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　　Ofeaglesthereareseveralspecies。Oneofthem，called'thewhite-tailedeagle'，isfoundonlowlands，ingroves，andintheneighbourhoodofcities；somecallitthe'heron-killer'。Itisboldenoughtoflytomountainsandtheinteriorofforests。Theothereaglesseldomvisitgrovesorlow-lyingland。Thereisanotherspeciescalledthe'plangus'；itrankssecondinpointofsizeandstrength；
　　itlivesinmountaincombesandglens，andbymarshylakes，andgoesbythenameof'duck-killer'and'swart-eagle。'ItismentionedbyHomerinhisaccountofthevisitmadebyPriamtothetentofAchilles。ThereisanotherspecieswithblackPlumage，thesmallestbutboldestofallthekinds。Itdwellsonmountainsorinforests，andiscalled'theblack-eagle'or'thehare-killer'；itistheonlyeaglethatrearsitsyoungandthoroughlytakesthemoutwithit。Itisswiftofflight，isneatandtidyinitshabits，tooproudforjealousy，fearless，quarrelsome；itisalsosilent，foritneitherwhimpersnorscreams。Thereisanotherspecies，thepercnopterus，verylarge，withwhitehead，veryshortwings，longtail-feathers，inappearancelikeavulture。Itgoesbythenameof'mountain-stork'
　　or'half-eagle'。Itlivesingroves；hasallthebadqualitiesoftheotherspecies，andnoneofthegoodones；foritletsitselfbechasedandcaughtbytheravenandtheotherbirds。Itisclumsyinitsmovements，hasdifficultyinprocuringitsfood，preysondeadanimals，isalwayshungry，andatalltimeswhiningandscreaming。
　　Thereisanotherspecies，calledthe'sea-eagle'or'osprey'。Thisbirdhasalargethickneck，curvedwings，andbroadtailfeathers；
　　itlivesnearthesea，graspsitspreywithitstalons，andoften，frominabilitytocarryit，tumblesdownintothewater。Thereisanotherspeciescalledthe'true-bred'；peoplesaythatthesearetheonlytrue-bredbirdstobefound，thatallotherbirds-eagles，hawks，andthesmallestbirds-areallspoiltbytheinterbreedingofdifferentspecies。Thetrue-bredeagleisthelargestofalleagles；
　　itislargerthanthephene；ishalfaslargeagainastheordinaryeagle，andhasyellowplumage；itisseldomseen，asisthecasewiththeso-calledcymindis。Thetimeforaneagletobeonthewinginsearchofpreyisfrommiddaytoevening；inthemorninguntilthemarket-houritremainsonthenest。Inoldagetheupperbeakoftheeaglegrowsgraduallylongerandmorecrooked，andthebirddieseventuallyofstarvation；thereisafolklorestorythattheeagleisthuspunishedbecauseitoncewasamanandrefusedentertainmenttoastranger。Theeagleputsasideitssuperfluousfoodforitsyoung；forowingtothedifficultyinprocuringfooddaybyday，itattimesmaycomebacktothenestwithnothing。Ifitcatchamanprowlingaboutintheneighbourhoodofitsnest，itwillstrikehimwithitswingsandscratchhimwithitstalons。Thenestisbuiltnotonlowgroundbutonanelevatedspot，generallyonaninaccessibleledgeofacliff；itdoes，however，builduponatree。
　　Theyoungarefeduntiltheycanfly；hereupontheparent-birdstopplethemoutofthenest，andchasethemcompletelyoutofthelocality。
　　Thefactisthatapairofeaglesdemandsanextensivespaceforitsmaintenance，andconsequentlycannotallowotherbirdstoquarterthemselvesincloseneighbourhood。Theydonothuntinthevicinityoftheirnest，butgotoagreatdistancetofindtheirprey。Whentheeaglehascapturedabeast，itputsitdownwithoutattemptingtocarryitoffatonce；ifontrialitfindstheburdentooheavy，itwillleaveit。Whenithasspiedahare，itdoesnotswooponitatonce，butletsitgoonintotheopenground；neitherdoesitdescendtothegroundatoneswoop，butgoesgraduallydownfromhigherflightstolowerandlower:thesedevicesitadoptsbywayofsecurityagainstthestratagemofthehunter。Italightsonhighplacesbyreasonofthedifficultyitexperiencesinsoaringupfromthelevelground；itflieshighintheairtohavethemoreextensiveview；fromitshighflightitissaidtobetheonlybirdthatresemblesthegods。Birdsofprey，asarule，seldomalightuponrock，asthecrookednessoftheirtalonspreventsastablefootingonhardstone。Theeaglehuntshares，fawns，foxes，andingeneralallsuchanimalsashecanmasterwithease。Itisalong-livedbird，andthisfactmightbeinferredfromthelengthoftimeduringwhichthesamenestismaintainedinitsplace。
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　　InScythiathereisfoundabirdaslargeasthegreatbustard。
　　Thefemalelaystwoeggs，butdoesnothatchthem，buthidesthemintheskinofahareorfoxandleavesthemthere，and，whenitisnotinquestofprey，itkeepsawatchonthemonahightree；ifanymantriestoclimbthetree，itfightsandstrikeshimwithitswing，justaseaglesdo。
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　　Theowlandthenight-ravenandallthebirdsseepoorlyinthedaytimeseektheirpreyinthenight，butnotallthenightthrough，butateveninganddawn。Theirfoodconsistsofmice，lizards，chafersandthelikelittlecreatures。Theso-calledphene，orlammergeier，isfondofitsyoung，providesitsfoodwithease，fetchesfoodtoitsnest，andisofakindlydisposition。Itrearsitsownyoungandthoseoftheeagleaswell；forwhentheeagleejectsitsyoungfromthenest，thisbirdcatchesthemupastheyfallandfeedsthem。Fortheeagle，bytheway，ejectstheyoungbirdsprematurely，beforetheyareabletofeedthemselves，ortofly。Itappearstodosofromjealousy；
　　foritisbynaturejealous，andissoravenousastograbfuriouslyatitsfood；andwhenitdoesgrabatitsfood，itgrabsitinlargemorsels。Itisaccordinglyjealousoftheyoungbirdsastheyapproachmaturity，sincetheyaregettinggoodappetites，andsoitscratchesthemwithitstalons。Theyoungbirdsfightalsowithoneanother，tosecureamorseloffoodoracomfortableposition，whereuponthemother-birdbeatsthemandejectsthemfromthenest；theyoungonesscreamatthistreatment，andthephenehearingthemcatchesthemastheyfall。Thephenehasafilmoveritseyesandseesbadly，butthesea-eagleisverykeen-sighted，andbeforeitsyoungarefledgedtriestomakethemstareatthesun，andbeatstheonethatrefusestodoso，andtwistshimbackinthesun'sdirection；andifoneofthemgetswateryeyesintheprocess，itkillshim，andrearstheother。Itlivesnearthesea，andfeeds，ashasbeensaid，onsea-birds；wheninpursuitofthemitcatchesthemonebyone，watchingthemomentwhenthebirdrisestothesurfacefromitsdive。Whenasea-bird，emergingfromthewater，seesthesea-eagle，heinterrordivesunder，intendingtoriseagainelsewhere；theeagle，however，owingtoitskeennessofvision，keepsflyingafterhimuntilheeitherdrownsthebirdorcatcheshimonthesurface。Theeagleneverattacksthesebirdswhentheyareinaswarm，fortheykeephimoffbyraisingashowerofwater-dropswiththeirwings。
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　　Thecepphusiscaughtbymeansofsea-foam；thebirdsnapsatthefoam，andconsequentlyfishermencatchitbysluicingwithshowersofsea-water。Thesebirdsgrowtobeplumpandfat；theirfleshhasagoododour，exceptingthehinderquarters，whichsmellofshoreweed。
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　　Ofhawks，thestrongestisthebuzzard；thenextinpointofcourageisthemerlin；andthecircusranksthird；otherdiversekindsaretheasterias，thepigeon-hawk，andthepternis；thebroaded-wingedhawkiscalledthehalf-buzzard；othersgobythenameofhobby-hawk，orsparrow-hawk，or'smooth-feathered'，or'toad-catcher'。
　　Birdsofthislatterspeciesfindtheirfoodwithverylittledifficulty，andflutteralongtheground。Somesaythattherearetenspeciesofhawks，alldifferingfromoneanother。Onehawk，theysay，willstrikeandgrabthepigeonasitrestsontheground，butnevertouchitwhileitisinflight；anotherhawkattacksthepigeonwhenitispercheduponatreeoranyelevation，butnevertouchesitwhenitisonthegroundoronthewing；otherhawksattacktheirpreyonlywhenitisonthewing。Theysaythatpigeonscandistinguishthevariousspecies:sothat，whenahawkisanassailant，ifitbeonethatattacksitspreywhenthepreyisonthewing，thepigeonwillsitstill；ifitbeonethatattackssittingprey，thepigeonwillriseupandflyaway。
　　InThrace，inthedistrictsometimescalledthatofCedripolis，menhuntforlittlebirdsinthemarsheswiththeaidofhawks。Themenwithsticksintheirhandsgobeatingatthereedsandbrushwoodtofrightenthebirdsout，andthehawksshowthemselvesoverheadandfrightenthemdown。Thementhenstrikethemwiththeirsticksandcapturethem。Theygiveaportionoftheirbootytothehawks；thatis，theythrowsomeofthebirdsupintheair，andthehawkscatchthem。
