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　　EVERYartandeveryinquiry，andsimilarlyeveryactionandpursuit，isthoughttoaimatsomegood；andforthisreasonthegoodhasrightlybeendeclaredtobethatatwhichallthingsaim。Butacertaindifferenceisfoundamongends；someareactivities，othersareproductsapartfromtheactivitiesthatproducethem。Wherethereareendsapartfromtheactions，itisthenatureoftheproductstobebetterthantheactivities。Now，astherearemanyactions，arts，andsciences，theirendsalsoaremany；theendofthemedicalartishealth，thatofshipbuildingavessel，thatofstrategyvictory，thatofeconomicswealth。Butwheresuchartsfallunderasinglecapacity-asbridle-makingandtheotherartsconcernedwiththeequipmentofhorsesfallundertheartofriding，andthisandeverymilitaryactionunderstrategy，inthesamewayotherartsfallunderyetothers-inallofthesetheendsofthemasterartsaretobepreferredtoallthesubordinateends；foritisforthesakeoftheformerthatthelatterarepursued。Itmakesnodifferencewhethertheactivitiesthemselvesaretheendsoftheactions，orsomethingelseapartfromtheactivities，asinthecaseofthesciencesjustmentioned。
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　　If，then，thereissomeendofthethingswedo，whichwedesireforitsownsakeeverythingelsebeingdesiredforthesakeofthis，andifwedonotchooseeverythingforthesakeofsomethingelseforatthatratetheprocesswouldgoontoinfinity，sothatourdesirewouldbeemptyandvain，clearlythismustbethegoodandthechiefgood。Willnottheknowledgeofit，then，haveagreatinfluenceonlife？Shallwenot，likearcherswhohaveamarktoaimat，bemorelikelytohituponwhatisright？Ifso，wemusttry，inoutlineatleast，todeterminewhatitis，andofwhichofthesciencesorcapacitiesitistheobject。Itwouldseemtobelongtothemostauthoritativeartandthatwhichismosttrulythemasterart。Andpoliticsappearstobeofthisnature；foritisthisthatordainswhichofthesciencesshouldbestudiedinastate，andwhicheachclassofcitizensshouldlearnanduptowhatpointtheyshouldlearnthem；andweseeeventhemosthighlyesteemedofcapacitiestofallunderthis，e。g。strategy，economics，rhetoric；now，sincepoliticsusestherestofthesciences，andsince，again，itlegislatesastowhatwearetodoandwhatwearetoabstainfrom，theendofthissciencemustincludethoseoftheothers，sothatthisendmustbethegoodforman。Foreveniftheendisthesameforasinglemanandforastate，thatofthestateseemsatalleventssomethinggreaterandmorecompletewhethertoattainortopreserve；thoughitisworthwhiletoattaintheendmerelyforoneman，itisfinerandmoregodliketoattainitforanationorforcity-states。These，then，aretheendsatwhichourinquiryaims，sinceitispoliticalscience，inonesenseofthatterm。
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　　Ourdiscussionwillbeadequateifithasasmuchclearnessasthesubject-matteradmitsof，forprecisionisnottobesoughtforalikeinalldiscussions，anymorethaninalltheproductsofthecrafts。Nowfineandjustactions，whichpoliticalscienceinvestigates，admitofmuchvarietyandfluctuationofopinion，sothattheymaybethoughttoexistonlybyconvention，andnotbynature。Andgoodsalsogiverisetoasimilarfluctuationbecausetheybringharmtomanypeople；forbeforenowmenhavebeenundonebyreasonoftheirwealth，andothersbyreasonoftheircourage。Wemustbecontent，then，inspeakingofsuchsubjectsandwithsuchpremissestoindicatethetruthroughlyandinoutline，andinspeakingaboutthingswhichareonlyforthemostparttrueandwithpremissesofthesamekindtoreachconclusionsthatarenobetter。Inthesamespirit，therefore，shouldeachtypeofstatementbereceived；foritisthemarkofaneducatedmantolookforprecisionineachclassofthingsjustsofarasthenatureofthesubjectadmits；itisevidentlyequallyfoolishtoacceptprobablereasoningfromamathematicianandtodemandfromarhetoricianscientificproofs。
　　Noweachmanjudgeswellthethingsheknows，andoftheseheisagoodjudge。Andsothemanwhohasbeeneducatedinasubjectisagoodjudgeofthatsubject，andthemanwhohasreceivedanall-roundeducationisagoodjudgeingeneral。Henceayoungmanisnotaproperheareroflecturesonpoliticalscience；forheisinexperiencedintheactionsthatoccurinlife，butitsdiscussionsstartfromtheseandareaboutthese；and，further，sincehetendstofollowhispassions，hisstudywillbevainandunprofitable，becausetheendaimedatisnotknowledgebutaction。Anditmakesnodifferencewhetherheisyounginyearsoryouthfulincharacter；
