobjectinimagination’Ribot。[15]Forexample，thecompleximpressionofaball，whichisthere，inourhand，istheresultantofopticalimpressionsoftouch，ofmuscularadjustmentsoftheeye，ofthemovementsofourfingers，andofthemuscularsensationswhichtheseyield。
Whenweimaginetheball，itsideamustincludetheimagesofthesemuscularsensations，justasitincludesthoseoftheretinalandepidermalsensations。
Theyformsomanymotorimages。Iftheywerenotearlierrecognizedtoexist，thatisbecauseourknowledgeofthemuscularsenseisrelativelysorecent。Inolderpsychologiesitneverwasmentioned，thenumberofsensesbeingrestrictedtofive。
"Therearepersonswhorememberadrawingbetterwhentheyhavefolloweditsoutlineswiththeirfinger。LecoqdoBoisbaudranusedthismeansinhisartisticteaching，inordertoaccustomhispupilstodrawfrommemory。Hemadethemfollowtheoutlinesoffigureswithapencilheldintheair，forcingthemthustoassociatemuscularwith’visualmemory。Galtonquotesacuriouscorroborativefact。ColonelMoncrieffoftenobservedinNorthAmericayoungIndianswho，visitingoccasionallyhisquarters，interestedthemselvesgreatlyintheengravingswhichwereshownthem。OneofthemfollowedwithcarewiththepointofhisknifetheoutlineofadrawingintheIllustratedLondonNews，sayingthatthiswastoenablehimtocarveitoutthebetteronhisreturnhome。Inthiscasethemotorimageswereto[p。62]reinforcethevisualones。Theyoungsavagewasamotor。[16]……Whenone’smotorimagesaredestroyed，onelosesone’sremembranceofmovements，andsometimes，morecuriouslystill，onelosesthepowerofexecutingthem。Pathologygivesusexamplesinmotoraphasia，agraphia，etc。Takethecaseofagraphia。
Aneducatedman，knowinghowtowrite，suddenlylosesthispower，asaresultofcerebralinjury。Hishandandarmareinnowayparalytic，yethecannotwrite。Whencethislossofpower？Hetellsushimself:henolongerknowshow。Hehasforgottenhowtosetaboutittotracetheletters，hehaslostthememoryofthemovementstobeexecuted，hehasnolongerthemotorimageswhich，whenformerlyhewrote，directedhishand……Otherpatients，affectedwithword-blindness，resorttothesemotorimagespreciselytomakeamendsfortheirotherdeficiency……Anindividualaffectedinthiswaycannotreadletterswhichareplacedbeforehiseyes，evenalthoughhissightbegoodenoughforthepurpose。Thislossofthepowerofreadingbysightmay，atacertaintime，betheonlytroublethepatienthas。Individualsthusmutilatedsucceedinreadingbyaningeniousroundaboutwaywhichtheyoftendiscoverthemselves:itisenoughthattheyshouldtracetheletterswiththeirfingertounderstandtheirsense。
Whathappensinsuchacase？Howcanthehandsupplytheplaceoftheeye？
Themotorimagegivesthekeytotheproblem。Ifthepatientcanread，sotospeak，withhisfingers，itisbecauseintracingthelettershegiveshimselfacertainnumberofmuscularimpressionswhicharethoseofwriting。Inoneword，thepatientreadsbywriting，Charcot:thefeelingofthegraphicmovementssuggeststhesenseofwhatisbeingwrittenaswellassightwould。"[17]
Theimaginationofablind-deafmutelikeLauraBridgmanmustbeconfinedentirelytotactileandmotormaterialAllblindpersonsmartbelongtothe’tactile’and’motile’
typesoftheFrenchauthors。WhentheyoungmanwhosecataractswereremovedbyDr。Franzwasshowndifferentgeometricfigures，hesaidhe"hadnotbeenabletoformfromthemtheideaofasquareandadiskuntilheperceivedasensationofwhathesawinthepointsofhisfingers，asifhereallytouchedtheobjects。"[18]
ProfessorStrickerofVienna，whoseemstohavethemotileformofimaginationdevelopedinunusualstrength，[p。
63]hasgivenaverycarefulanalysisofhisownelseinacoupleofmonographswithwhichallstudentsshouldbecomefamiliar。[19]Hisrecollectionsbothofhisownmovementsandofthoseofotherthingsareaccompaniedinvariablybydistinctmuscularfeelingsinthosepartsofhisbodywhichwouldnaturallybeusedineffectingorinfollowingthemovement。Inthinkingofasoldiermarching，forexample，itisasifhewerehelpingtheimagetomarchbymarchinghimselfinhisrear。Andifhesuppressesthissympatheticfeelinginhisownlegs，andconcentratesallhisattentionontheimaginedsoldier，thelitterbecomes，asitwere，paralysed。Ingeneralhisimaginedmovements，ofwhatsoeverobjects，seemparalysedthemomentnofeelingsofmovementeitherinhisowneyesorinhisownlimbsaccompanythem。
[20]Themovementsofarticulatespeechplayapredominantpartinhismentallife。
"WhenaftermyexperimentalworkIproceedtoitsdescription，asaruleIreproduceinthefirstinstanceonlywords，whichIhadalreadyassociatedwiththeperceptionofthevariousdetailsoftheobservationwhilstthelatterwasgoingon。ForspeechplaysinallmyobservingsoimportantapartthatIordinarilyclothephenomenainwordsasfastasIobservethem。"[21]
Mostpersons，onbeingaskedinwhatsortoftermstheyimaginewords，willsay’intermsofhearing。’
Itisnotuntiltheirattentionisexpresslydrawntothepointthattheyfinditdifficulttosaywhetherauditoryimagesormotorimagesconnectedwiththeorgansofarticulationpredominate。AgoodwayofbringingthedifficultytoconsciousnessisthatproposedbyStricker:Partlyopenyourmouthandthenimagineanywordwithlabialsordentalsinit，suchas’bubble，’’toddle。’Isyourimageundertheseconditionsdistinct？Tomostpeopletheimageisatfirst’thick，’asthesoundofthewordwouldbeiftheytriedtopronounceitwiththelipsparted。Manycanneverimaginethewords[p。64]clearlywiththemouthopen；otherssucceedafterafewpreliminarytrials。Theexperimentproveshowdependentourverbalimaginationisonactualfeelingsinlips，tongue，throat，larynx，etc。
"Whenwerecalltheimpressionofawordorsentence，ifwedonotspeakitout，wefeelthetwitteroftheorgansjustabouttocometothatpoint。Thearticulatingparts——thelarynx，thetongue，thelipsareallsensiblyexcited；asuppressedarticulationisinfactthematerialofourrecollection，theintellectualmanifestation，theideaofspeech。[22]
TheopenmouthinStricker’sexperimentnotonlypreventsactualarticulationofthelabials，butourfeelingofitsopennesskeepsusfromimaginingtheirarticulation，justasasensationofglaringlightwillkeepusfromstronglyimaginingdarkness。Inpersonswhoseauditoryimaginationisweak，thearticulatoryimageseemstoconstitutethewholematerialforverbalthought。ProfessorStrickersaysthatinhisowncasenoauditoryimageentersintothewordsofwhichhethinks。