　　IntheneighbourhoodofLakeMaeotis，itissaid，wolvesactinconcertwiththefishermen，andifthefishermendeclinetosharewiththem，theyteartheirnetsinpiecesastheyliedryingontheshoreofthelake。
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　　Somuchforthehabitsofbirds。
　　Inmarinecreatures，also，oneInmarinecreatures，also，onemayobservemanyingeniousdevicesadaptedtothecircumstancesoftheirlives。Fortheaccountscommonlygivenoftheso-calledfishing-frogarequitetrue；asarealsothosegivenofthetorpedo。
　　Thefishing-froghasasetoffilamentsthatprojectinfrontofitseyes；theyarelongandthinlikehairs，andareroundatthetips；
　　theylieoneitherside，andareusedasbaits。Accordingly，whentheanimalstirsupaplacefullofsandandmudandconcealsitselftherein，itraisesthefilaments，and，whenthelittlefishstrikeagainstthem，itdrawstheminunderneathintoitsmouth。Thetorpedonarcotizesthecreaturesthatitwantstocatch，overpoweringthembythepowerofshockthatisresidentinitsbody，andfeedsuponthem；italsohidesinthesandandmud，andcatchesallthecreaturesthatswiminitswayandcomeunderitsnarcotizinginfluence。Thisphenomenonhasbeenactuallyobservedinoperation。Thesting-rayalsoconcealsitself，butnotexactlyinthesameway。Thatthecreaturesgettheirlivingbythismeansisobviousfromthefactthat，whereastheyarepeculiarlyinactive，theyareoftencaughtwithmulletsintheirinterior，theswiftestoffishes。Furthermore，thefishing-frogisunusuallythinwhenheiscaughtafterlosingthetipsofhisfilaments，andthetorpedoisknowntocauseanumbnesseveninhumanbeings。Again，thehake，theray，theflat-fish，andtheangelfishburrowinthesand，andafterconcealingthemselvesanglewiththefilamentsontheirmouths，thatfishermencalltheirfishing-rods，andthelittlecreaturesonwhichtheyfeedswimuptothefilamentstakingthemforbitsofsea-weed，suchastheyfeedupon。
　　Whereverananthias-fishisseen，therewillbenodangerouscreaturesinthevicinity，andsponge-diverswilldiveinsecurity，andtheycallthesesignal-fishes'holy-fish'。Itisasortofperpetualcoincidence，likethefactthatwhereversnailsarepresentyoumaybesurethereisneitherpignorpartridgeintheneighbourhood；forbothpigandpartridgeeatupthesnails。
　　Thesea-serpentresemblesthecongerincolourandshape，butisoflesserbulkandmorerapidinitsmovements。Ifitbecaughtandthrownaway，itwillboreaholewithitssnoutandburrowrapidlyinthesand；itssnout，bytheway，issharperthanthatofordinaryserpents。Theso-calledsea-scolopendra，afterswallowingthehook，turnsitselfinsideoutuntilitejectsit，andthenitagainturnsitselfoutsidein。Thesea-scolopendra，liketheland-scolopendra，willcometoasavourybait；thecreaturedoesnotbitewithitsteeth，butstingsbycontactwithitsentirebody，liketheso-calledsea-nettle。Theso-calledfox-shark，whenitfindsithasswallowedthehook，triestogetridofitasthescolopendradoes，butnotinthesameway；inotherwords，itrunsupthefishing-line，andbitesitoffshort；itiscaughtinsomedistrictsindeepandrapidwaters，withnight-lines。
　　Thebonitosswarmtogetherwhentheyespyadangerouscreature，andthelargestofthemswimroundit，andifittouchesoneoftheshoaltheytrytorepelit；theyhavestrongteeth。Amongstotherlargefish，alamia-shark，afterfallinginamongstashoal，hasbeenseentobecoveredwithwounds。
　　Ofriver-fish，themaleofthesheat-fishisremarkablyattentivetotheyoung。Thefemaleafterparturitiongoesaway；themalestaysandkeepsonguardwherethespawnismostabundant，contentinghimselfwithkeepingoffallotherlittlefishesthatmightstealthespawnorfry，andthishedoesforfortyorfiftydays，untiltheyoungaresufficientlygrowntomakeawayfromtheotherfishesforthemselves。Thefishermencantellwhereheisonguard:
　　for，inwardingoffthelittlefishes，hemakesarushinthewaterandgivesutterancetoakindofmutteringnoise。Heissoearnestintheperformanceofhisparentaldutiesthatthefishermenattimes，iftheeggsbeattachedtotherootsofwater-plantsdeepinthewater，dragthemintoasshallowaplaceaspossible；themalefishwillstillkeepbytheyoung，and，ifitsohappen，willbecaughtbythehookwhensnappingatthelittlefishthatcomeby；if，however，hebesensiblebyexperienceofthedangerofthehook，hewillstillkeepbyhischarge，andwithhisextremelystrongteethwillbitethehookinpieces。
　　Allfishes，boththosethatwanderaboutandthosethatarestationary，occupythedistrictswheretheywerebornorverysimilarplaces，fortheirnaturalfoodisfoundthere。Carnivorousfishwandermost；andallfisharecarnivorouswiththeexceptionofafew，suchasthemullet，thesaupe，theredmullet，andthechalcis。
　　Theso-calledpholisgivesoutamucousdischarge，whichenvelopsthecreatureinakindofnest。Ofshell-fish，andfishthatarefinless，thescallopmoveswithgreatestforceandtothegreatestdistance，impelledalongbysomeinternalenergy；themurexorpurple-fish，andothersthatresembleit，movehardlyatall。OutofthelagoonofPyrrhaallthefishesswiminwinter-time，exceptthesea-gudgeon；theyswimoutowingtothecold，forthenarrowwatersarecolderthantheoutersea，andonthereturnoftheearlysummertheyallswimbackagain。Inthelagoonnoscarusisfound，northritta，noranyotherspeciesofthespinyfish，nospotteddogfish，nospinydogfish，nosea-crawfish，nooctopuseitherofthecommonorthemuskykinds，andcertainotherfisharealsoabsent；butoffishthatarefoundinthelagoonthewhitegudgeonisnotamarinefish。Offishestheoviparousareintheirprimeintheearlysummeruntilthespawningtime；theviviparousintheautumn，asisalsothecasewiththemullet，theredmullet，andallsuchfish。IntheneighbourhoodofLesbos，thefishesoftheoutersea，orofthelagoon，bringforththeireggsoryounginthelagoon；sexualuniontakesplaceintheautumn，andparturitioninthespring。Withfishesofthecartilaginouskind，themalesandfemalesswarmtogetherintheautumnforthesakeofsexualunion；intheearlysummertheycomeswimmingin，andkeepapartuntilafterparturition；thetwosexesareoftentakenlinkedtogetherinsexualunion。
　　Ofmolluscsthesepiaisthemostcunning，andistheonlyspeciesthatemploysitsdarkliquidforthesakeofconcealmentaswellasfromfear:theoctopusandcalamarymakethedischargesolelyfromfear。Thesecreaturesneverdischargethepigmentinitsentirety；andafteradischargethepigmentaccumulatesagain。Thesepia，ashasbeensaid，oftenusesitscolouringpigmentforconcealment；itshowsitselfinfrontofthepigmentandthenretreatsbackintoit；italsohuntswithitslongtentaclesnotonlylittlefishes，butoftentimesevenmullets。Theoctopusisastupidcreature，foritwillapproachaman'shandifitbeloweredinthewater；butitisneatandthriftyinitshabits:thatis，itlaysupstoresinitsnest，and，aftereatingupallthatiseatable，itejectstheshellsandsheathsofcrabsandshell-fish，andtheskeletonsoflittlefishes。Itseeksitspreybysochangingitscolourastorenderitlikethecolourofthestonesadjacenttoit；itdoessoalsowhenalarmed。Bysomethesepiaissaidtoperformthesametrick；thatis，theysayitcanchangeitscoloursoastomakeitresemblethecolourofitshabitat。Theonlyfishthatcandothisistheangelfish，thatis，itcanchangeitscolourliketheoctopus。Theoctopusasaruledoesnotlivetheyearout。Ithasanaturaltendencytorunoffintoliquid；for，ifbeatenandsqueezed，itkeepslosingsubstanceandatlastdisappears。Thefemaleafterparturitionispeculiarlysubjecttothiscolliquefaction；itbecomesstupid；iftossedaboutbywaves，itsubmitsimpassively；aman，ifhedived，couldcatchitwiththehand；itgetscoveredoverwithslime，andmakesnoefforttocatchitswontedprey。Themalebecomesleatheryandclammy。Asaproofthattheydonotliveintoasecondyearthereisthefactthat，afterthebirthofthelittleoctopusesinthelatesummerorbeginningofautumn，itisseldomthatalarge-sizedoctopusisvisible，whereasalittlebeforethistimeofyearthecreatureisatitslargest。Aftertheeggsarelaid，theysaythatboththemaleandthefemalegrowsooldandfeeblethattheyarepreyeduponbylittlefish，andwitheasedraggedfromtheirholes；
