CharlesV。wasamanofsoundjudgmentandliberalviews，ofgreatenergyandprudence，asskilfulinwarashewasintheartsofdiplomacy，andimmenselysuperiorinnearlyeveryrespecttohiscontemporaries，FrancisI。ofFranceandHenryVIII。ofEngland。Yetinspiteofallhisadmittedqualifications，andnotwithstandingthefactthathewastherulerofthree-fourthsofWesternEurope，helivedtowitnesstheoverthrowofhisdearestprojectsandthecompletefailureofhisgeneralpolicy。Buthiswantofsuccesswasnotduetopersonalimprudenceorinactivity。Itistobeattributedtothecircumstancesofthetimes，therebellioninSpain，theopenrevoltofsomeandthedistrustofothersinGermany，therapidadvanceoftheTurkstowardsthewest，and，aboveall，thestrugglewithFrance。DespitehismanyquarrelswiththeHolySee，andinfaceofthemanytemptationsheldouttohimtoarriveattheworldwidedictatorshiptowhichhewassuspectedofaspiring，byputtinghimselfattheheadofthenewreligiousmovement，heneverwaveredforamomentinhisallegiancetotheCatholicChurch——
[1]Grisar，/Luther/Eng。Trans。，i。，p。4。
[2]/Id。/p。8。
[3]Grisar，/Luther/Eng。Trans。，i。，p。14。
[4]Id。chap。iv。
[5]Keller，/JohannvonStaupitzunddieAnfangederReformation/，1888。
[6]Grisar，op。cit。Eng。Trans。，i。，34，323。
[7]Id。i。，34，Bd。iii。，957-8。
[8]Paulus，/JohannTetzel，derAblassprediger/，1899。/DieDeutschenDominikanerimKampfegegenLuther/，1903。
[9]Grisar，op。cit。Eng。Trans。，i。，pp。341-55。
[10]Kidd，/DocumentsoftheContinentalReformation/，pp。20-6。
[11]Specially，Nos。43，45，59，86。
[12]/Dialogus……inpresumptuosasM。LuthericonclusionesdepotestatePapae。/
[13]Greving，/JohannEck/，etc。，1906。
[14]"/BeatissimePater，prostratummepedibustuaebeatitudinisofferocumomnibusquaesumethabeo。Vivifica，occide，voca，revoca，approba，reproba，utplacuerit。VocemtuamvocemChristiintepraesidentisetloquentisagnoscam。Simortemmerui，morinonrecusabo。/"
[15]Pastor，op。cit。，iv。，177-9。
[16]Creutzberg，/KarlvonMiltitz/，1907。
[17]"/CoramDeoettotacreaturasuatestor，menequevoluissenequehodievelleEcclesiaeRomanaeacBeatitudinisTuaepotestemullomodotangereautquacunqueversutiademoliri；quinplenissimeconfiteorhuiusecclesiaepotestatemessesuperomnia，neceipraeferendumquidquidsiveincoelosiveinterrapraeterunumJesumChristumDominumomnium/"3rdMarch，1519。Kidd，op。cit。，p。43。
[18]Grisar，op。cit。Eng。Trans。，i。，359。
[19]/CambridgeModernHistory/，ii。，chaps。ii。，iii。
[20]/ImperatorumnationisGermanicaegravaminaadSademRomanam/，1725。
[21]DeWeldige-Kremer，/DeJoannisCochlaeiVitaetScriptis/，1865。
HewasoneofthemostenergeticopponentsoftheReformationparty。
[22]Schwane，/Dogmengeschichtederneurenzeit/，1890，pp。131-51，210-240，251-92。
[23]Grisar，op。cit。，Bd。iii。，228。
[24]/DeLiberoArbitrio/，etc。，1524。
[25]Grisar，op。cit。，Bd。i。，pp。483-502。
[26]Raynaldus，/Ann。Eccl。/ann。1522。
[27]Pastor，op。cit。，Bd。iv。，pp。212-393。
[28]"OfsuchslenderdimensionswastheoriginalProtestantChurch；
smallasitwas，itwasonlyheldtogetherbythenegativecharacterofitsprotest。"——/Camb。Mod。Hist。/，ii。，p。205。
[29]Negwer，/Wimpina/，1909。
[30]Hergenrother-Kirsch，op。cit。，Bd。iii。，p。80。
[31]Pastor，op。cit。，Bd。iv。，473-5。
[32]Hergenrother-Kirsch，op。cit。，iii。，pp。102-8。
[33]ForLuther'sownviewsontheresultsofhispreaching，cf。
Dollinger，/DieReformation/，Bd。ii。，pp。426-52。
[34]Grisar，op。cit。，Bd。ii。，382-436。
[35]Grisar，op。cit。，Bd。iii。，211-30。
[36]ThattherecanbenoquestionofsuicideisadmittedPaulus/LuthersLebensende/，1898。
[37]/Tischreden//TableTalk/，cf。Grisar，ii。，178sqq。Smith，/Luther'sTableTalk/，1907。/Am。Ecc。Review/1906，pp。1-18。
[38]/PersonalCharacterofLuther//Ir。Theol。Quart。/，viii。，p。
77-85。
bZwingliinSwitzerland:HisattitudetowardsLutheranism。
SeeworksmentionedaboveII。a。Dandliker，/GeschichtederSchweiz/，3Bde，1904。Dandliker-Salisbury，/AShortHistoryofSwitzerland/，1899。DeHaller，/HistoiredelarevolutionreligieuseoudelareformeprotestantedanslaSuisseoccidentale/，1837。Gelpke，/KirchengeschichtederSchweiz/，1856-
61。Schuler-Schulthess，/OperaHuldriciZwinglii/，8vols。，1828-
42。Jackson，/HuldreichZwingli/，1901。
TheterritorynowknownasSwitzerlandformedportionoftheHolyRomanEmpire。In1291，however，duringthereignofRudolphofHabsburg，thethreestatesorcantonsofUri，Schweiz，andUnterwalden，formedaconfederationtodefendtheirrightsandprivileges，thuslayingthefoundationfortheexistenceofSwitzerlandasanindependentnation。Othercantonsjoinedthealliance，moreespeciallyafterthevictoryatMorgartenin1315，whentheAustrianforcesdespatchedagainsttheSwisswerealmostannihilated。AustriamadevariousattemptstowinbacktheSwisstotheirallegiancebutwithoutsuccess，andin1394theindependenceofthealliedcantonswaspracticallyrecognised。
AboutthetimeoftheReformationinGermanySwitzerlandconsistedofthirteencantonsandseveralsmaller"allied"or"friendly"statesnotadmittedtofullcantonalrights。Thoughboundtogetherbyaloosekindofconfederationforpurposesofdefenceagainstaggression，thevariousstatesenjoyedalargemeasureofindependence，andeachwasruledaccordingtoitsownpeculiarconstitution。TheFederalDietorGeneralAssemblywascomposedofrepresentativesappointedbythecantons，anditsdecisionsweredeterminedbythevotesofthestates，thelargestandmostpopulouspossessingnogreaterpowersthantheleastinfluentialmemberoftheconfederation。Someofthestateswerenominallydemocraticintheirformofgovernment，but，asinmostcountriesduringthisperiod，thepeasantshadmanygroundsforreasonablecomplaint，particularlyinregardtotaxation，treasurypensions，andtheenlistingandemploymentoftheSwissmercenarytroops，thenthebestsoldiersinEurope。
AsinGermany，manycauseswereatworktopreparethegroundforthenewreligiousteaching。OnaccountofthefreecharacterofitsinstitutionsrefugeesofallkindsfledtoSwitzerlandforasylum，andwereallowedgreatlibertyinpropagatingtheirviews。Again，theSwissmercenaries，returningfromtheircampaignsandservice，duringwhichtheywerebroughtintocontactwithvariousclassesandnations，servedmuchthesamepurposeasdoesthemodernnewspaper。InboththesewaysthepeasantsofSwitzerlandwerekeptintouchwiththesocial，political，andreligiousconditionoftherestofEurope，andwiththehopesandplansoftheirownclassinotherkingdoms。
Humanismhadnot，indeed，madeverystrikingprogressinSwitzerland，thoughthepresenceofErasmusatBasle，andtheattacksthathedirectedagainstthemonksandtheclergy，couldnotfailtoproducesomeeffectonapeoplewhosemindswerealreadypreparedforsuchmethodsbytheiracquaintancewithmoderndevelopments。
If，however，theChurchinSwitzerlandhadbeenfreefromabusesnotallthewitandeloquenceofErasmusandhisfollowerscouldhaveproducedarevolt，butunfortunately，theinfluencesthatledtothedownfallofreligioninothercountrieswerealsoatworkintheSwisscantons。Thecathedralchapterswerecomposedforthegreaterpartofmenwhohadnovocationtothepriesthood，andwhoadoptedtheclericalprofessionbecausetheywishedtoenrichthemselvesfromtherevenuesoftheChurch，andwereensuredofgoodpositionsthroughtheinfluenceoftheirrelativesandpatrons。Manyoftheclergywerefarfrombeingperfect，norwereallthereligiousinstitutionsmindfulofthespiritorevenoftheletteroftheirconstitutions。