[23]Likemostpsychologists，however，hemakesofhispersonalpeculiaritiesarule，andsaysthatverbalthinkingisnormallyanduniversallyanexclusivelymotorrepresentation。Icertainlygetauditoryimages，bothofvowelsandofconsonants，inadditiontothearticulatoryimagesorfeelingsonwhichthisauthorlayssuchstress。AndIfindthatnumbersofmystudents，afterrepeatinghisexperiments，cometothisconclusion。Thereisatfirstadifficultyduetotheopenmouth。That，however，soonvanishes，asdoesalsothedifficultyofthinkingofonevowelwhilstcontinuouslysoundinganother。Whatprobablyremainstrue，however，isthatmostmenhavealessauditoryandamorearticulatoryverbalimaginationthantheyareapttobeawareof。[p。65]ProfessorStrickerhimselfhasacousticimages，andcanimaginethesoundsofmusicalinstruments，andthepeculiarvoiceofafriend。Astatisticalinquiryonalargescale，intothevariationsofacoustic，tactile，andmotorimagination，wouldprobablybearlessfruitthanGalton’sinquiryintovisualimages。Afewmonographsbycompetentobservers，likeStricker，abouttheirownpeculiarities，wouldgivemuchmorevaluableinformationaboutthediversitieswhichprevail。[24]
Touch-imagesareverystronginsomepeople。Themostvividtouch-imagescomewhenweourselvesbarelyescapelocalinjury，orwhenweseeanotherinjured。Theplace[p。66]
maythenactuallytinglewiththeimaginarysensation——perhapsnotaltogetherimaginary，sinegoose-flesh，palingorreddening，andotherevidencesofactualmucularcontractioninthespotmayresult。
"Aneducatedman，"saysawriterwhomustalwaysbequotedwhenitisquestionofthepowersofimagination，[25]
"toldmeoncethatonenteringhishouseonedayhereceivedashockfromcrushingthefingerofoneofhislittlechildreninthedoor。Atthemomentofhisfrighthefeltaviolentpaininthecorrespondingfingerofhisownbody，andthispainabodewithhimthreedays。"
Thesameauthormakesthefollowingdiscrimination，whichprobablymostmencouldverify:
"OntheskinIeasilysucceedinbringingoutsuggestedsensationswhereverIwill。ButbecauseitisnecessarytoprotractthementaleffortIcanonlyawakensuchsensationsasareintheirnatureprolonged，aswarmth，cold，pressure。Fleetingsensations，asthoseofaprick，acut，ablow，etc。，Iamunabletocallup，becauseIcannotimaginethemexabruptowiththerequisiteintensity。ThesensationsoftheformerorderIcanexciteuponanypartoftheskin；
andtheymaybecomesolivelythat，whetherIwillornot，Ihavetopassmyhandovertheplacejustasifitwerearealimpressionontheskin。"
[26]
Meyer’saccountofhisownvisualimagesisveryinteresting；andwithitwemaycloseoursurveyofdifferencesbetweenthenormalpowersofimaginingindifferentindividuals。
"Withmuchpractice，"hesays，"Ihavesucceededinmakingitpossibleformetocallupsubjectivevisualsensationsatwill。Itriedallmyexperimentsbydayoratnightwithclosedeyes。
Atfirstitwasverydifficult。Inthefirstexperimentswhichsucceededthewholepicturewasluminous，theshadowsbeinggiveninasomewhatlessstrongbluishlight。InlaterexperimentsIsawtheobjectsdark，withbrightoutlines，orratherIsawoutlinedrawingsofthem，brightonadarkground。Icancomparethesedrawingslesstochalkdrawingsonablackboardthantodrawingsmadewithphosphorusonadarkwallatnight，thoughthephosphoruswouldshowluminousvaporswhichwereabsentfrommylines。
IfIwished，forexample，toseeaface，withoutintendingthatofaparticularperson，Isawtheoutlineofaprofileagainstthedarkbackground。WhenItriedtorepeatanex-[p。67]perimentoftheelderDarwinIsawonlytheedgesofthedieasbrightlinesonadarkground。Sometimes，however，Isawthediereallywhiteanditsedgesblack；itwasthenonapalerground。Icouldsoonatwillchangebetweenawhitediewithblackbordersonalightfield，andablackdiewithwhitebordersonadarkfield；andIcandothisatanymomentnow。Afterlongpractice……theseexperimentssucceededbetterstill。IcannowcallbeforemyeyesalmostanyobjectwhichIplease，asasubjectiveappearance，andthisinitsownnaturalcolorandillumination。Iseethemalmostalwaysonamoreorlesslightordark，mostlydimlychangeableground。EvenknownfacesIcanseequitesharp，withthetruecolorofhairandcheeks。ItisoddthatIseethesefacesmostlyinprofile，whereasthosedescribed[inthepreviousextract]
[27]wereallfull-face。Herearesomeofthefinalresultsoftheseexperiments:
"1Sometimeafterthepictureshavearisentheyvanishorchangeintoothers，withoutmybeingabletopreventit。
"2Whenthecolordoesnotintegrallybelongtotheobject，Icannotalwayscontrolit。Aface，e。g。，neverseemstomeblue，butalwaysinitsnaturalcolor；aredcloth，ontheotherhand，Icansometimeschangetoablueone。
"3Ihavesometimessucceededinseeingpurecolorswithoutobjects；theythenfilltheentirefieldofview。
"4Ioftenfailtoseeobjectswhicharenotknowntome，merefictionsofmyfancy，andinsteadofthemtherewillappearfamiliarobjectsofasimilarsort；forinstance，Ioncetriedtoseeabrasssword-hiltwithabrassguard，insteadofwhichthemorefamiliarpictureofarapier-guardappeared。
"5Mostofthesesubjectiveappearances，especiallywhentheywerebright，leftafter-imagesbehindthemwhentheeyeswerequicklyopenedduringtheirpresence，Forexample，Ithoughtofasilverstirrup，andafterIhadlookedatitawhileIopenedmyeyesandforalongwhileafterwardssawitsafterimage。
"TheseexperimentssucceededbestwhenIlayquietlyonmybackandclosedmyeyes。Icouldbearnonoiseaboutme，asthiskeptthevisionfromattainingtherequisiteintensity。TheexperimentssucceedwithmenowsoeasilythatIamsurprisedtheydidnotdosoatfirst，Ifeelasthoughtheyoughttosucceedwitheveryone。Theimportantpointinthemistogettheimagesufficientlyintensebytheexclusivedirectionoftheattentionuponit，andbytheremovalofalldisturbingimpressions。"[28]
Thenegativeafter-imageswhichsucceededuponMeyer’simaginationwhenheopenedhiseyesareahighlyinteresting，thoughrare，phenomenon。SofarasIknowthereis[p。68]