　　andthatthiscouldnothavebeendonepreviously；theysayalsothatthisisnotthecasewiththesmallandyoungoctopus，butthattheyoungcreatureismuchstrongerthanthegrown-upone。Neitherdoesthesepialiveintoasecondyear。Theoctopusistheonlymolluscthatventuresontodryland；itwalksbypreferenceonroughground；itisfirmalloverwhenyousqueezeit，exceptingintheneck。Somuchforthemollusca。
　　Itisalsosaidthattheymakeathinroughshellaboutthemlikeahardsheath，andthatthisismadelargerandlargerastheanimalgrowslarger，andthatitcomesoutofthesheathasthoughoutofadenordwellingplace。
　　Thenautilusorargonautisapoulpeoroctopus，butonepeculiarbothinitsnatureanditshabits。Itrisesupfromdeepwaterandswimsonthesurface；itriseswithitsshelldown-turnedinorderthatitmayrisethemoreeasilyandswimwithitempty，butafterreachingthesurfaceitshiftsthepositionoftheshell。Inbetweenitsfeelersithasacertainamountofweb-growth，resemblingthesubstancebetweenthetoesofweb-footedbirds；onlythatwiththeselatterthesubstanceisthick，whilewiththenautilusitisthinandlikeaspider'sweb。Itusesthisstructure，whenabreezeisblowing，forasail，andletsdownsomeofitsfeelersalongsideasrudder-oars。Ifitbefrighteneditfillsitsshellwithwaterandsinks。Withregardtothemodeofgenerationandthegrowthoftheshellknowledgefromobservationisnotyetsatisfactory；theshell，however，doesnotappeartobetherefromthebeginning，buttogrowintheircasesasinthatofothershell-fish；neitherisitascertainedforcertainwhethertheanimalcanlivewhenstrippedoftheshell。
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　　Ofallinsects，onemayalsosayofalllivingcreatures，themostindustriousaretheant，thebee，thehornet，thewasp，andinpointoffactallcreaturesakintothese；ofspiderssomearemoreskilfulandmoreresourcefulthanothers。Thewayinwhichantsworkisopentoordinaryobservation；howtheyallmarchoneaftertheotherwhentheyareengagedinputtingawayandstoringuptheirfood；
　　allthismaybeseen，fortheycarryontheirworkevenduringbrightmoonlightnights。
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　　Ofspidersandphalangiatherearemanyspecies。Ofthevenomousphalangiatherearetwo；onethatresemblestheso-calledwolf-spider，small，speckled，andtaperingtoapoint；itmoveswithleaps，fromwhichhabititisnicknamed'theflea':theotherkindislarge，blackincolour，withlongfrontlegs；itisheavyinitsmovements，walksslowly，isnotverystrong，andneverleaps。Ofalltheotherspecieswherewithpoison-vendorssupplythemselves，somegiveaweakbite，andothersneverbiteatall。Thereisanotherkind，comprisingtheso-calledwolf-spiders。Ofthesespidersthesmalloneweavesnoweb，andthelargeweavesarudeandpoorlybuiltoneonthegroundorondrystonewalls。Italwaysbuildsitsweboverhollowplacesinsideofwhichitkeepsawatchontheend-threads，untilsomecreaturegetsintothewebandbeginstostruggle，whenoutthespiderpounces。
　　Thespeckledkindmakesalittleshabbywebundertrees。
　　Thereisathirdspeciesofthisanimal，preeminentlycleverandartistic。Itfirstweavesathreadstretchingtoalltheexteriorendsofthefutureweb；thenfromthecentre，whichithitsuponwithgreataccuracy，itstretchesthewarp；onthewarpitputswhatcorrespondstothewoof，andthenweavesthewholetogether。Itsleepsandstoresitsfoodawayfromthecentre，butitisatthecentrethatitkeepswatchforitsprey。Then，whenanycreaturetouchesthewebandthecentreissetinmotion，itfirsttiesandwrapsthecreatureroundwiththreadsuntilitrendersithelpless，thenliftsitandcarriesitoff，and，ifithappenstobehungry，sucksoutthelife-juices——forthatisthewayitfeeds；but，ifitbenothungry，itfirstmendsanydamagedoneandthenhastensagaintoitsquestofprey。Ifsomethingcomesmeanwhileintothenet，thespideratfirstmakesforthecentre，andthengoesbacktoitsentangledpreyasfromafixedstartingpoint。Ifanyoneinjuresaportionoftheweb，itrecommencesweavingatsunriseoratsunset，becauseitischieflyattheseperiodsthatcreaturesarecaughtintheweb。Itisthefemalethatdoestheweavingandthehunting，butthemaletakesashareofthebootycaptured。
　　Oftheskilfulspiders，weavingasubstantialweb，therearetwokinds，thelargerandthesmaller。Theonehaslonglegsandkeepswatchwhileswingingdownwardsfromtheweb:fromitslargesizeitcannoteasilyconcealitself，andsoitkeepsunderneath，sothatitspreymaynotbefrightenedoff，butmaystrikeupontheweb'suppersurface；thelessawkwardlyformedoneliesinwaitonthetop，usingalittleholeforalurking-place。Spiderscanspinwebsfromthetimeoftheirbirth，notfromtheirinteriorasasuperfluityorexcretion，asDemocritusavers，butofftheirbodyasakindoftree-bark，likethecreaturesthatshootoutwiththeirhair，asforinstancetheporcupine。Thecreaturecanattackanimalslargerthanitself，andenwrapthemwithitsthreads:inotherwords，itwillattackasmalllizard，runroundanddrawthreadsaboutitsmouthuntilitclosesthemouthup；thenitcomesupandbitesit。
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　　Somuchforthespider。Ofinsects，thereisagenusthathasnoonenamethatcomprehendsallthespecies，thoughallthespeciesareakintooneanotherinform；itconsistsofalltheinsectsthatconstructahoneycomb:towit，thebee，andalltheinsectsthatresembleitinform。
　　Thereareninevarieties，ofwhichsixaregregarious-thebee，theking-bee，thedronebee，theannualwasp，and，furthermore，theanthreneorhornet，andthetenthredoorground-wasp；threearesolitary-thesmallersiren，ofaduncolour，thelargersiren，blackandspeckled，andthethird，thelargestofall，thatiscalledthehumble-bee。Nowantsnevergoa-hunting，butgatherupwhatisreadytohand；thespidermakesnothing，andlaysupnostore，butsimplygoesa-huntingforitsfood；whilethebee——forweshallbyandbytreatoftheninevarieties——doesnotgoa-hunting，butconstructsitsfoodoutofgatheredmaterialandstoresitaway，forhoneyisthebee'sfood。Thisfactisshownbythebeekeepers'attempttoremovethecombs；forthebees，whentheyarefumigated，andaresufferinggreatdistressfromtheprocess，thendevourthehoneymostravenously，whereasatothertimestheyareneverobservedtobesogreedy，butapparentlyarethriftyanddisposedtolaybyfortheirfuturesustenance。Theyhavealsoanotherfoodwhichiscalledbee-bread；thisisscarcerthanhoneyandhasasweetfigliketaste；
　　thistheycarryastheydothewaxontheirlegs。
　　Veryremarkablediversityisobservedintheirmethodsofworkingandtheirgeneralhabits。Whenthehivehasbeendeliveredtothemcleanandempty，theybuildtheirwaxencells，bringinginthejuiceofallkindsofflowersandthe'tears'orexudingsapoftrees，suchaswillowsandelmsandsuchothersasareparticularlygiventotheexudationofgum。Withthismaterialtheybesmearthegroundwork，toprovideagainstattacksofothercreatures；thebee-keeperscallthisstuff'stop-wax'。Theyalsowiththesamematerialnarrowbyside-buildingtheentrancestothehiveiftheyaretoowide。Theyfirstbuildcellsforthemselves；thenfortheso-calledkingsandthedrones；forthemselvestheyarealwaysbuilding，forthekingsonlywhenthebroodofyoungisnumerous，andcellsforthedronestheybuildifasuperabundanceofhoneyshouldsuggesttheirdoingso。Theybuildtheroyalcellsnexttotheirown，andtheyareofsmallbulk；thedrones'cellstheybuildnearby，andtheselatterarelessinbulkthanthebee'scells。