Unfortunately，too，owingtothepeculiarpoliticaldevelopmentoftheircountry，thebishopsofSwitzerlandweresubjecttoforeignmetropolitans，twoofthembeingunderthejurisdictionoftheArchbishopofMainz，twounderBesancon，oneunderAquileia，andonesubjectimmediatelytoRome。Partlyforthisreason，partly，also，owingtotheincreasingencroachmentsofthecivilpower，disputesandconflictsbetweentheecclesiasticalandtemporaljurisdictionswerenotunfrequent。ButitwouldbeamistaketosupposethattherewerenogoodecclesiasticsinSwitzerlandatthistime。Thereweremanyexcellentpriests，bothsecularandregular，whorecognisedthesadconditionofaffairs，andwhosupportedmeasuressuchasthoseundertakenbytheBishopofBaslein1503withalltheirpower。ThegreatbodyofteachersknownastheFriendsofGodwereatworkinSwitzerlandasintheNetherlands，andweredoingsplendidserviceforeducation，bothsecularandreligious。
Theman，whoplayedinSwitzerlandthepartplayedsosuccessfullybyLutherinGermany，wasUlrichZwingli。Hewasthesonofrichparents，bornatWildhaus，inthecantonofSaintGall1484，educatedattheUniversitiesofBerne，Basle，andVienna，andafterhisordinationtothepriesthood，appointedtotheparishofGlarus。Hewasayoungmanofremarkableabilitybothasastudentandasapreacher，andwasfortunateenoughtoattractthenoticeofapapallegate，throughwhoseinfluenceapensionwasassignedtohimtoenablehimtoprosecutehisstudies。HewasagoodclassicalscholarwithamorethanaverageknowledgeofHebrew，andwellversedintheScripturesandinthewritingsoftheFathers。ForatimeheactedaschaplaintosomeSwissregimentsfightinginItalyforthePopeagainstFrance，andonhisreturntohisnativecountryhewasappointedpreacheratthefamousshrineofOurLadyatEinsiedeln。[1]Herehisoratoricalpowersstoodhimingoodstead，buthisjudgmentandlevel-headednesswerenotonthesamehighplaneashisdeclamatorypowers，norwashisownprivatelifeinkeepingwiththesanctityoftheplaceorwiththedenunciationsthathehurledsorecklesslyagainsthisclericalbrethren。HebegantoattackpilgrimagesanddevotionstotheBlessedVirgin，butitwasnotsomuchforthisasforhisunlawfulrelationswithawomanofbadcharacterthathewasrelievedofhisoffice。[2]
HeretiredtoZurichwherehewasappointedpreacherinthecathedral。
HerehedenouncedthelivesoftheclergyandtheabusesintheChurch，relying，ashestated，uponwhathehadseenhimselfinItalyduringhisresidencethereaschaplaintotheSwissmercenaries。LikeLuther，hewellknewhowtowintheattentionandsympathyofthemobbyhisappealstothenationalfeelingsofhiscountrymen，andlikeLutherheinsistedthattheScriptureswerethesoleruleoffaith。Hedenouncedinthestrongestlanguagetheimmoralityandvicesoftheclergy，celibacy，vowsofchastity，pilgrimagesandthevenerationofthesaints，butforsofarhehadnotbrokenentirelywiththeChurch。
ThepreachingoftheIndulgencespromulgatedbyLeoX。inConstancewasentrustedtotheFranciscans。TheirworkwasadifficultoneespeciallyastheGrandCouncilofZurichforbadethemtopersist，as，indeed，didalsotheableandzealousHugovonHohenlandenberg，BishopofConstance，inwhosedioceseZurichwassituated。Zwingli，confidentofthesupportofthecityauthorities，attackedthedoctrineofIndulgencesandwasbackedbytheGrandCouncil，whichordered，athisinstigation，thattheWordofGodshouldbepreachedaccordingtotheScriptures，regardlessoftraditionortheinterpretationoftheChurch。Lateronhedirectedhisattacksagainstthemeritoriousnessofgoodworksandthepracticeoffastandabstinence1522，andaboutthesametimeheaddressedapetitiontotheBishopofConstancedemandingthatheshouldnotinterferewiththepreachingofthepureWordofGodnorsetanyobstacletothemarriageofhispriests。Headmittedpubliclythathisrelationswithwomenhadbeendisgraceful，thathehadlearnedfromhisownpersonalexperiencehowimpossibleoffulfilmentwasthevowofchastity，andthatmarriagewastheonlyremedythatwouldenablehimtoovercometheemotionsofcarnallustreferredtobySt。PaulinhisepistletotheCorinthiansI。7，9。
Thebishoprefusedtoyieldtothisdemandinsistingonthestrictobservanceofcelibacy，andappealedtotheGrandCounciltosupporthimwiththefullweightoftheirauthorityApril1522。
IncensedbythisrefusalZwinglishookofftheyokeofecclesiasticalauthority，rejectedtheprimacyofthePope，andtheinfallibilityofGeneralCouncils，denouncedcelibacyandvowsofchastityasinventionsofthedevil，andcalledupontheSwisspeopletosupporthiminhisfightforreligiousfreedom。Oncebefore，in1520，LeoX。
hadsummonedZwinglitoRometoanswerforhisteaching，butthesummonshadbeenunheeded。AdrianVI。madeanotherattempttowinhimfromhisdangerouscoursebyaletterfullofkindnessandsympathy，buthisremonstranceproducednoeffect1523。TheGrandCouncilofZurich，hopefulofsecuringapreponderatinginfluenceinSwitzerlandbytakingtheleadinthenewmovement，favouredZwingli。InsteadofrespondingtotheappealoftheBishopofConstanceitannouncedagreatreligiousdisputationtobeheldinJanuary1523，towhichbothZwingliandhisopponentsweresummonedfortheexplanationanddefenceoftheirviews。Zwingliputforwardsixty-seventheses，theprincipalofwhichwerethattheBibleisthesoleruleoffaith，thattheChurchisnotavisiblesocietybutonlyanassemblyoftheelect，ofwhichbodyChrististheonlytruehead，thatconsequentlythejurisdictionofthePopeandofthebishopsisausurpationdevoidofscripturalauthority，thattheMass，Confession，Purgatory，andIntercessionoftheSaintsaretoberejectedasderogatorytothemeritsofChrist，andfinally，thatclericalcelibacyandmonasticvows，insteadofbeingcounselsofperfection，areonlycloaksforsinandhypocrisy。TheBishopofConstancerefusedtotakepartinsuchadisputation。Hisvicar-general，JohannFaberofConstance，however，attendedthemeeting，notindeedtotakepartinthediscussionbutmerelytoprotestagainstitasopposedtotheauthorityoftheChurchandofthecouncils。Ashisprotestswereunheeded，heundertooktodefendthedoctrinesattacked，butintheendtheGrandCouncildeclaredthatthevictoryrestedwithZwingli。
FlushedwithhistriumphZwinglinowproceededtoputhistheoriesintopractice。SupportedbyamobheendeavouredtopreventthecelebrationofMass，religiousprocessions，theuseofpicturesandstatues，andthesolemnceremonialassociatedwithExtremeUnctionandtheViaticum。HecompiledanintroductiontotheNewTestamentfortheuseoftheclergy，calleduponthemtoabandontheirobligationsofcelibacy，andsetthemanexamplebytakingashiswifeawomanwhohadbeenforyearshisconcubine。Heandhisfollowers，supportedbythemajorityoftheGrandCouncil，wentthroughthecitydestroyingaltars，pictures，statues，organs，andconfessionals，anderectinginplaceofthealtarsplaintableswithaplateforbreadandavesselforwine。TheCatholicmembersoftheGrandCouncilweredrivenfromtheirposition，andCatholicworshipforbiddeninZurich1523-5。
ThesystemofZwingliwasmuchmorerationalisticand，inacertainsense，muchmorelogicalthanthatofLuther。Imbuedwiththeprinciplesofpantheisticmysticism，hemaintainedthatGodisinHimselfallbeing，createdaswellasuncreated，andallactivity。