onlyoneotherpublishedreportofasimilarexperience。[29]Itwouldseemthatinsuchacasetheneuralprocesscorrespondingtotheimaginationmustbetheentiretractconcernedintheactualsensation，evendownasfarastheretina。Thisleadstoanewquestiontowhichwemaynowturn——ofwhatisTHENEURALPROCESSWHICHUNDERLIES
IMAGINATION
Thecommonly-receivedideaisthatitisonlyamilderdegreeofthesameprocesswhichtookplacewhenthethingnowimaginedwassensiblyperceived。ProfessorBainwrites:
"Sinceasensationinthefirstinstancediffusesnerve-currentsthroughtheinteriorofthebrainoutwardstotheorgansofexpressionandmovement，——thepersistenceofthatsensation，aftertheoutwardexcitingcauseiswithdrawn，canbebutacontinuanceofthesamediffusivecurrents，perhapslessintense，butnototherwisedifferent。Theshockremainingintheearandbrain，afterthesoundofthunder，mustpassthroughthesamecircles，andoperateinthesamewayasduringtheactualsound。Wecanhavenoreasonforbelievingthat，inthisself-sustainingcondition，theimpressionchangesitsseat，orpassesintosomenewcirclesthathavethespecialpropertyofretainingit。Everypartactuatedaftertheshockmusthavebeenactuatedbytheshock，onlymorepowerfully。Withthissingledifferenceofintensity，themodeofexistenceofasensationexistingafterthefactisessentiallythesameasitsmodeofexistenceduringthefact……Nowifthisbetheelsewithimpressionspersistingwhenthecausehasceased，whatviewarewetoadoptconcerningimpressionsreproducedbymentalcausesalone，orwithouttheaidoftheoriginal，asinordinaryrecollection？
Whatisthemannerofoccupationofthebrainwitharesuscitatedfeelingofresistance，asmellorasound？Thereisonlyoneanswerthatseemsadmissable。Therenewedfeelingoccupiestheverysameparts，andinthesamemanner，astheoriginalfeeling，andnootherparts，norinanyotherassignablemanner。Iimaginethatifourpresentknowledgeofthebrainhadbeenpresenttotheearliestspeculators，thisistheonly[p。69]hypothesisthatwouldhaveoccurredtothem。Forwhereshouldapastfeelingbeembodied，ifnotinthesameorgansasthefeelingwhenpresent？Itisonlyinthiswaythatitsidentitycanbepreserved；afeelingdifferentlyembodiedwouldbeadifferentfeeling。"[30]
ItisnotplainfromProfessorBain’stextwhetherbythe’sameparts’hemeansonlythesamepartsinsidethebrain，orthesameperipheralpartsalso，asthoseoccupiedbytheoriginalfeeling。Theexampleswhichhehimselfproceedstogivearealmostallcasesofimaginationofmovement，inwhichtheperipheralorgansareindeedaffected，foractualmovementsofaweaksortarefoundtoaccompanytheidea。Thisiswhatweshouldexpect。Allcurrentstendtorunforwardinthebrainanddischargeintothemuscularsystem；andtheideaofamovementtendstodothiswithpeculiarfacility。Butthequestionremains:Docurrentsrunbackward，sothatiftheopticalcentresforexampleareexcitedby’association’andavisualobjectisimagined，acurrentrunsdowntotheretinaalso，andexcitesthatsympatheticallywiththehighertracts？Inotherwords，canperipheralsense-organsbeexcitedfromabove，oronlyfromwithout？Aretheyexcitedinimagination？ProfessorBain’sinstancesarealmostsilentastothispoint。Allhesaysisthis:
"Wemightthinkofablowonthehanduntiltheskinwereactuallyirritatedandinflamed。Theattentionverymuchdirectedtoanypartofthebody，asthegreattoe，forinstance，isapttoproduceadistinctfeelinginthepart，whichweaccountforonlybysupposingarevivednerve-currenttoflowthere，makingasortoffalsesensation，aninfluencefromwithinmimickingtheinfluencesfromwithoutinsensationproper——SeethewritingsofMr。Braid，ofManchester，onHypnotism，etc。"
IfImayjudgefrommyownexperience，allfeelingsofthissortareconsecutiveuponmotorcurrentsinvadingtheskinandproducingcontractionofthemusclesthere，themuscleswhosecontractiongives’goose-flesh’whenittakesplaceonanextensivescale。
Inevergetafeelingintheskin，howeverstronglyIimagineit，untilsomeactualchangeintheconditionoftheskinitselfhasoccurred。
Thetruthseemstobethatthecaseswhereperipheral[p。70]sense-organsaredirectlyexcitedinconsequenceofimaginationareexceptionalraritiesiftheyexistatall。Incommoncasesofimaginationitcouldseemmorenaturaltosupposethattheseatoftheprocessispurelycerebral，andthatthesense-organisleftout。Reasonsforsuchaconclusionwouldbebrieflythese:
1Inimaginationthestarting-pointoftheprocessmustbeinthebrain。Nowweknowthatcurrentsusuallyflowonewayinthenervoussystem；andfortheperipheralsense-organstobeexcitedinthesecases，thecurrentwouldhavetoflowbackward。
2Thereisbetweenimaginedobjectsandfeltobjectsadifferenceofconsciousqualitywhichmaybecalledalmostabsolute。Itishardlypossibletoconfoundtheliveliestimageoffancywiththeweakestrealsensation。Thefeltobjecthasaplasticrealityandoutwardnesswhichtheimaginedobjectwhollylacks。Moreover，asFechnersays，inimaginationtheattentionfeelsasifdrawnbackwardstothebrain；
insensationevenofafter-imagesitisdirectedforwardtowardsthesense-organ。[31]Thedifferencebetweenthetwoprocessesfeelslikeoneofkind，andnotlikeamere’more’or’less’ofthesame。[32]Ifasensationofsoundwereonlyastrongimagination，andanimaginationaweaksensation，thereoughttobeaborder-lineofexperiencewherewenevercouldtellwhetherwewerehearingaweaksoundorimaginingastrongone。Incomparingapresentsensationfeltwithapastoneimagined，itwillberememberedthatweoftenjudgetheimaginedonetohavebeenthestrongerseeabove，p。500，note。Thisisinexplicableiftheimaginationbesimplyaweakerexcitementofthesensationalprocess。
Tothesereasonsthefollowingobjectionsmaybemade:Tol:Thecurrentdemonstrablydoesflowbackward[p。71]downtheopticnerveinMeyer’sandFé；ré；’snegativeafterimage。Thereforeitcanflowbackward；thereforeitmayflowbackwardinsome，howeverslight，degree，inallimagination。[33]
To2:Thedifferenceallegedisnotabsolute，andsensationandimaginationarehardtodiscriminatewherethesensationissoweakastobejustperceptible。Atnighthearingaveryfaintstrikingofthehourbyafar-offclock，ourimaginationreproducesbothrhythmandsound，anditisoftendifficulttotellwhichwasthelastrealstroke。Soofababycryinginadistantpartofthehouse，weareuncertainwhetherwestillhearit，oronlyimaginethesound。Certainviolin-playerstakeadvantageofthisindiminuendoterminations。Afterthepianissimohasbeenreachedtheycontinuetobowasifstillplaying，butarecarefulnottotouchthestrings。Thelistenerhearsinimaginationa[p。72]degreeofsoundfainterstillthantheprecedingpianissimo。