　　Theybeginbuildingthecombsdownwardsfromthetopofthehive，andgodownanddownbuildingmanycombsconnectedtogetheruntiltheyreachthebottom。Thecells，boththoseforthehoneyandthosealsoforthegrubs，aredouble-doored；fortwocellsarerangedaboutasinglebase，onepointingonewayandonetheother，afterthemannerofadoubleorhour-glass-shapedgoblet。Thecellsthatlieatthecommencementofthecombsandareattachedtothehives，totheextentoftwoorthreeconcentriccircularrows，aresmallanddevoidofhoney；thecellsthatarewellfilledwithhoneyaremostthoroughlylutedwithwax。Attheentrytothehivetheapertureofthedoorwayissmearedwithmitys；thissubstanceisadeepblack，andisasortofdrossorresidualby-productofwax；ithasapungentodour，andisacureforbruisesandsuppuratingsores。Thegreasystuffthatcomesnextispitch-wax；ithasalesspungentodourandislessmedicinalthanthemitys。Somesaythatthedronesconstructcombsbythemselvesinthesamehiveandinthesamecombthattheysharewiththebees；butthattheymakenohoney，butsubsist，theyandtheirgrubsalso，onthehoneymadebythebees。Thedrones，asarule，keepinsidethehive；whentheygooutofdoors，theysoarupintheairinastream，whirlingroundandroundinakindofgymnasticexercise；whenthisisover，theycomeinsidethehiveandfeedtorepletionravenously。Thekingsneverquitthehive，exceptinconjunctionwiththeentireswarm，eitherforfoodorforanyotherreason。Theysaythat，ifayoungswarmgoastray，itwillturnbackuponitsrouteandbytheaidofscentseekoutitsleader。Itissaidthatifheisunabletoflyheiscarriedbytheswarm，andthatifhediestheswarmperishes；andthat，ifthisswarmoutlivesthekingforawhileandconstructscombs，nohoneyisproducedandthebeessoondieout。
　　Beesscrambleupthestalksofflowersandrapidlygatherthebees-waxwiththeirfrontlegs；thefrontlegswipeitoffontothemiddlelegs，andthesepassitontothehollowcurvesofthehind-legs；whenthusladen，theyflyawayhome，andonemayseeplainlythattheirloadisaheavyone。Oneachexpeditionthebeedoesnotflyfromaflowerofonekindtoaflowerofanother，butfliesfromoneviolet，say，toanotherviolet，andnevermeddleswithanotherfloweruntilithasgotbacktothehive；onreachingthehivetheythrowofftheirload，andeachbeeonhisreturnisaccompaniedbythreeorfourcompanions。Onecannotwelltellwhatisthesubstancetheygather，northeexactprocessoftheirwork。
　　Theirmodeofgatheringwaxhasbeenobservedonolive-trees，asowingtothethicknessoftheleavesthebeesremainstationaryforaconsiderablewhile。Afterthisworkisover，theyattendtothegrubs。
　　Thereisnothingtopreventgrubs，honey，anddronesbeingallfoundinoneandthesamecomb。Aslongastheleaderisalive，thedronesaresaidtobeproducedapartbythemselves；ifhebenolongerliving，theyaresaidtoberearedbythebeesintheirowncells，andunderthesecircumstancestobecomemorespirited:forthisreasontheyarecalled'sting-drones'，notthattheyreallyhavestings，butthattheyhavethewishwithoutthepower，tousesuchweapons。
　　Thecellsforthedronesarelargerthantheothers；sometimesthebeesconstructcellsforthedronesapart，butusuallytheyputtheminamongsttheirown；andwhenthisisthecasethebee-keeperscutthedrone-cellsoutofthecombs。
　　Thereareseveralspeciesofbees，ashasbeensaid；twoof'kings'，thebetterkindred，theotherblackandvariegated，andtwiceasbigastheworking-bee。Thebestworkingbeeissmall，round，andspeckled:anotherkindislongandlikeananthrenewasp；
　　anotherkindiswhatiscalledtherobber-bee，blackandflat-bellied；
　　thenthereisthedrone，thelargestofall，butdevoidofsting，andlazy。Thereisadifferencebetweentheprogenyofbeesthatinhabitcultivatedlandandofthosefromthemountains:theforest-beesaremoreshaggy，smaller，moreindustriousandmorefierce。Working-beesmaketheircombsalleven，withthesuperficialcoveringquitesmooth。Eachcombisofonekindonly:thatis，itcontainseitherbeesonly，orgrubsonly，ordronesonly；ifithappen，however，thattheymakeinoneandthesamecomballthesekindsofcells，eachseparatekindwillbebuiltinacontinuousrowrightthrough。Thelongbeesbuildunevencombs，withthelidsofthecellsprotuberant，likethoseoftheanthrene；grubsandeverythingelsehavenofixedplaces，butareputanywhere；fromthesebeescomeinferiorkings，alargequantityofdrones，andtheso-calledrobber-bee；theyproduceeithernohoneyatall，orhoneyinverysmallquantities。Beesbroodoverthecombsandsomaturethem；
　　iftheyfailtodoso，thecombsaresaidtogobadandtogetcoveredwithasortofspider'sweb。Iftheycankeepbroodingoverthepartundamaged，thedamagedpartsimplyeatsitselfaway；iftheycannotsobrood，theentirecombperishes；inthedamagedcombssmallwormsareengendered，whichtakeonwingsandflyaway。Whenthecombskeepsettlingdown，thebeesrestorethelevelsurface，andputpropsunderneaththecombstogivethemselvesfreepassage-room；forifsuchfreepassagebelackingtheycannotbrood，andthecobwebscomeon。Whentherobber-beeandthedroneappear，notonlydotheydonoworkthemselves，buttheyactuallydamagetheworkoftheotherbees；iftheyarecaughtintheact，theyarekilledbytheworking-bees。Thesebeesalsokillwithoutmercymostoftheirkings，andespeciallykingsoftheinferiorsort；andthistheydoforfearamultiplicityofkingsshouldleadtoadismembermentofthehive。Theykillthemespeciallywhenthehiveisdeficientingrubs，andaswarmisnotintendedtotakeplace；underthesecircumstancestheydestroythecellsofthekingsiftheyhavebeenprepared，onthegroundthatthesekingsarealwaysreadytoleadoutswarms。Theydestroyalsothecombsofthedronesifafailureinthesupplybethreateningandthehiverunsshortofprovisions；undersuchcircumstancestheyfightdesperatelywithallwhotrytotaketheirhoney，andejectfromthehivealltheresidentdrones；andoftentimesthedronesaretobeseensittingapartinthehive。Thelittlebeesfightvigorouslywiththelongkind，andtrytobanishthemfromthehives；iftheysucceed，thehivewillbeunusuallyproductive，butifthebiggerbeesgetleftmistressesofthefieldtheypassthetimeinidleness，andnogoodatallbutdieoutbeforetheautumn。
　　Whenevertheworking-beeskillanenemytheytrytodosooutofdoors；andwheneveroneoftheirownbodydies，theycarrythedeadbeeoutofdoorsalso。Theso-calledrobber-beesspoiltheirowncombs，and，iftheycandosounnoticed，enterandspoilthecombsofotherbees；iftheyarecaughtintheacttheyareputtodeath。Itisnoeasytaskforthemtoescapedetection，fortherearesentinelsonguardateveryentry；and，eveniftheydoescapedetectiononentering，afterwardsfromasurfeitoffoodtheycannotfly，butgorollingaboutinfrontofthehive，sothattheirchancesofescapearesmallindeed。Thekingsareneverthemselvesseenoutsidethehiveexceptwithaswarminflight:duringwhichtimealltheotherbeesclusteraroundthem。Whentheflightofaswarmisimminent，amonotonousandquitepeculiarsoundmadebyallthebeesisheardforseveraldays，andfortwoorthreedaysinadvanceafewbeesareseenflyingroundthehive；ithasneverasyetbeenascertained，owingtothedifficultyoftheobservation，whetherornothekingisamongthese。Whentheyhaveswarmed，theyflyawayandseparateofftoeachofthekings；ifasmallswarmhappenstosettleneartoalargeone，itwillshifttojointhislargeone，andifthekingwhomtheyhaveabandonedfollowsthem，theyputhimtodeath。Somuchforthequittingofthehiveandtheswarmflight。
　　Separatedetachmentsofbeesaretoldofffordiverseoperations；thatis，somecarryflower-produce，otherscarrywater，otherssmoothandarrangethecombs。Abeecarrieswaterwhenitisrearinggrubs。Nobeeeversettlesonthefleshofanycreature，orevereatsanimalfood。Theyhavenofixeddateforcommencingwork；butwhentheirprovenderisforthcomingandtheyareincomfortabletrim，andbypreferenceinsummer，theysettowork，andwhentheweatherisfinetheyworkincessantly。
　　Thebee，whenquiteyoungandinfactonlythreedaysold，aftersheddingitschrysalis-case，beginstoworkifitbewellfed。Whenaswarmissettling，somebeesdetachthemselvesinsearchoffoodandreturnbacktotheswarm。Inhivesthatareingoodconditiontheproductionofyoungbeesisdiscontinuedonlyforthefortydaysthatfollowthewintersolstice。Whenthegrubsaregrown，thebeesputfoodbesidethemandcoverthemwithacoatingofwax；and，assoonasthegrubisstrongenough，heofhisownaccordbreaksthelidandcomesout。Creaturesthatmaketheirappearanceinhivesandspoilthecombstheworking-beesclearout，buttheotherbeesfromsheerlazinesslookwithindifferenceondamagedonetotheirproduce。