Henceitwasasabsurdtospeakofindividuallibertyorindividualactionastospeakofamultiplicityofgods。Whetheritwasacaseofdoinggoodordoingevilmanwasbutamachinelikeabrushinthehandsofapainter。InregardtosinhecontendedmanmaybepunishedforviolatingthelawlaiddownbyGodeventhoughtheviolationisunavoidable，butGod，beingabovealllaw，isnowisetoblame。
Concupiscenceorself-loveis，accordingtohim，attherootofallmisdeeds。Itisinitselftherealoriginalsin，andisnotblottedoutbyBaptism。HisteachingontheScriptures，individualjudgment，ecclesiasticalauthorityasrepresentedbythebishops，councils，andPope，goodworks，indulgences，purgatory，invocationofthesaints，andvowsofchastitydifferedbutslightlyfromwhatLutherhadputforward。OnthequestionofJustification，andparticularlyonthedoctrineoftheEucharist，thetworeformersfoundthemselvesinhopelessconflict。[3]
Zwingli'steachingdidnotatfirstfindmuchfavourinotherportionsofGermanSwitzerland。Lucernedeclaredagainstitin1524。Thecityauthoritiesforbadetheintroductionofthenewteaching，andofferedanasylumtothoseCatholicswhohadbeenforcedtofleefromZurich。
OthercantonsassociatedthemselveswithLucerne，andadeputationwassenttoZurichtorequestthecityauthoritiestoabandonZwingliandtotakepartinageneralmovementforarealandconstitutionalreform。ButtheGrandCouncil，mindfulofthepoliticaladvantageswhichwouldaccruetoZurichfromitsleadershipinthenewreligiousrevolt，declinedtorecedefromtheirposition。
WhileZwingliwasatworkinZurich，Oecolampadius1482-1531sethimselftostirupreligiousdivisionsinBasle。HewasbornatWeisnberg，studiedlawatBolognaandtheologysubsequentlyatHeidelberg，wasordainedpriest，andappointedtoaparishinBasle1512。WithErasmushewasontermsoftheclosestintimacy，and，asBaslewasthenoneofthegreatliterarycentresoftheworld，hesoonbecameacquaintedwithLuther'spamphletsandteaching。SomeoftheclergyinBasle，notablyWolfgangCapito，awarmfriendofZwingli，werealreadyshowingsignsofrestlessnessespeciallyinregardtotheMass，purgatory，andinvocationofthesaints，andOecolampadiuswasnotslowtoimbibethenewideas。In1518hewasappointedpreacherintheCathedralofAugsburg，but，havingresignedthisofficeonaccountoffailinghealth，hewithdrewtotheconventofAltmunster，where，forsometime，helivedaretiredlife。Subsequentlyheactedaschaplaintothewell-knownGermanknight，FranzvonSickingen，andfinally，in1524，heacceptedtheparishofSt。Martin'sinBasle。
HenowproclaimedhimselfopenlyasupporterofZwingli，advocatedthenewteachingonjustificationandgoodworks，andattackedseveralCatholicdoctrinesandpractices。Forhim，asindeedformostoftheotherreformers，clericalcelibacywasthegreatstumblingblock。Heencouragedhisfollowersbytakingashiswifeayoungwidow，whowassubsequentlyinturnthewifeofthetworenownedLutheranpreachers，ButzerandCapito。Atfirstthecityauthoritiesandalargebodyoftheuniversityprofessorswereagainsthim，butowingtothedisturbancescreatedbyhispartisansfulllibertyofworshipwasgrantedtothenewsect1527。Notcontentwiththisconcession，theydemandedthattheMassshouldbesuppressed。In1529thefollowersofOecolampadiusroseinrevolt，seizedthearsenalofthecity，directedthecannonontheprincipalsquares，andattackedthechurches，destroyingaltars，statues，andpictures。Erasmus，disgustedwithsuchmethodsofpropagatingreligion，leftBasleandsoughtahomeinFreiburg。TheCatholicswereexpelledfromthecitycouncil，theirreligionwasproscribed，andBaslejoinedhandswithZurichinitsrebellionagainsttheChurch。
TherevoltsoonspreadintoothercantonsofSwitzerland。InBerneandSchaffhausenbothpartieswerestronganddetermined，andforatimetheissueoftheconflictwasuncertain，butin1528thepartyofZwingliandOecolampadiussecuredtheupperhand。SimilarlyinSt。
Gall，Glarus，etc。，victoryrestedwiththenewteaching。Othercantons，asforexample，Solothurn，waveredastowhichsidetheyshouldtake，butthethreeoldestcantonsofSwitzerland，Uri，SchweizandUnterwalden，togetherwithZug，FreiburgandLucerne，refusedtobeseparatedfromtheChurch。
Apartaltogetherfromthequestionofreligion，therewasanaturaloppositionbetweenpopulousandmanufacturingcentreslikeBerneandBasle，andtheruralcantons，devotedalmostentirelytoagriculturalandpastoralpursuits。Whenreligiousdifferencessupervenedtoaccentuatetherivalryalreadyinexistence，theyledalmostinevitablytothedivisionofSwitzerlandintotwohostilecamps。
Zurich，Basle，Berne，Schaffhausen，andSt。Gall，thoughtheywerethemostimportantcities，soonfoundthemselvesunabletoforcetheirviewsontherestofthecountry，astheywerewithstoodbythefederalcouncil，themajorityofwhichwasstillCatholic。Thelatterinsistedthataconferenceshouldbeheldtosettlethereligiousdisputes。TheconferencewasarrangedtotakeplaceatBadenin1526。
Eck，assistedbytwootherCatholictheologians，FaberandMurner，undertooktodefendtheCatholicposition。Zurichrefusedtosendrepresentatives，butthereformingpartywererepresentedbyOecolampadius，Haller，andothersoftheirleaders。Theconferencewasattendedbydelegatesfromtwelvecantons，andwasapprovedofbytheSwissbishops。AfteradiscussionlastingfifteendaysduringwhichEckdefendedtheCatholicdoctrineregardingtheMass，Eucharist，Purgatory，andtheIntercessionoftheSaints，themajorityofthecantonsdecidedinhisfavour，andaresolutionwaspassedforbiddingreligiouschangesinSwitzerlandandprohibitingthesaleoftheworksofLutherandZwingli。
Itwassoonevident，however，thatpeacecouldnotbesecuredbysuchmeasures。TheruralandCatholiccantonswereinthemajority，muchtothedisgustofflourishingcitieslikeBerneandZurich。Thesestates，believingthattheywereentitledtoacontrollingvoiceinthefederalcouncil，determinedtousethereligiousquestiontobringaboutacompletechangeintheconstitutionofthecountrybyassigningthecantonalrepresentationinthefederalcouncilonthebasisofpopulation。TheyformedanalliancewiththeotherProtestantcantonsandwithConstancetoforwardtheirclaims1527-8，buttheCatholiccantonsimitatedtheirexamplebyorganisingaCatholicfederationtowhichtheArchduke，FerdinandofAustria，promisedhissupport1529。
Zwingliwasmosteagerforwar，andathisinstigationthearmyofZurich，backedbyBerne，tookthefieldin1529。TheCatholicstates，however，madeitclearthattheywerebothableandwillingtodefendtheconstitution，butthebondofnationalunityandthedislikeofcivilwarexercisedsuchaninfluenceonbothpartiesthataconflictwasavertedbytheconclusionofthePeaceofKappel1529。TheconcessionssecuredforhispartybythisPeacedidnotsatisfyZwingli，whodesirednothinglessthanthecompletesubjugationoftheCatholiccantons。NegotiationswereopenedupwithPhilipofHesse，withtheGermanLutherans，andwithFrancisI。ofFrance，andwhenthenewsoftheformationoftheLeagueofSchmalkaldreachedtheProtestantsofSwitzerland，itwasthoughtthatthetimehadcomewhenthetriumphofZurichandBerne，whichmeantalsothetriumphofthenewteaching，shouldbesecured。Zwinglibesoughthisfollowerstoissueadeclarationofwar，butitwassuggestedthatthereductionoftheCatholiccantonscouldbesecuredjustaseffectivelybyablockade。InthismovementZurichtookthelead。Theresult，however，didnotcoincidewiththeanticipationsofZwingli。TheCatholiccantonsflewtoarmsatonce，andastheirterritoriesformedacompactunit，theywereabletoputtheirunitedarmyintothefieldbeforetheforcesofZurichandBernecouldeffectajunction。ThedecisivebattletookplaceatKappelinOctober1531，whentheZwinglianssufferedacompletedefeat，ZwinglihimselfandfivehundredofthebestmenofZurichbeingleftdeadonthefield。ThearmyofBerneadvancedtoolatetosavetheiralliesortochangetheresultofthewar。TheCatholiccantonsusedtheirvictorywithgreatmoderation。Insteadofcrushingtheiropponents，astheymighthavedone，theyconcludedwiththemthesecondPeaceofKappel1531。