Thisphenomenonisnotconfinedtohearing:
"Ifweslowlyapproachourfingertoasurfaceofwater，weoftendeceiveourselvesaboutthemomentinwhichthewettingoccurs。Theapprehensivepatientbelieveshimselftofeeltheknifeofthesurgeonwhilstitisstillatsomedistance。"[34]
Visualperceptionsuppliesnumberlessinstancesinwhichthesamesensationofvisionisperceivedasoneobjectoranotheraccordingtotheinterpretationofthemind。Manyoftheseinstanceswillcomebeforeusinthecourseofthenexttwochapters；andinChapterXIX
similarillusionswillbedescribedintheothersenses。Takentogether，allthesefactswouldforceustoadmitthatthesubjectivedifferencebetweenimaginedandfeltobjectsislessabsolutethanhasbeenclaimed，andthatthecorticalprocesseswhichunderlieimaginationandsensationarenotquiteasdiscreteasoneatfirstistemptedtosuppose。Thatperipheralsensoryprocessesareordinarilyinvolvedinimaginationseemsimprobable；thattheymaysometimesbearousedfromthecortexdownwardscannot，however，bedogmaticallydenied。
Theimagination-processCANthenpassoverintothesensation-process。Inotherwords，genuinesensationscanbecentrallyoriginated。WhenwecometostudyhallucinationsinthechapteronOuterPerception，weshallseethatthisisbynomeansathingofrareoccurrence。Atpresent，however，wemustadmitthatnormallythetwoprocessesdoNOTPassOverintoeachother；andwemustinquirewhy。Oneoftwothingsmustbethereason。Either1。Sensation-processesoccupyadifferentlocalityfromimagination-processes；or2。Occupyingthesamelocality，theyhaveanintensitywhichundernormalcircumstancescurrentsfromothercorticalregionsareincapableofarousing，andtoproducewhichcurrentsfromtheperipheryarerequired。
ItseemsalmostcertainafterwhatwassaidinChapterII。pp。49-51thattheimagination-processdryersfromthesensation-processbyitsintensityratherthanbyitslocality。Howeveritmaybewithloweranimals，theassumptionthat[p。73]ideationalandsensorialcentresarelocallydistinctappearstobesupportedbynofactsdrawnfromtheobservationofhumanbeings。Afteroccipitaldestruction，thehemianopsiawhichresultsinmanissensorialblindness，notmerelossofopticalideas。Weretherecentresforcrudeopticalsensationbelowthecortex，thepatientsinthesecaseswouldstillfeellightanddarkness。
Sincetheydonotpreserveeventhisimpressiononthelosthalfofthefield，wemustsupposethattherearenocentresforvisionofanysortwhateverbelowthecortex，andthatthecorporaquadrigeminaandotherloweropticalgangliaareorgansforreflexmovementofeye-musclesandnotforconscioussight。Moreovertherearenofactswhichobligeustothinkthat，withintheoccipitalcortex，onepartisconnectedwithsensationandanotherwithmereideationorimagination。Thepathologicalcasesassumedtoprovethisareallbetterexplainedbydisturbancesofconductionbetweentheopticalandothercentresseep。50。Inbadcasesofhemianopsiathepatient’simagesdepartfromhimtogetherwithhissensibilitytolight。
Theydepartsocompletelythathedoesnotevenknowwhatisthematterwithhim。Toperceivethatoneisblindtotherighthalfofthefieldofviewonemusthaveanideaofthatpartofthefield’spossibleexistence。
Butthedefectinthesepatientshastoberevealedtothembythedoctor，theythemselvesonlyknowingthatthereis’somethingwrong’withtheireyes。Whatyouhavenoideaofyoucannotmiss；andtheirnotdefinitelymissingthisgreatregionoutoftheirsightseemsduetothefactthattheirveryideaandmemoryofitislostalongwiththesensation。Amanblindofhiseyesmerely，seesdarkness。Amanblindofhisvisualbrain-centrescannomoreseedarknessoutofthepartsofhisretinawhichareconnectedwiththebrain-lesionthanliecanseeitoutoftheskinofhisback。Hecannotseeatallinthatpartofthefield；andhecannotthinkofthelightwhichheoughttobefeelingthere，fortheverynotionoftheexistenceofthatparticular’there’iscutoutofhismind。
[35][p。74]
Nowifweadmitthatsensationandimaginationareduetotheactivityofthesamecentresinthecortex，wecanseeaverygoodteleologicalreasonwhytheyshouldcorrespondtodiscretekindsofprocessinthesecentresandwhytheprocesswhichgivesthesensethattheobjectisreallythereoughtnormallytobearousableonlybycurrentsenteringfromtheperipheryandnotbycurrentsfromtheneighboringcorticalparts。Wecansee，inshort，whythesensationalprocessOUGHTTObediscontinuouswithallnormalideationalprocesses，howeverintense。For，asDr。Mü；nsterbergjustlyobserves:
"Weretherenotthispeculiararrangementweshouldnotdistinguishrealityandfantasy，ourconductwouldnotbeaccommodatedtothefactsaboutus，butwouldbeinappropriateandsenseless，andwecouldnotkeepourselvesalive……Thatourthoughtsandmemoriesshouldbecopiesofsensationswiththeirintensitygreatlyreducedisthusaconsequencededuciblelogicallyfromthenaturaladaptationofthecerebralmechanismtoitsenvironment。"[36]
Mechanicallythediscontinuitybetweentheideationalandthesensationalkindsofprocessmustmeanthatwhenthegreatestideationalintensityhasbeenreached，anorderofresistancepresentsitselfwhichonlyaneworderofforcecanbreakthrough。Thecurrentfromtheperipheryistheneworderofforcerequired；andwhathappensaftertheresistanceisovercomeisthesensationalprocess。Wemaysupposethatthelatterconsistsinsomenewandmoreviolentsortofdisintegrationoftheneuralmatter，whichnowexplodesatadeeperlevelthanatothertimes。
Nowhowshallweconceiveofthe’resistance’
whichpreventsthissortofdisintegrationfromtakingplace，thissortofintensityintheprocessfrombeingattained，somuchofthetime？Itmustbeeitheranintrinsicresistance，someforceofcohesionintheneuralmoleculesthemselves；oranextrinsicinfluence，duetoothercorticalcells。Whenwecometostudytheprocessofhallucinationweshallseethatbothfactorsmustbetakenintoaccount。Thereisadegreeofinwardmolecularcohesioninourbrain-cellswhileitprobablytakesasuddeninrushof[p。75]destructiveenergytospringapart。Incomingperipheralcurrentspossessthisenergyfromtheoutset。Currentsfromneighboringcorticalregionsmightattaintoitiftheycouldaccumulatewithinthecentrewhichwearesupposedtobeconsidering。Butsinceduringwakinghourseverycentrecommunicateswithothersbyassociation-paths，nosuchaccumulationcantakeplace。Thecorticalcurrentswhichruninrunrightoutagain，awakeningthenextideas；theleveloftensioninthecellsdoesnotrisetothehigherexplosion-point；andthelattermustbegainedbyasuddencurrentfromtheperipheryornotatall。