　　Whenthebee-masterstakeoutthecombs，theyleaveenoughfoodbehindforwinteruse；ifitbesufficientinquantity，theoccupantsofthehivewillsurvive；ifitbeinsufficient，then，iftheweatherberough，theydieonthespot，butifitbefair，theyflyawayanddesertthehive。Theyfeedonhoneysummerandwinter；buttheystoreupanotherarticleoffoodresemblingwaxinhardness，whichbysomeiscalledsandarace，orbee-bread。Theirworstenemiesarewaspsandthebirdsnamedtitmice，andfurthermoretheswallowandthebee-eater。Thefrogsinthemarshalsocatchthemiftheycomeintheirwaybythewater-side，andforthisreasonbee-keeperschasethefrogsfromthepondsfromwhichthebeestakewater；theydestroyalsowasps'nests，andthenestsofswallows，intheneighbourhoodofthehives，andalsothenestsofbee-eaters。Beeshavefearonlyofoneanother。Theyfightwithoneanotherandwithwasps。Awayfromthehivetheyattackneithertheirownspeciesnoranyothercreature，butinthecloseproximityofthehivetheykillwhatevertheygetholdof。Beesthatstingdiefromtheirinabilitytoextractthestingwithoutatthesametimeextractingtheirintestines。True，theyoftenrecover，ifthepersonstungtakesthetroubletopressthestingout；
　　butonceitlosesitsstingthebeemustdie。Theycankillwiththeirstingsevenlargeanimals；infact，ahorsehasbeenknowntohavebeenstungtodeathbythem。Thekingsaretheleastdisposedtoshowangerortoinflictasting。Beesthatdieareremovedfromthehive，andineverywaythecreatureisremarkableforitscleanlyhabits；inpointoffact，theyoftenflyawaytoadistancetovoidtheirexcrementbecauseitismalodorous；and，ashasbeensaid，theyareannoyedbyallbadsmellsandbythescentofperfumes，somuchsothattheystingpeoplethatuseperfumes。
　　Theyperishfromanumberofaccidentalcauses，andwhentheirkingsbecometoonumerousandtryeachtocarryawayaportionoftheswarm。
　　Thetoadalsofeedsonbees；hecomestothedoorwayofthehive，puffshimselfoutashesitsonthewatch，anddevoursthecreaturesastheycomeflyingout；thebeescaninnowayretaliate，butthebee-keepermakesapointofkillinghim。
　　Asfortheclassofbeethathasbeenspokenofasinferiororgood-for-nothing，andasconstructingitscombssoroughly，somebee-keeperssaythatitistheyoungbeesthatactsofrominexperience；andthebeesofthecurrentyeararetermedyoung。Theyoungbeesdonotstingastheothersdo；anditisforthisreasonthatswarmsmaybesafelycarried，asitisofyoungbeesthattheyarecomposed。Whenhoneyrunsshorttheyexpelthedrones，andthebee-keeperssupplythebeeswithfigsandsweet-tastingarticlesoffood。Theelderbeesdotheindoorwork，andareroughandhairyfromstayingindoors；theyoungbeesdotheoutercarrying，andarecomparativelysmooth。Theykillthedronesalsowhenintheirworktheyareconfinedforroom；thedrones，bytheway，liveintheinnermostrecessofthehive。Ononeoccasion，whenahivewasinapoorcondition，someoftheoccupantsassailedaforeignhive；provingvictoriousinacombattheytooktocarryingoffthehoney；whenthebee-keepertriedtokillthem，theotherbeescameoutandtriedtobeatofftheenemybutmadenoattempttostingtheman。
　　Thediseasesthatchieflyattackprosperoushivesarefirstofalltheclerus-thisconsistsinagrowthoflittlewormsonthefloor，fromwhich，astheydevelop，akindofcobwebgrowsovertheentirehive，andthecombsdecay；anotherdiseasedconditionisindicatedinalassitudeonthepartofthebeesandinmalodorousnessofthehive。Beesfeedonthyme；andthewhitethymeisbetterthanthered。Insummertheplaceforthehiveshouldbecool，andinwinterwarm。Theyareveryapttofallsickiftheplanttheyareatworkonbemildewed。Inahighwindtheycarryastonebywayofballasttosteadythem。Ifastreambenearathand，theydrinkfromitandfromitonly，butbeforetheydrinktheyfirstdeposittheirload；
　　iftherebenowaternearathand，theydisgorgetheirhoneyastheydrinkelsewhere，andatoncemakeofftowork。Therearetwoseasonsformakinghoney，springandautumn；thespringhoneyissweeter，whiter，andineverywaybetterthantheautumnhoney。Superiorhoneycomesfromfreshcomb，andfromyoungshoots；theredhoneyisinferior，andowesitsinferioritytothecombinwhichitisdeposited，justaswineisapttobespoiledbyitscask；
　　consequently，oneshouldhaveitlookedtoanddried。Whenthethymeisinflowerandthecombisfull，thehoneydoesnotharden。Thehoneythatisgoldeninhueisexcellent。Whitehoneydoesnotcomefromthymepureandsimple；itisgoodasasalveforsoreeyesandwounds。Poorhoneyalwaysfloatsonthesurfaceandshouldbeskimmedoff；thefineclearhoneyrestsbelow。Whenthefloralworldisinfullbloom，thentheymakewax；consequentlyyoumustthentakethewaxoutofthehive，fortheygotoworkonnewwaxatonce。Theflowersfromwhichtheygatherhoneyareasfollows:thespindle-tree，themelilot-clover，king's-spear，myrtle，flowering-reed，withy，andbroom。Whentheyworkatthyme，theymixinwaterbeforesealingupthecomb。Ashasbeenalreadystated，theyalleitherflytoadistancetodischargetheirexcrementormakethedischargeintoonesinglecomb。Thelittlebees，ashasbeensaid，aremoreindustriousthanthebigones；theirwingsarebattered；theircolourisblack，andtheyhaveaburnt-upaspect。Gaudyandshowybees，likegaudyandshowywomen，aregood-for-nothings。
　　Beesseemtotakeapleasureinlisteningtoarattlingnoise；andconsequentlymensaythattheycanmusterthemintoahivebyrattlingwithcrockeryorstones；itisuncertain，however，whetherornotheycanhearthenoiseatallandalsowhethertheirprocedureisduetopleasureoralarm。Theyexpelfromthehiveallidlersandunthrifts。Ashasbeensaid，theydifferentiatetheirwork；somemakewax，somemakehoney，somemakebee-bread，someshapeandmouldcombs，somebringwatertothecellsandmingleitwiththehoney，someengageinout-of-doorwork。Atearlydawntheymakenonoise，untilsomeoneparticularbeemakesabuzzingnoisetwoorthreetimesandtherebyawakestherest；hereupontheyallflyinabodytowork。Byandbytheyreturnandatfirstarenoisy；thenthenoisegraduallydecreases，untilatlastsomeonebeefliesroundabout，makingabuzzingnoise，andapparentlycallingontheotherstogotosleep；thenallofasuddenthereisadeadsilence。
　　Thehiveisknowntobeingoodconditionifthenoiseheardwithinitisloud，andifthebeesmakeaflutterastheygooutandin；foratthistimetheyareconstructingbrood-cells。Theysuffermostfromhungerwhentheyrecommenceworkafterwinter。Theybecomesomewhatlazyifthebee-keeper，inrobbingthehive，leavebehindtoomuchhoney；stilloneshouldleavecellsnumerousinproportiontothepopulation，forthebeesworkinaspiritlesswayiftoofewcombsareleft。Theybecomeidlealso，asbeingdispirited，ifthehivebetoobig。Ahiveyieldstothebee-keepersixorninepintsofhoney；aprosperoushivewillyieldtwelveorfifteenpints，exceptionallygoodhiveseighteen。Sheepand，ashasbeensaid，waspsareenemiestothebees。Bee-keepersentrapthelatter，byputtingaflatdishonthegroundwithpiecesofmeatonit；whenanumberofthewaspssettleonit，theycoverthemwithalidandputthedishanditscontentsonthefire。Itisagoodthingtohaveafewdronesinahive，astheirpresenceincreasestheindustryoftheworkers。Beescantelltheapproachofroughweatherorofrain；andtheproofisthattheywillnotflyaway，butevenwhileitisasyetfinetheygoflutteringaboutwithinarestrictedspace，andthebee-keeperknowsfromthisthattheyareexpectingbadweather。Whenthebeesinsidethehivehangclusteringtooneanother，itisasignthattheswarmisintendingtoquit；consequently，occasion，whenabee-keepers，onseeingthis，besprinklethehivewithsweetwine。Itisadvisabletoplantaboutthehivespear-trees，beans，Median-grass，Syrian-grass，yellowpulse，myrtle，poppies，creeping-thyme，andalmond-trees。
　　Somebee-keeperssprinkletheirbeeswithflour，andcandistinguishthemfromotherswhentheyareatworkoutofdoors。Ifthespringbelate，oriftherebedroughtorblight，thengrubsareallthefewerinthehives。Somuchforthehabitsofbees。
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　　Ofwasps，therearetwokinds。Ofthesekindsoneiswildandscarce，livesonthemountains，engendersgrubsnotundergroundbutonoak-trees，islarger，longer，andblackerthantheotherkind，isinvariablyspeckledandfurnishedwithasting，andisremarkablycourageous。Thepainfromitsstingismoreseverethanthatcausedbytheothers，fortheinstrumentthatcausesthepainislarger，inproportiontoitsownlargersize。Thesewildliveoverintoasecondyear，andinwintertime，whenoakshavebeenincourseoffelling，theymaybeseencomingoutandflyingaway。Theylieconcealedduringthewinter，andliveintheinterioroflogsofwood。