Accordingtothetermsofthistreaty，nocantonwastoforceanothertochangeitsreligion，andlibertyofworshipwasguaranteedinthecantonaldomains。SeveralofthedistrictsthathadbeenwaveringreturnedtotheCatholicfaith，andtheabbotofSt。Gallwasrestoredtotheabbeyfromwhichhehadbeenexpelled。
OecolampadiusfollowedZwinglitothegraveinashorttime，havingbeencarriedoffbyafeveraboutamonthafterthedefeatofKappel，andtheleadershipofthemovementdevolvedupontheirsuccessors，BullingerandMyconius。
WithregardtotheSacramentsLutherandZwingliagreedthattheywereonlysignsofgrace，thoughintheexplanationofthisviewZwingliwasmuchmoreextreme，becausemuchmorelogical，thanLuther。
Believingashedidthatjustificationdependeduponfaithalone，hecontendedthattheSacramentsweremereceremoniesbywhichamanbecameorshowedhimselftobeafollowerofChrist。Theyweredevoidofanyobjectivevirtue，andwereefficaciousonlyinsofarastheyguaranteedthattheindividualreceivingthempossessedthefaithnecessaryforjustification。ButitwasprincipallyinregardtotheEucharistthatthetworeformersfoundthemselvesinhopelessdisagreement。HadLutherwishedtobeconsistentheshouldhavethrownovertheRealPresenceaswellasTransubstantiation，buttheforceoftradition，thefearthatanysuchteachingwouldarousetheoppositionofthepeople，andtheplainmeaningofthetextsofScriptureforcedhimtoadoptacompromise。"HadDoctorCarlstadt，"hewrote，"oranyoneelsebeenabletopersuademefiveyearsagothatthesacramentofthealtarisbutbreadandwinehewould，indeed，havedonemeagreatservice，andrenderedmeverymaterialaidinmyeffortstomakeabreachinthePapacy。Butitisallinvain。Themeaningofthetextsissoevidentthateveryartificeoflanguagewillbepowerlesstoexplainitaway。"Hecontendedthatthewords"ThisisMybodyandThisisMyblood"couldbearonlyonemeaning，namely，thatChristwasreallypresent，butwhileagreeingwithCatholicsabouttheRealPresenceofChristintheEucharist，herejectedthedoctrineofTransubstantiation，maintaininginitsplaceConsubstantiationorImpanation。
ThoughLutherinsistedsostronglyontheRealPresence，itisnotclearthatinthebeginninghehadanyveryfixedviewsonthesubject，orthathewouldhavebeenunwillingtochangeanyviewshehadformed，wereitnotthatoneofhislieutenants，Carlstadt，begantoexercisehisprivilegeofjudgmentbyrejectingtheRealPresence。
SuchanactofinsubordinationarousedtheimplacableireofLuther，whodenouncedhisformercolleagueasaheretic，andpursuedhimfromWittenbergandJena，wherehehadfledforrefuge。IntheendCarlstadtwasobligedtoretiretoSwitzerland，wherehisdoctrinefoundfavourwiththeSwissreformers。
FromthebeginningofhiscampaignZwinglirealisedthattheRealPresencewasnotinharmonywithhistheoryofjustification，andhencehewasinclinedtoholdthattheEucharistwasameresigninstitutedasareminderofChrist'sdeath。ButinviewofthecleartestimonyoftheHolyScripturehewasatalosshowtojustifyhisposition。Atlastbyponderingonotherpassagesthatheconsideredsimilartothetext"ThisisMybody，"wheretheword"is"shouldbeinterpreted"signifies，"hecontendedthatthetruemeaningofChrist'swordsattheLastSupperis，"ThissignifiesMybody。"
Oecolampadiusagreedwiththisinterpretation，thoughforadifferentreason，comparingtheBlessedEucharisttoaringthatahusbandgoingawayonalongjourneymightgivetohiswifeasapledgeandreminderofhisaffection。[4]
Lutherresentedbitterlysuchatheoryasanattackuponhisauthority，especiallyasZwinglirefusedtoallowhimselftobebrow-
beatenintoretractinghisdoctrine。Insteadofsubmittingtothenewreligiousdictator，ZwinglisoughttojustifyhimselfbytheveryprinciplebywhichLutherjustifiedhisownrevoltagainsttheCatholicChurch。HecontendedthatLuther'stheoryofjustificationinvolvedlogicallytherejectionoftheEucharistaswellasoftheotherSacraments，thattheScripturaltextscouldbeinterpretedashehadinterpretedthem，andthathewasnotboundtotakeanycognisanceoftheChristiantraditionoroftheauthorityofthecouncils。HecomplainedthatLuthertreatedhimselfandhisfollowersashereticswithwhomitwasnotrighttoholdcommunion，thatheproscribedtheirwritingsanddenouncedthemtothemagistrates，andthathedidpreciselytowardsthemwhatheblamedthePopefordoingtohimself。
Lutherfounditdifficulttomeetthislineofargument。MuchagainsthiswillhewasobligedtosupporthisopinionsbyappealingtothetraditionoftheChurchandthewritingsoftheFathers，whichlatterhehaddenouncedas"fetidpoolswhenceChristianshavebeendrinkingunwholesomedraughtsinsteadofslakingtheirthirstfromthepurefountainofHolyScripture。"[5]"ThisarticleTheEucharist，"hewrote，"isneitherunscripturalnoradogmaofhumaninvention。ItisbasedupontheclearandirrefragablewordsofHolyWrit。IthasbeenuniformlyheldandbelievedthroughoutthewholeChristianworldfromthefoundationoftheChurchtothepresenttime。ThatsuchhasbeenthefactisattestedbythewritingsoftheHolyFathers，bothGreekandLatin，bydailyusageandbytheuninterruptedpracticeoftheChurch……Todoubtit，therefore，istodisbelievetheChristianChurchandtobrandherasheretical，andwithhertheprophets，apostles，andChristHimself，who，inestablishingtheChurchsaid:
'BeholdIamwithyoualldayseventotheconsummationoftheworld。'"[6]
TheoppositionofLutherdidnotputanendtothecontroversy。TheZwingliantheoriesspreadrapidlyinSwitzerland，whencetheywerecarriedintoGermany，muchtotheannoyanceofLutherandoftheProtestantprincesforwhomreligiousunitywasnecessaryatalmostanycost。Lutherwouldlistentonoschemesofcompromise。HedenouncedtheZwingliansinthemostviolentterms，asservantsofthedevil，liars，andhereticsforwhosesalvationnomanshouldpray。
HavingrejectedTransubstantiationinordertoridhimselfofthesacrificialideaandofthedoctrineofaChristianpriesthood，hefoughtstronglyfortheRealPresenceonthegroundthatGod'sbody，beingunitedtothedivinity，enjoyedthedivineattributeofubiquity。TothisZwinglimadetheveryeffectiverejoinderthatifthewordsofScripture"ThisisMybodyandthisisMyblood"aretobeinterpretedliterallytheycouldbearonlythesenseputuponthembytheCatholics，becauseChristdidnotsay"Mybodyisinorunderthisbread，"butrather"ThisthebreadisMybody。"Furthermore，hepointedoutthatLuther'sexplanationconcerningtheubiquityofChrist'sbodyledclearlytoaconfusionofthedivineandhumannatureofChrist，andwasinconsequenceonlyarenewaloftheMonophysiteheresy，condemnedbythewholeChristianChurch。