[1]Prof。Jastrowhasascertainedbystatisticalinquiryamongtheblindthatiftheirblindnesshaveoccurredbeforeaperiodembracedbetweenthefifthandseventhyearsthevisualcentresseemtodecay，andvisualdreamsandimagesaregraduallyoutgrown。Ifsightislostaftertheseventhyear，visualimaginationseemstosurvivethroughlife。SeeProf。J。’sinterestingarticleontheDreamsoftheBlind，intheNewPrincetonReviewforJanuary1888。
[2]ImpressionmeanssensationforHume。
[3]TreatiseonHumanNature，parti。§；vii。
[4]Huxley’sHume，pp。
92-94。
[5]OnIntelligenceN。
Y。，vol。ii。p。139。
[6]Principles，Introd。
§；13。Comparealsothepassagequotedabove，p。469
[7]ThedifferencesnotedbyFechnerbetweenafter-imagesandimagesofimaginationproperareasfollows:
After-images。Imagination-images。
Feelcoercive；Feelsubjecttoourspontaneity；
Seemunsubstantial，vaporous；Have，asitwere，morebody；
Aresharpinoutline；Areblurred；
Arebright；Aredarkerthaneventhedarkestblackoftheafter-images；
Arealmostcolorless；Havelivelycoloration；
Arecontinuouslyenduring；Incessantlydisappear，andhavetoberenewedbyaneffortofwill。Atlasteventhisfailstorevivethem。
Cannotbevoluntarilychanged。Canbeexchangedatwillforothers。
Areexactcopiesoforiginals。Cannotviolatethenecessarylawsofappearanceoftheiroriginals——e。g。amancannotbeimaginedfrom，infrontandbehindatonce。Theimaginationmustwalkroundhim，sotospeak；
Aremoreeasilygotwithshutthanwithopeneyes；Aremoreeasilyhadwithopenthanwithshuteyes；
Seemtomovewhenthebendoreyesmove；Neednotfollowmovementsofheadoreyes。
Thefieldwithinwhichtheyappearwithclosedeyesisdark，contracted，flat，closetotheeyes，infront，andtheimageshavenoperspective；Thefieldisextensiveinthreedimensions，andobjectscanbeimaginedinitaboveorbehindalmostmeasilyasinfront。
Theattentionseemsdirectedforwardstowardsthesense-organ，inobservingafter-images。Inimagining，theattentionfeelsasifdrawnbackwardstowardsthebrain。Finally，Fechnerspeaksoftheimpossibilityofattendingtobothafter-imagesandimagination-imagesatonce，evenwhentheyareofthesameobjectandmightbeexpectedtocombine。AllthesedifferencesaretrueofFechner；butmanyofthemwouldbeuntrueofotherpersons。Iquotethemasatypeofobservationwhichanyreaderwithsufficientpatiencetorepeat。Tothemmaybeadded，asauniversalproposition，thatafter-imagesseemlargerifweprojectthemonadistantscreen，andsmallerifprojectthemonanearone，whilstnosuchchangetakesplaceinmentalpictures[8][Iammyselfagooddraughtsman，andhaveaverylivelyinterestinpictures，statues，architectureanddecoration，andakeensensibilitytoartisticeffects。ButIamanextremelypoorvisualizer，andfindmyselfoftenunabletoreproduceinmymind’seyepictureswhichIhavemostcarefullyexamined——W。J。]
[9]SeealsoMcCoshandOsborne，PrincetonReview，Jan。1884。TherearesomegoodexamplesofhighdevelopmentoftheFacultyintheLondonSpectator，Dec。28，1878，pp。
1631，1634，Jan。4，11，25，andMarch18，1879。
[10]Takethefollowingreportfromoneofmystudents:"Iamunabletoforminmymind’seyeanyvisuallikenessofthetablewhatever。Aftermanytrials，Icellonlygetahazysurface，withnothingonitoraboutit。Icanseenovarietyincolor，andnopositivelimitationsinextent，whileIcannotseewhatI
seewellenoughtodetermineitspositioninrespecttorayeye，ortoendowitwithanyqualityofsize。Iaminthesamepositionastotheworddog。Icannotseeitinmymind’s，eyeatall；andsocannottellwhetherIshouldhavetorunmyeyealongit，ifIdidseeit。"
[11]Progrè；sMé；dical，21juillet。IabridgefromtheGermanreportofthecaseinWilbrand:DieSeelenblindheit1887。
[12]InalettertoCharcotthisinterestingpatientaddsthathischaracteralsoischanged:
"Iwasformerlyreceptive，easilymadeenthusiastic，andpossessedarichfancy。NowIamquietandcold，andfancynevercarriesmythoughtsaway……Iammuchlesssusceptiblethanformerlytoangerorsorrow。Ilatelylostmydearly-belovedmother；butfeltfarlessgriefatthebereavementthanifIhadbeenabletoseeinmymind’seyeherphysiognomyandthephasesofhersuffering，andespeciallylessthanifIhadbeenabletowitnessinimaginationtheoutwardeffectsofheruntimelylossuponthemembersofthefamily。"
[13]PsychologieduRaisonnement1886，p。25。
[14]Classicseditorsnote:James’insertion。
[15][Iammyselfaverypoorvisualizer，andfindthatIcanseldomcalltomindevenasingleletterofthealphabetinpurelyretinalterms。Imusttracetheletterbyrunningmymentaleyeoveritscontourinorderthattheimageofitshallhaveanydistinctnessatall。Onquestioningalargenumberofotherpeople，mostlystudents，Ifindthatperhapshalfofthemsaytheyhavenosuchdifficultyinseeinglettersmentally。Manyaffrimthattheycanseeanentirewordatonce，especiallyashortonelike’dog，’withnosuchfeelingofcreatingtheletterssuccessivelybytracingthemwiththeeye——W。J。]
[16]ItishardlyneedfultosaythatInmodernprimaryeducation，inwhichtheblackboardissomuchused，thechildrenaretaughttheirletters，etc。，byallpossiblechannelsatonce，sight，hearing，andmovement。
[17]Seeaninterestingcaseofasimilarsort，reportedbyFarges，inl’Ecé；phale，7meAnné；e，p。545。
[18]PhilosophicalTransactions，1841，p。65。
[19]Studienü；berdieSprachvorstellungen1880，andStudienü；berdieBewegungsvorstellungen1882。
[20]Prof。Strickeradmitsthatbypracticehehassucceededinmakinghiseye-movements’actvicariously’forhisleg-movementsinimaginingmenwalking。
[21]Bewegungsvorstellugen，p。6。
[22]Bain:SensesandIntellect，p。339。