　　thedefectdoesnotdependontime，butonhisliving，andpursuingeachsuccessiveobject，aspassiondirects。Fortosuchpersons，astotheincontinent，knowledgebringsnoprofit；buttothosewhodesireandactinaccordancewitharationalprincipleknowledgeaboutsuchmatterswillbeofgreatbenefit。
　　Theseremarksaboutthestudent，thesortoftreatmenttobeexpected，andthepurposeoftheinquiry，maybetakenasourpreface。
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　　Letusresumeourinquiryandstate，inviewofthefactthatallknowledgeandeverypursuitaimsatsomegood，whatitisthatwesaypoliticalscienceaimsatandwhatisthehighestofallgoodsachievablebyaction。Verballythereisverygeneralagreement；forboththegeneralrunofmenandpeopleofsuperiorrefinementsaythatitishappiness，andidentifylivingwellanddoingwellwithbeinghappy；butwithregardtowhathappinessistheydiffer，andthemanydonotgivethesameaccountasthewise。Fortheformerthinkitissomeplainandobviousthing，likepleasure，wealth，orhonour；
　　theydiffer，however，fromoneanother-andofteneventhesamemanidentifiesitwithdifferentthings，withhealthwhenheisill，withwealthwhenheispoor；but，consciousoftheirignorance，theyadmirethosewhoproclaimsomegreatidealthatisabovetheircomprehension。Nowsomethoughtthatapartfromthesemanygoodsthereisanotherwhichisself-subsistentandcausesthegoodnessofalltheseaswell。Toexaminealltheopinionsthathavebeenheldwereperhapssomewhatfruitless；enoughtoexaminethosethataremostprevalentorthatseemtobearguable。
　　Letusnotfailtonotice，however，thatthereisadifferencebetweenargumentsfromandthosetothefirstprinciples。ForPlato，too，wasrightinraisingthisquestionandasking，asheusedtodo，'areweonthewayfromortothefirstprinciples？'Thereisadifference，asthereisinarace-coursebetweenthecoursefromthejudgestotheturning-pointandthewayback。For，whilewemustbeginwithwhatisknown，thingsareobjectsofknowledgeintwosenses-
　　sometous，somewithoutqualification。Presumably，then，wemustbeginwiththingsknowntous。Henceanyonewhoistolistenintelligentlytolecturesaboutwhatisnobleandjust，andgenerally，aboutthesubjectsofpoliticalsciencemusthavebeenbroughtupingoodhabits。Forthefactisthestarting-point，andifthisissufficientlyplaintohim，hewillnotatthestartneedthereasonaswell；andthemanwhohasbeenwellbroughtuphasorcaneasilygetstartingpoints。Andasforhimwhoneitherhasnorcangetthem，lethimhearthewordsofHesiod:
　　Farbestishewhoknowsallthingshimself；
　　Good，hethathearkenswhenmencounselright；
　　Buthewhoneitherknows，norlaystoheartAnother'swisdom，isauselesswight。
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　　Letus，however，resumeourdiscussionfromthepointatwhichwedigressed。Tojudgefromthelivesthatmenlead，mostmen，andmenofthemostvulgartype，seemnotwithoutsomegroundtoidentifythegood，orhappiness，withpleasure；whichisthereasonwhytheylovethelifeofenjoyment。Forthereare，wemaysay，threeprominenttypesoflife-thatjustmentioned，thepolitical，andthirdlythecontemplativelife。Nowthemassofmankindareevidentlyquiteslavishintheirtastes，preferringalifesuitabletobeasts，buttheygetsomegroundfortheirviewfromthefactthatmanyofthoseinhighplacessharethetastesofSardanapallus。Aconsiderationoftheprominenttypesoflifeshowsthatpeopleofsuperiorrefinementandofactivedispositionidentifyhappinesswithhonour；forthisis，roughlyspeaking，theendofthepoliticallife。Butitseemstoosuperficialtobewhatwearelookingfor，sinceitisthoughttodependonthosewhobestowhonourratherthanonhimwhoreceivesit，butthegoodwedivinetobesomethingpropertoamanandnoteasilytakenfromhim。Further，menseemtopursuehonourinorderthattheymaybeassuredoftheirgoodness；atleastitisbymenofpracticalwisdomthattheyseektobehonoured，andamongthosewhoknowthem，andonthegroundoftheirvirtue；clearly，then，accordingtothem，atanyrate，virtueisbetter。Andperhapsonemightevensupposethistobe，ratherthanhonour，theendofthepoliticallife。