　　Someofthemaremother-waspsandsomeareworkers，aswiththetamerkind；butitisbyobservationofthetamewaspsthatonemaylearnthevariedcharacteristicsofthemothersandtheworkers。Forinthecaseofthetamewaspsalsotherearetwokinds；oneconsistsofleaders，whoarecalledmothers，andtheotherofworkers。Theleadersarefarlargerandmilder-temperedthantheothers。Theworkersdonotliveoverintoasecondyear，butalldiewhenwintercomeson；andthiscanbeproved，foratthecommencementofwintertheworkersbecomedrowsy，andaboutthetimeofthewintersolsticetheyareneverseenatall。Theleaders，theso-calledmothers，areseenallthroughthewinter，andliveinholesunderground；formenwhenploughingordigginginwinterhaveoftencomeuponmother-wasps，butneveruponworkers。Themodeofreproductionofwaspsisasfollows。Attheapproachofsummer，whentheleadershavefoundashelteredspot，theytaketomouldingtheircombs，andconstructtheso-calledsphecons，-littlenestscontainingfourcellsorthereabouts，andintheseareproducedworking-waspsbutnotmothers。Whenthesearegrownup，thentheyconstructotherlargercombsuponthefirst，andthenagaininlikemannerothers；sothatbythecloseofautumntherearenumerouslargecombsinwhichtheleader，theso-calledmother，engendersnolongerworking-waspsbutmothers。Thesedevelophighupinthenestaslargegrubs，incellsthatoccuringroupsoffourorrathermore，prettymuchinthesamewayaswehaveseenthegrubsoftheking-beestobeproducedintheircells。Afterthebirthoftheworking-grubsinthecells，theleadersdonothingandtheworkershavetosupplythemwithnourishment；andthisisinferredfromthefactthattheleadersoftheworking-waspsnolongerflyoutatthistime，butrestquietlyindoors。Whethertheleadersoflastyearafterengenderingnewleadersarekilledbythenewbrood，andwhetherthisoccursinvariablyorwhethertheycanliveforalongertime，hasnotbeenascertainedbyactualobservation；neithercanwespeakwithcertainty，asfromobservation，astotheageattainedbythemother-wasporbythewildwasps，orastoanyothersimilarphenomenon。Themother-waspisbroadandheavy，fatterandlargerthantheordinarywasp，andfromitsweightnotverystrongonthewing；thesewaspscannotflyfar，andforthisreasontheyalwaysrestinsidethenest，buildingandmanagingitsindoorarrangements。Theso-calledmother-waspsarefoundinmostofthenests；itisamatterofdoubtwhetherornotheyareprovidedwithstings；inallprobability，liketheking-bees，theyhavestings，butneverprotrudethemforoffence。Oftheordinarywaspssomearedestituteofstings，likethedrone-bees，andsomeareprovidedwiththem。Thoseunprovidedtherewitharesmallerandlessspiritedandneverfight，whiletheothersarebigandcourageous；andtheselatter，bysome，arecalledmales，andthestingless，females。Attheapproachofwintermanyofthewaspsthathavestingsappeartolosethem；butwehavenevermetaneyewitnessofthisphenomenon。
　　Waspsaremoreabundantintimesofdroughtandinwildlocalities。
　　Theyliveunderground；theircombstheymouldoutofchipsandearth，eachcombfromasingleorigin，likeakindofroot。Theyfeedoncertainflowersandfruits，butforthemostpartonanimalfood。Someofthetamewaspshavebeenobservedwhensexuallyunited，butitwasnotdeterminedwhetherboth，orneither，hadstings，orwhetheronehadastingandtheotherhadnot；wildwaspshavebeenseenundersimilarcircumstances，whenonewasseentohaveastingbutthecaseoftheotherwasleftundetermined。Thewasp-grubdoesnotappeartocomeintoexistencebyparturition，forattheoutsetthegrubistoobigtobetheoffspringofawasp。Ifyoutakeawaspbythefeetandlethimbuzzwiththevibrationofhiswings，waspsthathavenostingswillflytowardit，andwaspsthathavestingswillnot；fromwhichfactitisinferredbysomethatonesetaremalesandtheotherfemales。Inholesinthegroundinwinter-timewaspsarefound，somewithstings，andsomewithout。
　　Somebuildcells，smallandfewinnumber；othersbuildmanyandlargeones。Theso-calledmothersarecaughtatthechangeofseason，mostlyonelm-trees，whilegatheringasubstancestickyandgumlike。A
　　largenumberofmother-waspsarefoundwheninthepreviousyearwaspshavebeennumerousandtheweatherrainy；theyarecapturedinprecipitousplaces，orinverticalcleftsintheground，andtheyallappeartobefurnishedwithstings。
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　　Somuchforthehabitsofwasps。
　　Anthrenaedonotsubsistbycullingfromflowersasbeesdo，butforthemostpartonanimalfood:forthisreasontheyhoveraboutdung；fortheychasethelargeflies，andaftercatchingthemlopofftheirheadsandflyawaywiththerestofthecarcases；theyarefurthermorefondofsweetfruits。Suchistheirfood。Theyhavealsokingsorleaderslikebeesandwasps；andtheirleadersarelargerinproportiontothemselvesthanarewasp-kingstowaspsorbee-kingstobees。Theanthrena-king，likethewasp-king，livesindoors。Anthrenaebuildtheirnestsunderground，scrapingoutthesoillikeants；forneitheranthrenaenorwaspsgooffinswarmsasbeesdo，butsuccessivelayersofyounganthrenaekeeptothesamehabitat，andgoonenlargingtheirnestbyscrapingoutmoreandmoreofsoil。Thenestaccordinglyattainsagreatsize；infact，fromaparticularlyprosperousnesthavebeenremovedthreeandevenfourbasketsfullofcombs。Theydonot，likebees，storeupfood，butpassthewinterinatorpidcondition；thegreaterpartofthemdieinthewinter，butitisuncertainwhetherthatcanbesaidofthemall，Inthehivesofbeesseveralkingsarefoundandtheyleadoffdetachmentsinswarms，butintheanthrena'snestonlyonekingisfound。Whenindividualanthrenaehavestrayedfromtheirnest，theyclusteronatreeandconstructcombs，asmaybeoftenseenabove-ground，andinthisnesttheyproduceaking；whenthekingisfull-grown，heleadsthemawayandsettlesthemalongwithhimselfinahiveornest。Withregardtotheirsexualunions，andthemethodoftheirreproduction，nothingisknownfromactualobservation。Amongbeesboththedronesandthekingsarestingless，andsoarecertainwasps，ashasbeensaid；butanthrenaeappeartobeallfurnishedwithstings:though，bytheway，itwouldwellbeworthwhiletocarryoutinvestigationastowhethertheanthrena-kinghasastingornot。
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　　Humble-beesproducetheiryoungunderastone，rightontheground，inacoupleofcellsorlittlemore；inthesecellsisfoundanattemptathoney，ofapoordescription。Thetenthredonisliketheanthrena，butspeckled，andaboutasbroadasabee。Beingepicuresastotheirfood，theyfly，oneatatime，intokitchensandontoslicesoffishandthelikedainties。Thetenthredonbringsforth，likethewasp，underground，andisveryprolific；itsnestismuchbiggerandlongerthanthatofthewasp。Somuchforthemethodsofworkingandthehabitsoflifeofthebee，thewasp，andalltheothersimilarinsects。
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　　Asregardsthedispositionortemperofanimals，ashasbeenpreviouslyobserved，onemaydetectgreatdifferencesinrespecttocourageandtimidity，asalso，evenamongwildanimals，inregardtotamenessandwildness。Thelion，whileheiseating，ismostferocious；butwhenheisnothungryandhashadagoodmeal，heisquitegentle。Heistotallydevoidofsuspicionornervousfear，isfondofrompingwithanimalsthathavebeenrearedalongwithhimandtowhomheisaccustomed，andmanifestsgreataffectiontowardsthem。Inthechase，aslongasheisinview，hemakesnoattempttorunandshowsnofear，butevenifhebecompelledbythemultitudeofthehunterstoretreat，hewithdrawsdeliberately，stepbystep，everynowandthenturninghisheadtoregardhispursuers。If，however，hereachwoodedcover，thenherunsatfullspeed，untilhecomestoopenground，whenheresumeshisleisurelyretreat。When，intheopen，heisforcedbythenumberofthehunterstorunwhileinfullview，hedoesrunatthetopofhisspeed，butwithoutleapingandbounding。
　　Thisrunningofhisisevenlyandcontinuouslykeptupliketherunningofadog；butwhenheisinpursuitofhispreyandisclosebehind，hemakesasuddenpounceuponit。Thetwostatementsmaderegardinghimarequitetrue；theonethatheisespeciallyafraidoffire，asHomerpictureshimintheline-'andglowingtorches，which，thoughfiercehedreads，'-andtheother，thathekeepsasteadyeyeuponthehunterwhohitshim，andflingshimselfuponhim。Ifahunterhithim，withouthurtinghim，thenifwithaboundhegetsholdofhim，hewilldohimnoharm，notevenwithhisclaws，butaftershakinghimandgivinghimafrightwilllethimgoagain。Theyinvadethecattle-foldsandattackhumanbeingswhentheyaregrownoldandsobyreasonofoldageandthediseasedconditionoftheirteethareunabletopursuetheirwontedprey。Theylivetoagoodoldage。