[23]Studienü；berSprachvorstellungen，28，31etc。Cf。pp。49-50，etc。AgainstStricker，seeStumpf，Tonpsychol。，155-162，andRevuePhilosophique，xx。617。SeealsoPaulhan，Rev。Philosophique，xvi。405。StrickerrepliestoPaulhaninvol。xviii。p。685。P。retortsinvol。xix。p。118。Strickerreportsthatoutof100personsquestionedhefoundonlyonewhohadnofeelinginhislipswhensilentlythinkingthelettersM，B，P；andoutof60onlytwowhowereconsciousofnointernalarticulationwhilstreadingpp。59-60。
[24]Ithinkitmustbeadmittedthatsomepeoplehavenovividsubstantiveimagesinanydepartmentoftheirsensibility。Oneofmystudents，anIntelligentyouth，deniedsopertinaciouslythattherewasanythinginhismindatallwhenhethought，thatIwasmuchperplexedbyhiscase。ImyselfcertainlyhavenosuchvividplayofnascentmovementsormotorimagesasProfessorStrickerdescribes。WhenIseektorepresentarowofsoldiersmarching，allIcatchisaviewofstationarylegsfirstinonephaseofmovementandtheninanother，andtheseviewsareextremelyimperfectandmomentary。OccasionallyespeciallywhenItrytostimulatemyimagination，asbyrepeatingVictorHugo’slinesabouttheregiment，Leurpasestsicorrect，sanstardernicourir，Qu’oncroitvoirdesciseauxsefermerets’ouvrir，"
Iseemtogetaninstantaneousglimpseofanactualmovement，butitistothelastdegreedimanduncertain。
Alltheseimagesseematfirstasifpurelyretinal。Ithink，however，thatrapideye-movementsaccompanythem，thoughtheselattergiverisetosuchslightfeelingsthattheyarealmostimpossibleofdetection。Absolutelynoleg-movementsofmyownarethere；infact，tocallsuchuparrestsmyimaginationofthesoldiers。Myopticalimagesareingeneralverydim，dark，fugitive，andcontracted。Itwouldbeutterlyimpossibletodrawfromthem，andyetIperfectlywelldistinguishonefromtheother。
Myauditoryimagesareexcessivelyinadequatereproductionsoftheiroriginals。
Ihavenoimagesoftasteorsmell。Touch-imaginationisfairlydistinct，butcomesverylittleintoplaywithmostobjectsthoughtof。
Neitherisallmythoughtverbalized；forIhaveshadowyschemesofrelation，asapttoterminateinanodoftheheadoranexpulsionofthebreathasinadefiniteword。Onthewhole，vagueimagesorsensationsofmovementinsideofmyheadtowardsthevariouspartsofspaceinwhichthetermsIamthinkingofeitherlieoraremomentarilysymbolizedtolietogetherwithmovementsofthebreaththroughmypharynxandnostrils，formabynomeansinconsiderablepartofmythought-stuff。Idoubtwhethermydifficultyingivingacleareraccountiswhollyamatterofinferiorpowerofintrospectiveattention，thoughthatdoubtlessplaysitspart。
Attention，ceterisparibus，mustalwaysbeinferiorinproportiontothefeeblenessoftheinternalimageswhichareofferedittoholdonto。
[25]Geo。Herm。Meyer，Untersuchungenü；b。d。Physiol。d，Nervenfaser1848p。238。ForothercasesseeTuke’sInfluenceofMinduponBody，chaps。iiandvii。
[26]Meyer，op。cit。p。238。
[27]Classicseditor’snote:James’insertion。
[28]Meyer，op。cit。pp。238-41。
[29]ThatofDr。Ch。
Fé；ré；intheRevuePhilosophique，xx。364。JohannesMü；ller’saccountofhypnagogichallucinationsfloatingbeforetheeyesforafewmomentsafterthesehadbeenopened，seemstobelongmoretothecategoryofspontaneoushallucinationsseehisPhysiology，London，1842，p。1894。
ItisimpossibletotellwhetherthewordsinWundt’sVorlesungen，i。387，refertoapersonalexperienceofhisownornot；probablynot。Ilvasansdirethataninferiorvisualizerlikemyselfcangetnosuchafter-images。
NorhaveIasyetsucceededingettingreportofanyfrommystudents。
[30]SensesandIntellect，p。338。
[31]Seeabove，Vol。
ii。p。50，note。
[32]V。KandinskyKritischeu。klinischeBetrachtungenimGebietederSinnestauschungenBerlin，1885，p。135fi。insiststhatineventheliveliestpseudo-hallucinationsseebelow，ChapterXX，whichmayberegardedastheintensestpossibleresultsoftheimaginativeprocess，thereisnooutwardobjectivityperceivedinthethingrepresented，andthataganterAbgrundseparatesthese’ideas’fromtruehallucinationacidobjectiveperception。
[33]Itseemstoalsoflowbackwardsincertainhypnotichallucinations。Suggesttoa’Subject’
inthehypnotictrancethatasheetofpaperhasaredcrossuponit，thenpretendtoremovetheimaginarycross，whilstyoutelltheSubjecttolookfixedlyatadotuponthepaper，andhewillpresentlytellyouthatheseesa’bluish-green’cross。Thegenuinenessoftheresulthasbeendoubted，butthereseemsnogoodreasonforrejectingM。Binet’saccountLeMagné；tismeAnimal，1887，p。188。M。Binet，followingM。Parinaud，andonthefaithofacertainexperiment，atonetimebelieved，theopticalbrain-centresandnottheretinatobetheseatofordinarynegativeafter-images。Theexperimentisthis:Lookfixedly，withoneeyeopen，atacoloredspotonawhitebackground。Thenclosethateyeandlookfixedlywiththeothereyeataplainsurface。Anegativeafter-imageofthecoloredspotwillpresentlyappear。PsychologieduRaisonnment，1886，p。45。ButMr。
DelabarrehasprovedAmericanJournalofPsychology，ii。326thatthisafter-imageisdue，nottoahighercerebralprocess，buttothefactthattheretinalprocessintheclosedeyeaffectsconsciousnessatcertainmoments，andthatitsobjectisthenprojectedintothefieldseenbytheeyewhichisopen。M。BinetinformsmethatheisconvertedbytheproofsgivenbyMr。Delabarre。
Thefactremains，however，thatthenegativeafter-imagesofHerr-Meyer，M。Fé；ré；，andthehypnoticsubjects，formariaexceptiontoallthatweknowofnerve-currents，iftheyareduetoarefluentcentrifugalcurrenttotheretina。Itmaybethattheywillhereafterbeexplainedinsomeotherway。Meanwhilewecanonlywritethemdownasaparadox。Sig。Sergi’stheorythatthereisalwaysarefluentwaveinperceptionhardlymeritsseriousconsiderationPsychologiePhysiologique，pp。99，189。Sergi’stheoryhasrecentlybeenreaffirmedwithalmostincrediblecruditybyLombrosoandOttolenghiintheRevuePhilosophique，xxix。70Jan。1890。
[34]Lotze，Med。Psych。
p。509。
[35]SeeanimportantarticlebyBinetintheRevuePhilosophique，xxvi。4811888；alsoDufour，inRevueMé；d，delaSuisseRomande，1889，No。8，citedintheNeurologischesCentralblatt，1890，p。48。
[36]DieWillenshandlung1888，pp。129-40。
ClassicsintheHistoryofPsychology——James1890Chapter21ThePrinciplesofPsychologyWilliamJames1890
CHAPTERXXI。THEPERCEPTIONOFREALITY。[1]BELIEF。