　　Buteventhisappearssomewhatincomplete；forpossessionofvirtueseemsactuallycompatiblewithbeingasleep，orwithlifelonginactivity，and，further，withthegreatestsufferingsandmisfortunes；butamanwhowaslivingsonoonewouldcallhappy，unlessheweremaintainingathesisatallcosts。Butenoughofthis；forthesubjecthasbeensufficientlytreatedeveninthecurrentdiscussions。Thirdcomesthecontemplativelife，whichweshallconsiderlater。
　　Thelifeofmoney-makingisoneundertakenundercompulsion，andwealthisevidentlynotthegoodweareseeking；foritismerelyusefulandforthesakeofsomethingelse。Andsoonemightrathertaketheaforenamedobjectstobeends；fortheyarelovedforthemselves。Butitisevidentthatnoteventheseareends；yetmanyargumentshavebeenthrownawayinsupportofthem。Letusleavethissubject，then。
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　　Wehadperhapsbetterconsidertheuniversalgoodanddiscussthoroughlywhatismeantbyit，althoughsuchaninquiryismadeanuphillonebythefactthattheFormshavebeenintroducedbyfriendsofourown。Yetitwouldperhapsbethoughttobebetter，indeedtobeourduty，forthesakeofmaintainingthetrutheventodestroywhattouchesusclosely，especiallyaswearephilosophersorloversofwisdom；for，whilebotharedear，pietyrequiresustohonourtruthaboveourfriends。
　　ThemenwhointroducedthisdoctrinedidnotpositIdeasofclasseswithinwhichtheyrecognizedpriorityandposterioritywhichisthereasonwhytheydidnotmaintaintheexistenceofanIdeaembracingallnumbers；buttheterm'good'isusedbothinthecategoryofsubstanceandinthatofqualityandinthatofrelation，andthatwhichisperse，i。e。substance，ispriorinnaturetotherelativeforthelatterislikeanoffshootandaccidentofbeing；sothattherecouldnotbeacommonIdeasetoverallthesegoods。Further，since'good'hasasmanysensesas'being'foritispredicatedbothinthecategoryofsubstance，asofGodandofreason，andinquality，i。e。ofthevirtues，andinquantity，i。e。
　　ofthatwhichismoderate，andinrelation，i。e。oftheuseful，andintime，i。e。oftherightopportunity，andinplace，i。e。oftherightlocalityandthelike，clearlyitcannotbesomethinguniversallypresentinallcasesandsingle；forthenitcouldnothavebeenpredicatedinallthecategoriesbutinoneonly。Further，sinceofthethingsansweringtooneIdeathereisonescience，therewouldhavebeenonescienceofallthegoods；butasitistherearemanysciencesevenofthethingsthatfallunderonecategory，e。g。ofopportunity，foropportunityinwarisstudiedbystrategicsandindiseasebymedicine，andthemoderateinfoodisstudiedbymedicineandinexercisebythescienceofgymnastics。Andonemightaskthequestion，whatintheworldtheymeanby'athingitself'，isasisthecasein'manhimself'andinaparticularmantheaccountofmanisoneandthesame。Forinsofarastheyareman，theywillinnorespectdiffer；andifthisisso，neitherwill'gooditself'andparticulargoods，insofarastheyaregood。Butagainitwillnotbegoodanythemoreforbeingeternal，sincethatwhichlastslongisnowhiterthanthatwhichperishesinaday。ThePythagoreansseemtogiveamoreplausibleaccountofthegood，whentheyplacetheoneinthecolumnofgoods；anditistheythatSpeusippusseemstohavefollowed。
　　Butletusdiscussthesematterselsewhere；anobjectiontowhatwehavesaid，however，maybediscernedinthefactthatthePlatonistshavenotbeenspeakingaboutallgoods，andthatthegoodsthatarepursuedandlovedforthemselvesarecalledgoodbyreferencetoasingleForm，whilethosewhichtendtoproduceortopreservethesesomehowortopreventtheircontrariesarecalledsobyreferencetothese，andinasecondarysense。Clearly，then，goodsmustbespokenofintwoways，andsomemustbegoodinthemselves，theothersbyreasonofthese。Letusseparate，then，thingsgoodinthemselvesfromthingsuseful，andconsiderwhethertheformerarecalledgoodbyreferencetoasingleIdea。Whatsortofgoodswouldonecallgoodinthemselves？Isitthosethatarepursuedevenwhenisolatedfromothers，suchasintelligence，sight，andcertainpleasuresandhonours？Certainly，ifwepursuethesealsoforthesakeofsomethingelse，yetonewouldplacethemamongthingsgoodinthemselves。OrisnothingotherthantheIdeaofgoodgoodinitself？InthatcasetheFormwillbeempty。Butifthethingswehavenamedarealsothingsgoodinthemselves，theaccountofthegoodwillhavetoappearassomethingidenticalinthemall，asthatofwhitenessisidenticalinsnowandinwhitelead。Butofhonour，wisdom，andpleasure，justinrespectoftheirgoodness，theaccountsaredistinctanddiverse。Thegood，therefore，isnotsomecommonelementansweringtooneIdea。