ThisunseemlydisputebetweenthetwoleadersofthenewmovementdidnotpleasetheProtestantprincesofGermany，forwhomdivisionoftheirforcesmightmeanpoliticalextinction。TheElectorofSaxonysupportedLutherwarmly，whilePhilipofHessewasmoreorlessinclinedtosidewithZwingli。AconferencewasarrangedbetweenthetwopartiesatMarburg1529，atwhichLutherandOecolampadiuswerepresenttodefendtheirviews。Onafewsecondarymattersanagreementwasarrivedat，butonthemainquestion，theRealPresence，Lutherwouldyieldnothing，andsotheReformersweredividedintotwoparties，GermanLutheransandSwissReformed——
[1]/PrecisHistoriquedel'AbbayeetduPelerinagedeNotre-Dame-des-
Ermites/，1870。
[2]/Realencycl。furProtestantischeTheol。/，xxi。，p。778。
[3]Schwane，op。cit。，p。141。
[4]Schwane，op。cit。，p。349。
[5]Dollinger，/DieReformation/，i。，pp。430-51。
[6]Alzog，iii。，256-7。
cNorthernEurope。
Seebibliography，chap。ii。a。Karup，/GeschichtederKatholischenKircheinDanemark/，1863。Munter，/KirchengeschichtevonDanemarkundNorwegen/，1823。Theiner-Cohen，/LaSuedeetlaSaint-SiegesouslesroisJeanIII。，SigismondIII。，etCharlesIX。/，1842。Butler，/TheReformationinSweden/，1884。DeFlaux，/LaSuedeauXVImesiecle/，1861。Englestoft，/ReformantesetCatholicitempore，quosacraemendatasunt，inDaniaconcertantes/，1836。Schmitt，/DieVerteidigungderKathol。KircheinDanemarkgegendieReligionsneuerungim16enJahr/，1899。
/ConfutatioLutheranismiDanici/，etc。written1530，ed。1902。
AtthebeginningofthesixteenthcenturypoliticalpowerinDenmarkwasvestedtoagreatextentinthehandsofthebishopsandnobles。
Itwasbythesetwopartiesthatthekingwaselected，andsogreatwastheirinfluencethat，asarule，thecandidatechosenbytheirvoteswasobligedtoacceptanyconditionstheycaredtoimpose。Thebishops，asinmostcountriesatthetime，heldenormousestates，grantedtotheirpredecessorsbythecrownorbequeathedbygenerousbenefactorsforthemaintenanceofreligion。Unfortunately，withsomeexceptions，theywerenotmenzealousforreligiousinterests，orcapableofunderstandingthataseriouscrisiswasathand。Ineverydirectiontheneedofreformwasonlytooapparent，and，assuchasworkhadnotbeenundertakenbythosewhoshouldhaveundertakenit，asplendidopportunitywasaffordedtothemenwhodesirednotthewelfareofreligionbutrathertheoverthrowoftheChurch。
ChristianII。1513-23wishedtoputanendtothesupremacyofthebishopsandnoblesandtoassertforhimselfandhissuccessorsabsolutecontrol。Hewasamanofgreatabilityanddetermination，wellacquaintedwiththetendenciesoftheage，andnotparticularlyscrupulousaboutthemeansbywhichthesuccessofhispolicymightbeassured。TosuchamanLuther'sattackonthebishopsofGermanyseemedtobealmostprovidential。Herealisedthatbyembracingthenewreligioussystem，whichenabledhimtoseizethewealthoftheChurchandtoconcentrateinhisownhandsfullecclesiasticalpower，hecouldridhimselfofoneofthegreatestobstaclestoabsolutism，andsecureforhimselfandhissuccessorsundisputedswayinDenmark。
Thoughhisownlifewasscandalouslyimmoralhedeterminedtobecomethechampionofareligiousreformation，andagainstthewishesofthenobles，clergy，andpeopleheinvitedadiscipleofLuther'stoCopenhagen，andplacedathisdisposaloneofthecity'schurches。
Thissteparousedthestrongestopposition，butChristian，confidentthatboldnessmeantsuccess，adoptedsternmeasurestoovercomehisopponents。Heproclaimedhimselfthepatronofthosepriestswhowerewillingtodisregardtheirvowsofcelibacy，issuedregulationsagainsttheunmarriedclergy，andappealedtothepeopleagainstthebishopsandthenobles。AstheArchbishop-electofLundwasunwillingtoshowhimselftobecoercedintobetrayingtheinterestsconfidedtohischarge，thekingcommandedthatheshouldbeputtodeath。
Bytheseviolentmethodshehadhopedtofrightenhissubjectsintocompliancewithhiswishes，buthewasdoomedtospeedyandcompletedisappointment。Thebishopsandbarons，thoughdividedonmanyquestions，wereatoneintheirresistancetosuchdespotism，andtheyhadbehindthemthegreatbodyofthepeople，whohadlittleifanydesireforareligiousrevolution。ChristianII。wasdeposed，andinhisplacehisuncle，FrederickI。1523-33，becamekingofDenmark。
AthiscoronationthenewmonarchpledgedhimselftodefendtheCatholicreligionandtosuppressheresy。Soon，however，motivessimilartothosethathadinfluencedhispredecessorinducedhimalsotoleantowardsLutheranism。Atfirsthiseffortsforthespreadofthenewteachingwerecarriedoutsecretly，butoncehefelthimselfsecureonthethrone，heproclaimedhimselfpubliclyaLutheran1526
andinvitedLutheranpreacherstothecapital。ADietwascalledin1527atOdenseetoconsiderthereligiouscontroversythathadarisen。
Inthisassemblytheking，basinghisdefenceonthegroundthatthoughhehadpledgedhimselftoprotecttheCatholicChurchhewasundernoobligationtotolerateabuses，contendedthatthesuppressionofabusesandthepurifyingofreligionweretheonlyobjectshehadatheartinthemeasuresthathehadtaken。Owingmainlytohisownstubbornnessandthecowardlyandwaveringattitudeofthebishops，itwasagreedbytheDietthattillaGeneralCouncilcouldbeconvokedfulltolerationshouldbegiventotheLutheranpreachers，thatinthemeantimenocivildisabilitiesshouldbeinflictedonsupportersofthenewreligion，thatthoseoftheclergywhowishedtomarryshouldbeallowedtodoso，thatthearchbishopshouldapplynolongertoRomeforhispallium，andfinallythattheconfirmationoftheappointmentofbishopsshouldbetransferredfromthePopetotheking。
Bythesemeasures，towhichthebishopsofferedonlyafaintopposition，DenmarkwasseparatedpracticallyfromtheHolySee，andthefirststepwastakenontheroadthatwastoleadtonationalapostasy。ThenextimportantmeasurewasthedisputationarrangedbythekingtotakeplaceatCopenhagenin1529。TheveryfactthatatthismeetingnoDanishecclesiasticcapableofdefendingtheCatholicfaithwastobefound，andthatitwasnecessarytohaverecoursetoGermanyforchampionsoforthodoxy，isinitselfasufficientindicationofthecharacterofthebishopswhothenruledinDenmark，andofthestateoflearningamongsttheDanishclergyoftheperiod。
EckandCochlaeuswereinvitedtocometoCopenhagen，butastheyhadsufficientworktoengagetheirattentionathome，thedutyofupholdingCatholicdoctrinedevolveduponStagefyr，atheologianofCologne。[1]HecouldnotspeakDanish，norwouldtheLutheranpartyconsenttocarryontheconferenceinLatin。Furthermore，heclaimedthattheauthorityoftheFathersandthedecreesofpreviousGeneralCouncilsshouldberecognised，buttheLutheransinsistedthattheBiblewastheonlysourcefromwhichChristiansshouldreceivetheirdoctrines。Inthesecircumstances，sinceadisputationwasimpossible，bothpartiesagreedtosubmitafullstatementoftheirviewsinwritingtothekingandcouncil，who，asmighthavebeenanticipated，decidedinfavourofLutheranism。
Duringtheremainderofhisreign，FrederickI。sparednopainstosecurethevictoryforthenewteachinginhisdominions。Thenobleswerewonovertotheking'sviewsbypromisesofashareinthepartitionofecclesiasticalproperty，andthosewhowishedtostandwellwiththesovereignwerenotslowinhavingrecoursetoviolenceasaffordingproofthattheirzealforLutheranismwassincere。