EVERYONEknowsthedifferencebetweenimaginingathingandbelievinginitsexistence，betweensupposingapropositionandacquiescinginitstruth。Inthecaseofacquiescenceorbelief，theobjectisnotonlyapprehendedbythemind，butisheldtohavereality。Beliefisthusthementalstateorfunctionofcognizingreality。Asusedinthefollowingpages，’Belief’
willmeaneverydegreeofassurance，includingthehighestpossiblecertaintyandconviction。
Thereare，asweknow，twowaysofstudyingeverypsychicstate。First，thewayofanalysis:Whatdoesitconsistin？Whatisitsinnernature？
Ofwhatsortofmind-stuffisitcomposed？Second，thewayofhistory:
Whatareitsconditionsofproduction，anditsconnectionwithotherfacts？
Intothefirstwaywecannotgoveryfar。Initsinnernature，belieforthesenseofreality，isasortoffeelingmorealliedtotheemotionsthananythingelse。Mr。Bagehotdistinctlycallsitthe’emotion’ofconviction。Ijustnowspokeofitasacquiescence。Itresemblesmorethananythingwhatinthepsychologyofvolitionweknowasconsent。Consentisrecognizedbyalltobeamanifestationofouractivenature。Itwouldnaturallybedescribedbysuchtermsas’willingness’orthe’turningofourdisposition。’Whatcharacterizesbothconsentandbeliefisthecessationoftheoreticagitation，thoughtheadventofanideawhichisinwardlystable，andfillsthemindsolidlytotheexclusionofcontradictoryideas。
Whenthisisthecase，motoreffectsareapttofollow。Hencethestatesof[p。284]consentandbelief，characterizedbyreposeonthepurelyintellectualside，arebothintimatelyconnectedwithsubsequentpracticalactivity。
Thisinwardstabilityofthemind’scontentisascharacteristicofdisbeliefasofbelief。Butweshallpresentlyseethatweneverdisbelieveanythingexceptforthereasonthatwebelievesomethingelsewhichcontradictstherestthing。[2]Disbeliefisthusanincidentalcomplicationtobelief，andneednotbeconsideredbyitself。
Thetrueoppositeofbelief，psychologicallyconsidered，aredoubtandinquiry，notdisbelief。Inboththesestatesthecontentofourmindisinunrest，andtheemotionengenderedtherebyis，liketheemotionofbeliefitself，perfectlydistinct，butperfectlyindescribableinwords。Bothsortsofemotionmaybepathologicallyexalted。Oneofthecharmsofdrunkennessunquestionablyliesinthedeepeningofthesenseofrealityandtruthwhichisgainedtherein。Inwhateverlightthingsmaythenappeartous，theyseemmoreutterlywhattheyare，more’utterlyutter’thanwhenwearesober。Thisgoestoafullyunutterableextremeinthenitrousoxideintoxication，inwhichamansverysoulwillsweatwithconviction，andhebeallthewhileunabletotellwhatheisconvincedofatall。[3]ThepathologicalstateopposedtothissolidityanddeepeninghasbeencalledthequestioningmaniaGrü；belsuchtbytheGermans。
Itissometimesfoundasasubstantiveaffection，paroxysmalorchronic，andconsistsintheinabilitytorestinanyconception，andtheneedofhavingitconfirmedandexplained’WhydoIstandherewhereIstand？’
’Whyisaglassaglass，achairachair’’Howisitthatmenareonlyofthesizetheyare？Whynotasbigashouses，’etc。，etc。[4][p。285]
Thereis，itistrue，anotherpathologicalstatewhichisasfarremovedfromdoubtasfrombelief，andwhichsomemayprefertoconsiderthepropercontraryofthelatterstateofmind。Irefertothefeelingthateverythingishollow，unreal，dead。Ishallspeakofthisstateagainuponalaterpage。ThepointIwishtonoticehereissimplythatbeliefanddisbeliefarebuttwoaspectsofonepsychicstate。
JohnMill，reviewingvariousopinionsaboutbelief，comestotheconclusionthatnoaccountofitcanbegiven:
What，"hesays"isthedifferencetoourmindsbetweenthinkingofarealityandrepresentingtoourselvesanimaginarypicture？IconfessIcanseenoescapefromtheopinionthatthedistinctionisultimateandprimordial。Thereisnomoredifficultyinholdingittobesothaninholdingthedifferencebetweenasensationandanideatobeprimordial。
Itseemsalmostanotheraspectofthesamedifference……Icannothelpthinking，therefore，thatthereisintheremembranceofarealfact，asdistinguishedfromthatofathought，anelementwhichdoesnotconsist……inadifferencebetweenthemereideaswhicharepresenttothemindinthetwocases。Thiselement，howsoeverwedefineit，constitutesbelief，andisthedifferencebetweenMemoryandImagination。Fromwhateverdirectionweapproach，thisdifferenceseemstocloseourpath。Whenmearriveatit，weseemtohavereached，asitwere，thecentralpointofourintellectualnature，presupposedandbuiltuponineveryattemptwemaketoexplainthemorereconditephenomenaofourmentalbeing。"[5][p。286]
IfthewordsofMillbetakentoapplytothemeresubjectiveanalysisofbelief——tothequestion，Whatdoesitfeellikewhenwehaveit？——
theymustbeheld，onthewhole，tobecorrect。Belief，thesenseofreality，feelslikeitself——thatisaboutasmuchaswecansay。
Prof。Brentano，inanadmirablechapterofhisPsychologie，expressesthisbysayingthatconceptionandbeliefwhichhenamesjudgmentaretwodifferentfundamentalpsychicphenomena。WhatImyselfhavecalledVol。I，p。276the’object’ofthoughtmaybecomparativelysimple，like"Ha！whatapain，"or"It-thunders"；oritmaybecomplex，like"Columbus-discovered-America-in-1492，’’
or"There-exists-an-all-wise-Creator-of-the-world"Ineithercase，however，themerethoughtoftheobjectmayexistassomethingquitedistinctfromthebeliefinitsreality。Thebelief，asBrentanosays，presupposesthemerethought:
"Everyobjectcomesintoconsciousnessinatwofoldway，assimplythoughtof[vorgestellt][6]andasadmitted[anerkaant][7]ordenied。TherelationisanalogoustothatwhichisassumedbymostphilosophersbyKantnolessthanbyAristotletoobtainbetweenmerethoughtanddesire。Nothingiseverdesiredwithoutbeingthoughtof；butthedesiringisneverthelessasecondquitenewandpeculiarformofrelationtotheobject，asecondquitenewwayofreceivingitintoconsciousness。Nomoreisanythingjudged[i。e。，believedordisbelieved][8]whichisnotthoughtoftoo。Butwemustinsistthat，sosoonastheobjectofathoughtbecomestheobjectofanassentingorrejectingjudgment，ourconsciousnessstepsintoanentirelynewrelationtowardsit。Itisthentwicepresentinconsciousness，asthoughtof，andasheldforrealordenied；justaswhendesireawakensforit，itisboththoughtandsimultaneouslydesired。"P。266。