　　Thelionwhowascapturedwhenlame，hadanumberofhisteethbroken；
　　whichfactwasregardedbysomeasaproofofthelongevityoflions，ashecouldhardlyhavebeenreducedtothisconditionexceptatanadvancedage。Therearetwospeciesoflions，theplump，curly-maned，andthelong-bodied，straightmaned；thelatterkindiscourageous，andtheformercomparativelytimid；sometimestheyrunawaywiththeirtailbetweentheirlegs，likeadog。Alionwasonceseentobeonthepointofattackingaboar，buttorunawaywhentheboarstiffenedhisbristlesindefence。Itissusceptibleofhurtfromawoundintheflank，butonanyotherpartofitsframewillendureanynumberofblows，anditsheadisespeciallyhard。
　　Wheneveritinflictsawound，eitherbyitsteethoritsclaws，thereflowsfromthewoundedpartssuppuratingmatter，quiteyellow，andnottobestanchedbybandageorsponge；thetreatmentforsuchawoundisthesameasthatforthebiteofadog。
　　Thethos，orcivet，isfondofman'scompany；itdoeshimnoharmandisnotmuchafraidofhim，butitisanenemytothedogandthelion，andconsequentlyisnotfoundinthesamehabitatwiththem。Thelittleonesarethebest。Somesaythattherearetwospeciesoftheanimal，andsomesay，three；thereareprobablynotmorethanthree，but，asisthecasewithcertainofthefishes，birds，andquadrupeds，thisanimalchangesinappearancewiththechangeofseason。Hiscolourinwinterisnotthesameasitisinsummer；insummertheanimalissmooth-haired，inwinterheisclothedinfur。
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　　ThebisonisfoundinPaeoniaonMountMessapium，whichseparatesPaeoniafromMaedica；andthePaeonianscallitthemonapos。
　　Itisthesizeofabull，butstouterinbuild，andnotlonginthebody；itsskin，stretchedtightonaframe，wouldgivesittingroomforsevenpeople。Ingeneralitresemblestheoxinappearance，exceptthatithasamanethatreachesdowntothepointoftheshoulder，asthatofthehorsereachesdowntoitswithers；butthehairinitsmaneissofterthanthehairinthehorse'smane，andclingsmoreclosely。Thecolourofthehairisbrown-yellow；themanereachesdowntotheeyes，andisdeepandthick。Thecolourofthebodyishalfred，halfashen-grey，likethatoftheso-calledchestnuthorse，butrougher。Ithasanundercoatofwoollyhair。Theanimalisnotfoundeitherveryblackorveryred。Ithasthebellowofabull。Itshornsarecrooked，turnedinwardstowardseachotheranduselessforpurposesofself-defence；theyareaspanbroad，oralittlemore，andinvolumeeachhornwouldholdaboutthreepintsofliquid；theblackcolourofthehornisbeautifulandbright。Thetuftofhairontheforeheadreachesdowntotheeyes，sothattheanimalseesobjectsoneitherflankbetterthanobjectsrightinfront。Ithasnoupperteeth，asisthecasealsowithkineandallotherhornedanimals。Itslegsarehairy；itiscloven-footed，andthetail，whichresemblesthatoftheox，seemsnotbigenoughforthesizeofitsbody。Ittossesupdustandscoopsoutthegroundwithitshooves，likethebull。Itsskinisimpervioustoblows。Owingtothesavourofitsfleshitissoughtforinthechase。Whenitiswoundeditrunsaway，andstopsonlywhenthoroughlyexhausted。Itdefendsitselfagainstanassailantbykickingandprojectingitsexcrementtoadistanceofeightyards；thisdeviceitcaneasilyadoptoverandoveragain，andtheexcrementissopungentthatthehairofhunting-dogsisburntoffbyit。Itisonlywhentheanimalisdisturbedoralarmedthatthedunghasthisproperty；whentheanimalisundisturbedithasnoblisteringeffect。Somuchfortheshapeandhabitsoftheanimal。Whentheseasoncomesforparturitionthemothersgivebirthtotheiryoungintroopsuponthemountains。Beforedroppingtheiryoungtheyscattertheirdunginalldirections，makingakindofcircularrampartaroundthem；fortheanimalhasthefacultyofejectingexcrementinmostextraordinaryquantities。
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　　Ofallwildanimalsthemosteasilytamedandthegentlestistheelephant。Itcanbetaughtanumberoftricks，thedriftandmeaningofwhichitunderstands；as，forinstance，itcantaughttokneelinpresenceoftheking。Itisverysensitive，andpossessedofanintelligencesuperiortothatofotheranimals。Whenthemalehashadsexualunionwiththefemale，andthefemalehasconceived，themalehasnofurtherintercoursewithher。
　　Somesaythattheelephantlivesfortwohundredyears；
　　others，foronehundredandtwenty；thatthefemalelivesnearlyaslongasthemale；thattheyreachtheirprimeabouttheageofsixty，andthattheyaresensitivetoinclementweatherandfrost。Theelephantisfoundbythebanksofrivers，butheisnotariveranimal；hecanmakehiswaythroughwater，aslongasthetipofhistrunkcanbeabovethesurface，forheblowswithhistrunkandbreathesthroughit。Theanimalisapoorswimmerowingtotheheavyweightofhisbody。
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　　Themalecameldeclinesintercoursewithitsmother；ifhiskeepertriescompulsion，heevincesdisinclination。Ononeoccasion，whenintercoursewasbeingdeclinedbytheyoungmale，thekeepercoveredoverthemotherandputtheyoungmaletoher；but，whenaftertheintercoursethewrappinghadbeenremoved，thoughtheoperationwascompletedandcouldnotberevoked，stillbyandbyhebithiskeepertodeath。AstorygoesthatthekingofScythiahadahighly-bredmare，andthatallherfoalsweresplendid；thatwishingtomatethebestoftheyoungmaleswiththemother，hehadhimbroughttothestallforthepurpose；thattheyounghorsedeclined；
　　that，afterthemother'sheadhadbeenconcealedinawrapperhe，inignorance，hadintercourse；andthat，whenimmediatelyafterwardsthewrapperwasremovedandtheheadofthemarewasrenderedvisible，theyounghorseranwayandhurledhimselfdownaprecipice。
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　　Amongthesea-fishesmanystoriesaretoldaboutthedolphin，indicativeofhisgentleandkindlynature，andofmanifestationsofpassionateattachmenttoboys，inandaboutTarentum，Caria，andotherplaces。Thestorygoesthat，afteradolphinhadbeencaughtandwoundedoffthecoastofCaria，ashoalofdolphinscameintotheharbourandstoppedthereuntilthefishermanlethiscaptivegofree；
　　whereupontheshoaldeparted。Ashoalofyoungdolphinsisalways，bywayofprotection，followedbyalargeone。Ononeoccasionashoalofdolphins，largeandsmall，wasseen，andtwodolphinsatalittledistanceappearedswimminginunderneathalittledeaddolphinwhenitwassinking，andsupportingitontheirbacks，tryingoutofcompassiontopreventitsbeingdevouredbysomepredaceousfish。
　　Incrediblestoriesaretoldregardingtherapidityofmovementofthiscreature。Itappearstobethefleetestofallanimals，marineandterrestrial，anditcanleapoverthemastsoflargevessels。Thisspeedischieflymanifestedwhentheyarepursuingafishforfood；
　　then，ifthefishendeavourstoescape，theypursuehimintheirravenoushungerdowntodeepwaters；but，whenthenecessaryreturnswimisgettingtoolong，theyholdintheirbreath，asthoughcalculatingthelengthofit，andthendrawthemselvestogetherforaneffortandshootuplikearrows，tryingtomakethelongascentrapidlyinordertobreathe，andintheefforttheyspringrightovertheaship'smastsifashipbeinthevicinity。Thissamephenomenonisobservedindivers，whentheyhaveplungedintodeepwater；thatis，theypullthemselvestogetherandrisewithaspeedproportionaltotheirstrength。Dolphinslivetogetherinpairs，maleandfemale。Itisnotknownforwhatreasontheyrunthemselvesagroundondryland；atallevents，itissaidthattheydosoattimes，andfornoobviousreason。
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　　Justaswithallanimalsachangeofactionfollowsachangeofcircumstance，soalsoachangeofcharacterfollowsachangeofaction，andoftensomeportionsofthephysicalframeundergoachange，occursinthecaseofbirds。Hens，forinstance，whentheyhavebeatenthecockinafight，willcrowlikethecockandendeavourtotreadhim；thecrestrisesupontheirheadandthetail-feathersontherump，sothatitbecomesdifficulttorecognizethattheyarehens；insomecasesthereisagrowthofsmallspurs。Onthedeathofahenacockhasbeenseentoundertakethematernalduties，leadingthechickensaboutandprovidingthemwithfood，andsointentuponthesedutiesastoceasecrowingandindulginghissexualpropensities。Somecock-birdsarecongenitallysofemininethattheywillsubmitpatientlytoothermaleswhoattempttotreadthem。