ConsequentlytheLutheranpartyfoundthemselvesinamajorityintheDietof1530，andwerepowerfulenoughtodoastheypleased。InaccordancewiththeexamplesetinGermanyandSwitzerlandattackswerebegunonchurches，pictures，andstatues，butinmanyplacesthepeoplewerenotpreparedforsuchchanges，andbitterconflictstookplacebetweentherivalparties。Intheconfusionthatresultedthesupportersofthedeposedkingroseinarmsagainsthissuccessfulrival，andthecountrywassubjectedtothehorrorsofcivilwar。
FrederickI。founditnecessarytoabandontheviolentpropagationofLutheranismandtooffertolerationtotheCatholics。
Onhisdeathin1533thebishopsofDenmarkprotestedagainstthesuccessionofhissonChristianIII。1533-51whowasapersonalfriendofLuther，andwhohadalreadyintroducedProtestantismintohisownstateofHolstein；butasthenobles，wonoverbypromisesofashareinthespoliationoftheChurch，refusedtomakecommoncausewiththebishops，theirprotestwasunheeded。Confidentthathecouldrelyonthesupportofthenobles，thekinggavesecretinstructionstohisofficialsthatonacertaindaynamedbyhimallthebishopsofDenmarkshouldbearrestedandlodgedinprison。Hisorderswerecarriedouttotheletter1536，andsorejoicedwasLutherbythisstepthathehastenedtosendthekinghiswarmestcongratulations。
ThebishopswereofferedreleaseonconditionthattheyshouldresigntheirSeesandpledgethemselvestooffernofurtheroppositiontothereligiouschange。Totheirshamebeitsaidthatonlyoneoftheirnumber，Ronnow，BishopofRoskilde，refusedtoacceptlibertyonsuchdisgracefulterms，preferringtoremainaprisoneruntilhewasreleasedbydeath1544。Thepriestswhorefusedtoacceptthenewreligionweredrivenfromtheirparishes，andseveralmonasteriesandconventsweresuppressed。
TocompletetheworkofreformandtogivetheChurchinDenmarkanewconstitutionBugenhagen，adiscipleofLuther，wasinvitedtothecapital1539。HebeganbycrowningthekingaccordingtoLutheranritual，andbydrawingupaformofecclesiasticalgovernmentthatplacedfullspiritualpowerinthehandsofthecivilruler。AsinGermany，superintendentswereappointedinroomofthebishopswhohadresigned。WhentheworkofdrawingupthenewecclesiasticalorganisationhadbeenfinisheditwassubmittedtoandapprovedofbytheDietheldatOdenseein1539。InanotherDietheldin1546theCatholicChurchinDenmarkwascompletelyoverthrown，herpossessionswereconfiscated，herclergywereforbiddentoremaininthecountryunderpenaltyofdeath，andalllayCatholicsweredeclaredincapableofholdinganyofficeinthestateoroftransmittingtheirpropertytotheirCatholicheirs。BythosemeasuresCatholicismwassuppressed，andvictorywassecuredfortheLutheranparty。
Norway，whichwasunitedwithDenmarkatthisperiod，wasforcedintosubmissiontothenewcreedbytheviolenceoftheDanishkings，aidedastheywerebythegreedynoblesanxioustoshareintheplunderoftheChurch。SimilarlyIceland，whichwassubjecttoDenmark，wasseparatedfromRome，thoughatfirstthepeopleofferedthestrongestresistancetothereformers。Theexecution，however，oftheirbishop，JohnAresen，theexampleofDenmarkandNorway，andthewantofcapablereligiousleadersproducedtheireffects，andintheendIcelandwasinducedtoacceptthenewreligion1551。ForaconsiderabletimeCatholicismretaineditsholdonalargepercentageofthepeoplebothinNorwayandIceland，buttheseveremeasurestakenbythegovernmenttoensurethecompleteextirpationoftheCatholichierarchyandpriesthoodledalmostofnecessitytothetriumphofLutheranism。
BytheUnionofKalmar1397Sweden，Norway，andDenmarkwereunitedundertheruleoftheKingofDenmark。TheUniondidnot，however，bringaboutpeace。ThepeopleofSwedendislikedtheruleofaforeigner，andmorethanoncetheyroseinrebellionagainstDenmark。
Intheabsenceofastrongcentralauthoritytheclergyandnoblesbecamethedominantfactorsinthestate，especiallyastheytooktheleadinthenationalagitationsagainstKingErikandhissuccessors。
Asinmostothercountriesatthetime，theChurchwasexceedinglywealthy，thebishopricsandabbaciesbeingendowedverygenerously，butunfortunately，aselsewhere，theprogressofreligionwasnotinproportiontotheworldlypossessionsofitsministers。Endowmenthaddestroyedthelibertyofelectionsoessentialforgoodadministration，withtheresultthatthebishopsandotherecclesiasticaldignitarieswereselectedwithoutmuchregardfortheirqualificationsasspiritualguides。Yetitmustbesaidthatingeneraltheadministratorsoftheecclesiasticalpropertywerenothardtask-masterswhencomparedwiththeirlaycontemporaries，norwasthereanythinglikeastrongpopularfeelingagainsttheChurch。Stilltheimmensewealthofthereligiousinstitutions，theprevalenceofabuses，andthefailureoftheclergytoinstructthepeopleintherealdoctrinesoftheirfaithwereaconstantsourceofmenacetotheChurchinSweden，andleftitopentoacrushingattackbyaleaderwhoknewhowtowinthemassestohissidebyproclaiminghimselfthechampionofnationalindependenceandofreligiousreform。
In1515StenSture，theadministratorofSweden，supportedbytheBishopofLinkopingasleaderofthepopularparty，madeagallantattempttorallyhiscountrymentoshakeofftheDanishyoke。
UnfortunatelyforthesuccessofhisundertakinghesoonfoundadangerousopponentinthepersonofGustafTrolle，ArchbishopofUpsala，thenomineeandsupporteroftheKingofDenmark。ThearchbishopthrewthewholeweightofhisinfluenceintothescalesofDenmark，andpartlyowingtohisopposition，partlyowingtothewantofsufficientpreparationthenationaluprisingwascrushedearlyin1520。ChristianII。wascrownedKingofSwedenbytheArchbishopofUpsala。Hesignifiedhiselevationtothethronebyageneralmassacreofhisopponentswhichlastedfortwodays，andduringwhichmanyofthebestbloodofSwedenwereputtodeathNov。1520。ThearchbishopwasrewardedforhisservicestoDenmarkbyreceivinganappointmentasregionoradministratorofSweden。Heandhispartymadeloudboastoftheirpoliticalvictory，buthadtheybeengiftedwithalittleprudenceandzealtheywouldhavefoundgoodreasontoregretatriumphthathadbeensecuredbycommittingtheChurchtothesupportofaDanishtyrantagainstthewishesofthemajoritywhofavourednationalindependence。Religionandpatriotismwerebroughtintoseriousconflict，and，givenonlyacapableleaderwhowouldknowhowtoconducthiscampaignwithskill，itwasnotdifficulttoforeseetheresultsofsuchaconflict。
Asithappened，suchaleaderwasathandinthepersonofGustafEriksson，betterknownasGustavusVasa。HisfatherhadbeenputtodeathinthemassacreofStockholm，andhehimselfwhenayouthhadbeengivenasahostagetotheKingofDenmark。HemadehisescapeandfledtoLubeck，wherehewaskindlyreceived，andremaineduntilanopportunityaroseforhisreturntoSweden。HeplacedhimselfimmediatelyattheheadofthepartywillingtofightagainstDenmark，calleduponhiscountrymentorallytohisstandard，andinashorttimesucceededindrivingtheDanishforcesfromSweden。Hewasproclaimedadministratorofhiscountryin1521，andtwoyearslateranationalDietassembledatStrengnasofferedhimthecrown。