Thecommonplacedoctrineof’judgment’isthatitconsistsinthecombinationof’ideas’bya’copula’intoa’proposition，’whichmaybeofvarioussorts，asaformative，negative，hypothetical，etc。Butwhodoesnotseethatinadisbelievedordoubtedorinterrogativeorconditionalproposition，theideasarecombinedinthesameidenticalwayinwhichtheyareinapropositionwhichissolidlybelieved？Thewayinwhichtheideasarecombinedwithinnerconstitutionthethoughtsobjectorcontent。Thatobjectissometimesanarticulatedwholewithrelationsbetweenitsparts，amongstwhichrelations，thatofpredicate[p。287]tosubjectmaybeone。
Butwhenwehavegotourobjectwithitsinnerconstitutionthusdefinedinaproposition，thenthequestioncomesupregardingtheobjectasawhole:’Isitarealobject？isthispropositionatruepropositionornot？’AndintheanswerYestothisquestionliesthatnewpsychicactwhichBrentanocalls’judgment，’butwhichIprefertocall’belief。’
Ineveryproposition，then，sofarasitisbelieved，questioned，ordisbelieved，fourelementsaretobedistinguished，thesubject，thepredicate，andtheirrelationofwhateversortitbe——theseformtheobjectofbelief——andfinallythepsychicattitudeinwhichourmindstandstowardsthepropositiontakenasawhole-andthisisthebeliefitself。
[9]
Admitting，then，thatthisattitudeisastateofconsciousnesssuigeneris，aboutwhichnothingmorecanbesaidinthewayofinternalanalysis，letusproceedtothesecondwayofstudyingthesubjectofbelief:Underwhatcircumstancesdowethinkthingsreal？Weshallsoonseehowmuchmatterthisgivesustodiscuss。THEVARIOUSORDERSOFREALITY。
Supposeanew-bornmind，entirelyblankandwaitingforexperiencetobegin。Supposethatitbeginsintheformsofvisualimpressionwhetherfaintorvividisimmaterialofalightedcandleagainstadarkbackground，andnothingelse，sothatwhilstthisimagelastsitconstitutestheentireuniverseknowntothemindinquestion。Suppose，moreovertosimplifythehypothesis，thatthecandleisonlyimaginary，andthatno’original’
ofitisrecognizedbyuspsychologistsoutside。Willthishallucinatorycandlebebelievedin，willithavearealexistenceforthemind？
Whatpossiblesenseforthatmindwouldasuspicionhavethatthecandlewasnotreal？Whatwoulddoubtordisbeliefofitimply？Whenwe，theonlookingpsychologists，saythecandleisunreal，wemeansomethingquitedefinite，viz。，thatthereisaworldknowntouswhichis[p。288]
real，andtowhichweperceivethatthecandledoesnotbelong；itbelongsexclusivelytothatindividualmind，hasnostatusanywhereelse，etc。
Itexists，tobesure，inafashion，foritformsthecontentofthatmind’shallucination；butthehallucinationitself，thoughunquestionablyitisasortofexistingfact，hasnoknowledgeofotherfacts；andsincethoseotherfactsaretherealitiesparexcellenceforus，andtheonlythingswebelievein，thecandleissimplyoutsideofourrealityandbeliefaltogether。
Bythehypothesis，however，themindwhichseesthecandlecanspinnosuchconsiderationsastheseaboutit，forofotherfacts，actualorpossible，ithasnoinklingwhatever。Thatcandleisitsall，itsabsolute。
Itsentirefacultyofattentionisabsorbedbyit。Itis，itisthat；itisthere；nootherpossiblecandle，orqualityofthiscandle，nootherpossibleplace，orpossibleobjectintheplace，noalternative，inshort，suggestsitselfasevenconceivable；sohowcanthemindhelpbelievingthecandlereal？Thesuppositionthatitmightpossiblynotdosois，underthesupposedconditions，unintelligible。[10]
ThisiswhatSpinonzalongagoannounced:
"Letusconceiveaboy，"hesaid，"imaginingtohimselfahorse，andtakingnoteofnothingelse。Asthisimaginationinvolvestheexistenceofthehorse，andtheboyhasnoperceptionwhichannulsitsresistance，hewillnecessarilycontemplatethehorseaspresent，norwillhebeabletodoubtofitsexistence，howeverlittlecertainofithemaybe。Idenythatamaninsofarasheimagines[percipit][11]affirmsnothing。
Forwhatisittoimagineawingedhorsebuttoaffirmthat，thehorse[thathorse，namely][12]haswings？Forifthemindhadnothingbeforeitbutthewingedhorseitwouldcontemplatethesameaspresent，wouldhavenocausetodoubtofitsexistence，noranypowerofdissentingfromitsexistence，unlesstheimaginationofthewingedhorsewerejoinedtoanideawhichcontradicted[tollit][13]itsexistence。"Ethics，11，49，Scholium。
Thesensethatanythingwethinkofisunrealcanonlycome，then，whenthatthingiscontradictedbysomeother[p。289]thingofwhichwethink。Anyobjectwhichremainsuncontradictedisipsofactobelievedandpositedasabsolutereality。
Now，howcomesitthatonethingthoughtofcanbecontradictedbyanother？
Itcannotunlessitbeginsthequarrelbysayingsomethinginadmissibleaboutthatother。Takethemindwiththecandle，ortheboywiththehorse。
Ifeitherofthemsay，’Thatcandleorthathorse，evenwhenIdon’tseeit，existsintheouterworld，’hepushesinto’theouterworld，’
anobjectwhichmaybeincompatiblewitheverythingwhichheotherwiseknowsofthatworld。Ifso，hemusttakehischoiceofwhichtoholdby，thepresentperceptionsortheotherknowledgeoftheworld。Ifheholdstotheotherknowledge，thepresentperceptionsarecontradicted，sofarastheirrelationtothatworldgoes。Candleandhorse，whatevertheymaybe，arenotexistentsinoutwardspace。Theyareexistents，ofcourse；theyarementalobjects；mentalobjectshaveexistenceasmentalobjects。Buttheyaresituatedintheirownspaces，thespaceinwhichtheyseverallyappear，andneitherofthosespacesisthespaceinwhichtherealitiescalled’theouterworld’exist。
Takeagainthehorsewithwings。IfImerelydreamofahorsewithwings，myhorseinterfereswithnothingelseandhasnottobecontradicted。Thathorse，itswings，anditsplace，areallequallyreal。Thathorseexistsnoother-wisethanaswinged，andismoreoverreallythere，forthatplaceexistsnootherwisethanastheplaceofthathorse，andclaimsasyetnoconnectionwiththeotherplacesoftheworld。ButifwiththishorseImakeaninroadintotheworldotherwiseknown，andsay，forexample，’ThatismyoldmareMaggie，havinggrownapairofwingswhereshestandsinherstall，’thewholecaseisaltered；fornowthehorseandplaceareidentifiedwithahorseandplaceotherwiseknown，andwhatisknownofthelatterobjectsisincompatiblewithwhatisperceivedwiththeformer。
’Maggieinherstallwithwings！Never！’Thewingsareunreal，then，visionary。
IhavedreamedalieaboutMaggieinherstall。