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　　Someanimalschangetheirformandcharacter，notonlyatcertainagesandatcertainseasons，butinconsequenceofbeingcastrated；andallanimalspossessedoftesticlesmaybesubmittedtothisoperation。Birdshavetheirtesticlesinside，andoviparousquadrupedsclosetotheloins；andofviviparousanimalsthatwalksomehavetheminside，andmosthavethemoutside，butallhavethematthelowerendofthebelly。Birdsarecastratedattherumpatthepartwherethetwosexesuniteincopulation。Ifyouburnthistwiceorthricewithhotirons，then，ifthebirdbefull-grown，hiscrestgrowssallow，heceasestocrow，andforegoessexualpassion；
　　butifyoucauterizethebirdwhenyoung，noneofthesemaleattributespropensitieswillcometohimashegrowsup。Thecaseisthesamewithmen:ifyoumutilatetheminboyhood，thelater-growinghairnevercomes，andthevoiceneverchangesbutremainshigh-pitched；iftheybemutilatedinearlymanhood，thelategrowthsofhairquitthemexceptthegrowthonthegroin，andthatdiminishesbutdoesnotentirelydepart。Thecongenitalgrowthsofhairneverfallout，foraeunuchnevergrowsbald。Inthecaseofallcastratedormutilatedmalequadrupedsthevoicechangestothefemininevoice。Allotherquadrupedswhencastrated，unlesstheoperationbeperformedwhentheyareyoung，invariablydie；butinthecaseofboars，andintheircaseonly，theageatwhichtheoperationisperformedproducesnodifference。Allanimals，ifoperatedonwhentheyareyoung，becomebiggerandbetterlookingthantheirunmutilatedfellows；iftheybemutilatedwhenfull-grown，theydonottakeonanyincreaseofsize。Ifstagsbemutilated，when，byreasonoftheirage，theyhaveasyetnohorns，theynevergrowhornsatall；iftheybemutilatedwhentheyhavehorns，thehornsremainunchangedinsize，andtheanimaldoesnotlosethem。Calvesaremutilatedwhenayearold；otherwise，theyturnoutuglierandsmaller。Steersaremutilatedinthefollowingway:theyturntheanimaloveronitsback，cutalittleoffthescrotumatthelowerend，andsqueezeoutthetesticles，thenpushbacktherootsofthemasfarastheycan，andstopuptheincisionwithhairtogiveanoutlettosuppuratingmatter；ifinflammationensues，theycauterizethescrotumandputonaplaster。Ifafull-grownbullbemutilated，hecanstilltoallappearanceunitesexuallywiththecow。Theovariesofsowsareexcisedwiththeviewofquenchinginthemsexualappetitesandofstimulatinggrowthinsizeandfatness。Thesowhasfirsttobekepttwodayswithoutfood，and，afterbeinghungupbythehindlegs，itisoperatedon；theycutthelowerbelly，abouttheplacewheretheboarshavetheirtesticles，foritistherethattheovarygrows，adheringtothetwodivisionsorhorns
　　ofthewomb；theycutoffalittlepieceandstitchuptheincision。
　　Femalecamelsaremutilatedwhentheyarewantedforwarpurposes，andaremutilatedtopreventtheirbeinggotwithyoung。SomeoftheinhabitantsofUpperAsiahaveasmanyasthreethousandcamels:
　　whentheyrun，theyrun，inconsequenceofthelengthoftheirstride，muchquickerthanthehorsesofNisaea。Asageneralrule，mutilatedanimalsgrowtoagreaterlengththantheunmutilated。
　　Allanimalsthatruminatederiveprofitandpleasurefromtheprocessofrumination，astheydofromtheprocessofeating。Itistheanimalsthatlacktheupperteeththatruminate，suchaskine，sheep，andgoats。Inthecaseofwildanimalsnoobservationhasbeenpossible；saveinthecaseofanimalsthatareoccasionallydomesticated，suchasthestag，andit，weknow，chewsthecud。Allanimalsthatruminategenerallydosowhenlyingdownontheground。
　　Theycarryontheprocesstothegreatestextentinwinter，andstall-fedruminantscarryitonforaboutsevenmonthsintheyear；
　　beaststhatgoinherds，astheygettheirfoodoutofdoors，ruminatetoalesserdegreeandoveralesserperiod。Some，also，oftheanimalsthathaveteethinbothjawsruminate；as，forinstance，thePonticmice，andthefishwhichfromthehabitisbysomecalled'theRuminant'，aswellasotherfish。
　　Long-limbedanimalshaveloosefaeces，andbroad-chestedanimalsvomitwithcomparativefacility，andtheseremarksare，inageneralway，applicabletoquadrupeds，birds，andmen。
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　　Aconsiderablenumberofbirdschangeaccordingtoseasonthecolouroftheirplumageandtheirnote；as，forinstance，theowselbecomesyellowinsteadofblack，anditsnotegetsaltered，forinsummerithasamusicalnoteandinwinteradiscordantchatter。Thethrushalsochangesitscolour；aboutthethroatitismarkedinwinterwithspeckleslikeastarling，insummerdistinctlyspotted:
　　however，itneveraltersitsnote。Thenightingale，whenthehillsaretakingonverdure，singscontinuallyforfifteendaysandfifteennights；afterwardsitsings，butnotcontinuously。Assummeradvancesithasadifferentsong，notsovariedasbefore，norsodeep，norsointricatelymodulated，butsimple；italsochangesitscolour，andinItalyaboutthisseasonitgoesbyadifferentname。Itgoesintohiding，andisconsequentlyvisibleonlyforabriefperiod。
　　Theerithacusorredbreastandtheso-calledredstartchangeintooneanother；theformerisawinterbird，thelatterasummerone，andthedifferencebetweenthemispracticallylimitedtothecolorationoftheirplumage。Inthesamewaywiththebeccaficoandtheblackcap；
　　thesechangeintooneanother。Thebeccaficoappearsaboutautumn，andtheblackcapassoonasautumnhasended。Thesebirds，also，differfromoneanotheronlyincolourandnote；thatthesebirds，twoinname，areoneinrealityisprovedbythefactthatattheperiodwhenthechangeisinprogresseachonehasbeenseenwiththechangeasyetincomplete。Itisnotsoverystrangethatinthesecasesthereisachangeinnoteandinplumage，foreventhering-doveceasestocooinwinter，andrecommencescooingwhenspringcomesin；inwinter，however，whenfineweatherhassucceededtoverystormyweather，thisbirdhasbeenknowntogiveitscooingnote，totheastonishmentofsuchaswereacquaintedwithitsusualwintersilence。
　　Asageneralrule，birdssingmostloudlyandmostdiverselyinthepairingseason。Thecuckoochangesitscolour，anditsnoteisnotclearlyheardforashorttimeprevioustoitsdeparture。ItdepartsabouttherisingoftheDog-star，anditreappearsfromspringtimetotherisingoftheDog-star。Attheriseofthisstarthebirdcalledbysomeoenanthedisappears，andreappearswhenitissetting:thuskeepingclearatonetimeofextremecold，andatanothertimeofextremeheat。Thehoopoealsochangesitscolourandappearance，asAeschylushasrepresentedinthefollowinglines:-
　　TheHoopoe，witnesstohisowndistress，IscladbyZeusinvariabledress:-
　　Nowagaymountain-bird，withknightlycrest，Nowinthewhitehawk'ssilverplumagedrest，For，timelychanging，onthehawk'swhitewingHegreetstheapparitionoftheSpring。
　　Thustwofoldformandcolourareconferred，Inyouthandage，upontheselfsamebird。
　　Thespangledraimentmarkshisyouthfuldays，Theargenthismaturitydisplays；
　　AndwhenthefieldsareyellowwithripecornAgainhisparticolouredplumesareworn。
　　Butevermore，insullendiscontent，Heseeksthelonelyhills，inself-soughtbanishment。
　　Ofbirds，sometakeadust-bathbyrollingindust，sometakeawater-bath，andsometakeneithertheonebathnortheother。
　　Birdsthatdonotflybutkeeponthegroundtakethedust-bath，asforinstancethehen，thepartridge，thefrancolin，thecrestedlark，thepheasant；someofthestraight-talonedbirds，andsuchasliveonthebanksofariver，inmarshes，orbythesea，takeawater-bath；somebirdstakeboththedust-bathandthewaterbath，asforinstancethepigeonandthesparrow；ofthecrooked-talonedbirdsthegreaterparttakeneithertheonebathnortheother。Somuchforthewaysoftheabove-mentioned，butsomebirdshaveapeculiarhabitofmakinganoiseattheirhinderquarters，as，forinstance，theturtle-dove；andtheymakeaviolentmovementoftheirtailsatthesametimethattheyproducethispeculiarsound-
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