Suchanofferwasinexactaccordancewithhisownwishes。ButhehadnointentionofbecomingkingofSwedenmerelytoremainatoolinthehandsofthespiritualandlaylordsasthekingsofDenmarkhadremained。DeterminedinhisownmindtomakehimselfabsoluterulerofSwedenbycrushingthebishopsandbarons，herecognisedthatLuther'steaching，withwhichhewasfamiliarowingtohisstayatLubeck，heldoutgoodhopesforthesuccessofsuchaproject。ThewarmattachmentoftheBishopofUpsalafortheDanishfactionhadweakenedthedevotionofthepeopletotheChurch，andhadpreparedthewayforthechangewhichGustavuscontemplated。SomeoftheSwedishecclesiastics，notablythebrothersOlafandLaurencePeterson，bothstudentsofWittenberg，theformerawell-knownpreacheratStockholm，thelatteraprofessoratUpsala，werestronglyLutheranintheirtendencies，andwerereadytoassisttheking。ThoughinhisletterstoRomeandinhispublicpronouncementsGustavusprofessedhimselftobeasinceresonoftheChurch，anxiousonlytopreventatallcoststhespreadofLutheranisminhisdominions，hewastakingstepssecretlytoencouragehisLutheransupportersandtoridhimselfofthebishopsandmembersofthereligiousordersfromwhomhefearedseriousopposition。Aswasdoneelsewhere，hearrangedforapublicdisputationatwhichOlafPetersonundertooktodefendthemainprinciplesadvocatedbyLuther，buttheresultsofthecontroversywerenotsosatisfactoryforhispartyashehadanticipated。
Gustavusnowthrewoffthemaskofhypocrisy，andcameforwardboldlyasthechampionofthenewreligion。Heremovedthosebishopswhoweremostoutspokenintheiropposition，banishedtheDominicanswhostoodloyaltoRome，andtriedtoforcetheclergytoacceptthechange。
AnxioustoenrichhistreasurybyconfiscatingthewealthoftheChurchhescatteredbroadcastLuther'spamphletontheconfiscationofecclesiasticalproperty，andengagedtheprofessorsoftheUniversityofUpsalatousetheireffortstodefendandpopularisetheviewsitcontained。Acommissionwasappointedtomakeaninventoryofthegoodsofthebishopsandreligiousinstitutionsandtoinducethemonasteriestomakeavoluntarysurrenderoftheirproperty。Bymeansofthreatsandpromisesthecommissionerssecuredcompliancewiththewishesofthekinginsomedistricts，thoughinothers，asforexampleinUpsala，thearrivalofthecommissionledtoscenesofthegreatestviolenceandcommotion。Moreseveremeasureswerenecessarytooverawethepeople，andGustavuswasnotamantohesitateatanythinglikelytopromotethesuccessofhisplans。BishopJakobsonandsomeoftheclergywerearrested，andafterhavingbeentreatedwitheveryspeciesofindignitywereputtodeath1527。
Inthisyear，1527，anationalDietwasheldatVesterasprincipallyforthediscussionofthereligiousdifficultiesthathadarisen。Bothparties，thesupportersoftheoldandofthenew，musteredtheirforcesforafinalconflict。Gustavustookthesideoftheso-calledreformers，andproposedthemeasureswhichhemaintainedwererequiredbothintheinterestsofreligionandofthepublicweal。TheCatholicpartywereslightlyinthemajorityandrefusedtoassenttotheseproposals。Gustavus，thoughdisappointedattheresult，didnotdespair。HeannouncedtotheDietthatinviewofitsrefusaltoagreetohistermshecouldundertakenolongerthegovernmentanddefenceofthecountry。Ameasuresuchasthis，calculatedtoleadtoanarchyandpossiblytoanewsubjugationofthecountrybyDenmark，wasregardedbybothsidesasanationaldisaster，andsecuredforthekingthesupportofthewaverers。ThemassesofthepeoplewerealarmedlesttheiroppositionmightleadtotherestorationofDanishtyranny，whilethesupportofthenobleswassecuredbythepublicationofadecreeauthorisingthemtoresumepossessionofallpropertyhandedoverbytheirancestorstoreligiousinstitutionsforthelasteightyyears。TheremainderofthepossessionsoftheChurchwereappropriatedfortheroyaltreasury。Thekingnowissuedaproclamationinfavourofthenewreligion，insistedontheadoptionofaliturgyinthevulgartongue，andabolishedclericalcelibacy。AttheNationalAssemblyofOrebro1529theCatholicreligionwasabolishedinfavourofLutheranism，andtwoyearslaterLaurencePetersonwasappointedfirstLutheranArchbishopofUpsala。
ThoughtheLutheranteachinghadbeenaccepted，greatcarewastakennottoshockthepeoplebyanyviolentchange。EpiscopalgovernmentoftheChurchwasretained；mostoftheCatholicritualinregardtothesacramentsandtheMasswasadoptedinthenewliturgy，andeveninsomecasesthepicturesandstatueswerenotremovedfromthechurches。ButtherevolutionthatGustavushadmostatheartwasfullyaccomplished。TheauthorityofthePopehadbeenoverthrown，andinhisplacethekinghadbeenacceptedastheheadoftheSwedishChurch。NordidtheLutheranbishopsfindthemselvesintheenjoymentofgreaterlibertyandrespectasaresultoftheirtreasontotheChurch。Gustavuswarnedthemthattheymustnotcarrythemselveslikelords，andiftheywouldattempttowieldtheswordhewouldknowhowtodealwiththeminasummarymanner。ResentingsuchdictationandtyrannytheybegantoattackGustavusintheirsermonsandtoorganiseplotsfortheoverthrowofhisgovernment。Theconspiracywasdiscovered1540。OlafandLaurencePeterson，thetwoprominentleadersofthereformingparty，werecondemnedtodeath，butwerereprievedonthepaymentofalargefine。Laurencewas，however，removedfromhispositionasArchbishopofUpsala。IntheDietofVesterasin1544thecrownofSwedenwasdeclaredtobehereditary，andwasvestedinthefamilyandheirsofGustavus。Thusthewell-
consideredpolicyofGustavuswascrownedwithsuccess。BymeansoftheLutheranrevolthehadchangedthewholeconstitutionofthecountry，hadmadehimselfabsolutemasterofSweden，andhadsecuredthesuccessiontothethroneforhisownfamily。
Buthehadnotbrokenthepowerofhisopponentssocompletelyastobringpeacetohiscountry，nor，ifcredencebegiventotheproclamationsinwhichhebewailedtheincreaseofevilunderthepleaofevangelicalfreedom，didthereformedreligiontendtotheelevationofpublicmorals。Onhisdeathin1560hewassucceededbyhissonErikXIV。1560-9。Hardlyhadthenewkingbeenproclaimedthantheprincipleofprivatejudgmentintroducedbythereformersbegantoproduceitsnaturalresults。Calvinism，whichwassoopposedtoLutheranismbothindoctrineandinchurchgovernment，founditswayintoSweden，andattractedthefavourablenoticeoftheking。
RegardlessforthetimebeingoftheCatholicChurch，whichtoallappearanceswasdeadinSweden，thetwoparties，LutheransandCalvinists，struggledforsupremacy。ErikwaswonovertothesideoftheCalvinists，andmeasuresweretakentoovercometheLutheransbyforce，butthekinghadneitherthecapacitynortheenergyofhisfather。Theplanmiscarried；theCalvinistsweredefeated1568，andErikwasdeposedandimprisoned。
HisyoungerbrotherJohnsucceededtothethroneunderthetitleJohnIII。Hewasamanofconsiderableability，andwasbynomeanssatisfiedwiththenewreligion。HismarriagewithCatharine，sisterofSigismund，KingofPoland，herselfadevotedCatholic，whostipulatedforlibertytopracticeherreligion，helpedtomakehimmorefavourabletoaCatholicrevival。HesethimselftostudytheScripturesandwritingsoftheHolyFathersundertheguidanceofCatharine'schaplains，andconvincedhimselfthatheshouldreturntotheCatholicChurchandendeavourtorescuehiscountryfromtheconditionofheresyintowhichithadfallen。HeallowedthemonksandnunswhowerestillinSwedentoformcommunitiesagain，andendeavouredtowinovertheclergybyaseriesofordinancescouchedinaCatholictonewhichheissuedfortheirguidance。In1571heinducedtheArchbishopofUpsalatopublishanumberofregulationsknownasthe/Agenda/，whichbothinritualanddoctrineindicatedareturntoRome，andheemployedsomeJesuitmissionariestoexplainthemisrepresentationsofCatholicdoctrineindulgedinbytheLutheranandCalvinistleaders。HisgreatestdifficultyinbringingaboutareunionwasthepresenceofLutheranbishops，butfortunatelyforhimmanyofthemwereoldmenwhoseplacesweresoonvacantbydeath，towhoseSeesheappointedthoseuponwhomhecouldrelyforsupport。WhenhethoughtthetimewasripehesummonedaNationalSynodin1574，wherehedeliveredanaddressdeploringthesadconditiontowhichreligiousdissensionshadreducedthecountry。HepointedoutthatsuchastateofaffairshadbeenbroughtaboutbytheReformationandcouldberemediedonlybyareturntotheChurch。Theaddressreceivedfromtheclergyamuchmorefavourablereceptionthanhehadanticipated。AstheArchbishopricofUpsalawasvacant，hesecuredtheelectionofanarchbishop，whohavehisadhesiontoseventeenarticlesoffaithwhollysatisfactorytoCatholics，andwhoallowedhimselftobeconsecratedaccordingtotheCatholicritual。Hepromisedalsotousehisinfluencetosecuretheadhesionoftheotherbishops。In1576thekingissuedanewliturgy，/TheRedBookofSweden/，whichwasadoptedbytheDietin1577，andacceptedbyalargebodyoftheclergy。Itsprincipalwastheking'sbrother，Karl，DukeofSuthermanland，whoforpoliticalreasonshadconstitutedhimselfheadoftheLutheranparty，andwhorefusedtoagreewiththeRomantendenciesofthekingonthegroundthattheywereopposedtothelastwishesofGustavusandtothelawsofSweden。AdisputationwasarrangedtotakeplaceatUpsala，wheretheBelgianJesuit，LaurenceNicolai，vindicatedtriumphantlyagainsthisLutheranopponentstheCatholicteachingontheChurchandtheMass。CopiesofthecelebratedcatechismoftheBlessedPeterCanisiuswerecirculatedthroughoutSweden，andmadeanexcellentimpressiononthepeople。
Encouragedbythesehopefulsigns，thekingdespatchedanembassytoRometoarrangeforthereconciliationofSwedentotheChurch。Theroyalcommissionerswereinstructedtorequest，thatowingtothepeculiarcircumstancesofthecountry，permissionshouldbegivenforCommunionunderbothkinds，forthecelebrationoftheMassintheSwedishlanguage，andfortheabrogationofthelawofcelibacyatleastinregardtotheclergywhowerealreadymarried。GregoryXIII。，deeplymovedbytheking'sofferofareunion，senttheJesuit，AnthonyPossevin，ashislegatetodiscusstheterms。JohnsetanexamplehimselfbyabjuringpubliclyhiserrorsandbyannouncinghissubmissiontotheChurch1578。
AcommissionwasappointedatRometodiscusstheconcessionswhichthekingdemanded，andunfortunatelythedecisionwasregardedinSwedenasunfavourable。Awarmcontroversy，fomentedandencouragedbytheenemiesofreunion，brokeoutbetweentheopponentsandsupportersofthenewliturgy。DukeKarl，whohadnowbecomethehopeoftheLutheranparty，dideverythinghecouldtostirupstrife，whileatthesametimeRomerefusedtoacceptthetermsproposedbytheking。
IndignantatwhatheconsideredtheunreasonableattitudeoftheRomanauthorities，Johnbegantolosehisenthusiasmforhisreligiouspolicy，andafterthedeathofhiswifewhowasunwaveringinherdevotiontoherreligion，therewasnolongermuchhopethatSwedenwastobewonfromheresy1584。ThekingmarriedanotherwhowasstronglyLutheraninhersympathies，andwhousedherinfluenceoverhimtosecuretheexpulsionoftheJesuits。ThoughJohnIII。tooknofurtherstepstobringaboutreunionhecouldnotbeinducedtowithdrawtheliturgy，theuseofwhichheinsistedupontillhisdeathin1592。
HissonSigismundIII。shouldhavesucceeded。HewasanardentCatholicashismotherhadbeen，butashehadbeenelectedKingofPoland1586hewasabsentfromSwedenwhenthethronebecamevacantbythedeathofhisfather。DukeKarlandhisfriendsdidnotfailtotakeadvantageofhisabsence。WhentheSynodmetthesenatorsdemandedthatSigismundshouldaccepttheAugsburgConfessionasaconditionforhiselectiontothethrone。TothisSigismundsenttheonlyreplythatagoodCatholicandanhonestmancouldsend，namely，abluntrefusal。Hisuncle，DukeKarl，theactingregentofSweden，tookstepstoseducetheSwedishpeoplefromtheirallegiancetotheirlawfulking，andtopreparethewayforhisownaccession。HeproclaimedhimselftheprotectorofLutheranismandendeavouredtowinoverthebishopstohisside。InanationalAssemblyheldatUpsalaThe"Upsala-mote"1593afteraveryviolentaddressfromtheregentagainsttheCatholicChurch，thebishopsconfessedthattheyhadblunderedinacceptingtheliturgyofJohnIII。，andtheAssemblydeclareditselfstronglyinfavouroftheAugsburgConfession。
When，therefore，SigismundreturnedtoclaimthethronehefoundthatLutheranismwasentrenchedsafelyoncemore，andthateventhemostmoderateofthebishopsappointedbyhisfathermustbereckonedwithasopponents。TheclergyunitedwithDukeKarlinstirringupthepeopleagainsthim。Intheseconditionshewasforcedtoabandonhisprojectsofreform，andtoentrusthisunclewiththeadministrationofSwedenwhenhehimselfwasobligedtoreturntoPoland。WhileSigismundwasengagedinPoland，theregentconductedamostskilfulcampaign，nominallyonbehalfofProtestantism，butinrealitytosecurethedepositionofSigismundandhisownelectiontothethrone。
IntheDietofSuderkoping1595SigismundwascondemnedforhavingbestowedappointmentsonCatholicsandforhavingtoleratedtheCatholicreligioninhiskingdomofSweden，anditwasorderedthatallwhoprofessedthedoctrinesofRomeshouldabandontheirerrorswithinsixmonthsunderpainofexpulsionfromthecountry。TheArchbishopofUpsalamadeavisitationofthechurches，duringwhichheorderedthatallthosewhoabsentedthemselvesfromtheLutheranserviceshouldbefloggedinhispresence，thatthepictures，statues，andreliquariesshouldbedestroyed，andthattheliturgyintroducedbyJohnIII。shouldbeabolished。ThegreatestviolencewasusedtowardsthesupportersofKingSigismund，mostofwhomwereeitherCatholicoratleastfavourablyinclinedtowardsCatholicism。
EnragedbyadecreethatnoedictofthekingshouldhaveanybindingforceunlessconfirmedbytheSwedishDiet，anddriventodesperationbythetyrannyandoppressionoftheregent，someofSigismund'sfollowersraisedthestandardonbehalfoftheirking，andSigismundreturnedtoSwedenwithanarmyoffivethousandmen。Hefoundhimselfopposedbytheforcesoftheregentagainstwhomhewasatfirstsuccessful，butinhistreatmentofhisuncleandhisrebelfollowersheshowedhimselffartooforgiving。Inreturnforhiskindness，havingstrengthenedthemselvesbyalargearmytheyforcedhimtosubmittothedecisionofanationalAssemblytobeheldatJonkoping1599。AtthismeetingDukeKarlaccusedthekingofendeavouringtoplungeSwedenoncemoreintotheerrorsfromwhichithadbeenrescuedbythereformers。InMayofthesameyeararesolutionwaspasseddeclaringthatthekinghadforfeitedtheallegianceofhissubjectsunlessheyieldedtotheirdemands，andmoreespeciallyunlesshehandedoverhissonandheirtoberearedbytheregentasaProtestant。Manyofhissupporters，includingninemembersoftheCouncilofState，wereputtodeath。Finallyin1604Sigismundwasformallydeposed，andthecrownwasbestowedonhisuncle，DukeKarl，whobecamekingunderthetitleofCharlesIX。ProtestantismhadtriumphedatlastinSweden，butevenitsstrongestsupporterswouldhardlyliketomaintainthattheissuewasdecidedonreligiousgrounds，orthatthemeansadoptedbyCharlesIX。tosecurethevictorywereworthyoftheapostleofanewreligion——
[1]AFranciscan。Hewastheauthorofthe/ConfutatioLutheranismiDanici/，editedandpublished1902。
CHAPTERIII
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