　　Butwhatthendowemeanbythegood？Itissurelynotlikethethingsthatonlychancetohavethesamename。Aregoodsone，then，bybeingderivedfromonegoodorbyallcontributingtoonegood，oraretheyratheronebyanalogy？Certainlyassightisinthebody，soisreasoninthesoul，andsooninothercases。Butperhapsthesesubjectshadbetterbedismissedforthepresent；forperfectprecisionaboutthemwouldbemoreappropriatetoanotherbranchofphilosophy。AndsimilarlywithregardtotheIdea；evenifthereissomeonegoodwhichisuniversallypredicableofgoodsoriscapableofseparateandindependentexistence，clearlyitcouldnotbeachievedorattainedbyman；butwearenowseekingsomethingattainable。Perhaps，however，someonemightthinkitworthwhiletorecognizethiswithaviewtothegoodsthatareattainableandachievable；forhavingthisasasortofpatternweshallknowbetterthegoodsthataregoodforus，andifweknowthemshallattainthem。Thisargumenthassomeplausibility，butseemstoclashwiththeprocedureofthesciences；forallofthese，thoughtheyaimatsomegoodandseektosupplythedeficiencyofit，leaveononesidetheknowledgeofthegood。Yetthatalltheexponentsoftheartsshouldbeignorantof，andshouldnotevenseek，sogreatanaidisnotprobable。Itishard，too，toseehowaweaveroracarpenterwillbebenefitedinregardtohisowncraftbyknowingthis'gooditself'，orhowthemanwhohasviewedtheIdeaitselfwillbeabetterdoctororgeneralthereby。Foradoctorseemsnoteventostudyhealthinthisway，butthehealthofman，orperhapsratherthehealthofaparticularman；itisindividualsthatheishealing。Butenoughofthesetopics。
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　　Letusagainreturntothegoodweareseeking，andaskwhatitcanbe。Itseemsdifferentindifferentactionsandarts；itisdifferentinmedicine，instrategy，andintheotherartslikewise。
　　Whatthenisthegoodofeach？Surelythatforwhosesakeeverythingelseisdone。Inmedicinethisishealth，instrategyvictory，inarchitectureahouse，inanyotherspheresomethingelse，andineveryactionandpursuittheend；foritisforthesakeofthisthatallmendowhateverelsetheydo。Therefore，ifthereisanendforallthatwedo，thiswillbethegoodachievablebyaction，andiftherearemorethanone，thesewillbethegoodsachievablebyaction。
　　Sotheargumenthasbyadifferentcoursereachedthesamepoint；
　　butwemusttrytostatethisevenmoreclearly。Sincethereareevidentlymorethanoneend，andwechoosesomeofthesee。g。wealth，flutes，andingeneralinstrumentsforthesakeofsomethingelse，clearlynotallendsarefinalends；butthechiefgoodisevidentlysomethingfinal。Therefore，ifthereisonlyonefinalend，thiswillbewhatweareseeking，andiftherearemorethanone，themostfinalofthesewillbewhatweareseeking。Nowwecallthatwhichisinitselfworthyofpursuitmorefinalthanthatwhichisworthyofpursuitforthesakeofsomethingelse，andthatwhichisneverdesirableforthesakeofsomethingelsemorefinalthanthethingsthataredesirablebothinthemselvesandforthesakeofthatotherthing，andthereforewecallfinalwithoutqualificationthatwhichisalwaysdesirableinitselfandneverforthesakeofsomethingelse。
　　Nowsuchathinghappiness，aboveallelse，isheldtobe；forthiswechoosealwaysforselfandneverforthesakeofsomethingelse，buthonour，pleasure，reason，andeveryvirtuewechooseindeedforthemselvesforifnothingresultedfromthemweshouldstillchooseeachofthem，butwechoosethemalsoforthesakeofhappiness，judgingthatbymeansofthemweshallbehappy。Happiness，ontheotherhand，noonechoosesforthesakeofthese，nor，ingeneral，foranythingotherthanitself。
　　Fromthepointofviewofself-sufficiencythesameresultseemstofollow；forthefinalgoodisthoughttobeself-sufficient。Nowbyself-sufficientwedonotmeanthatwhichissufficientforamanbyhimself，foronewholivesasolitarylife，butalsoforparents，children，wife，andingeneralforhisfriendsandfellowcitizens，sincemanisbornforcitizenship。Butsomelimitmustbesettothis；
　　forifweextendourrequirementtoancestorsanddescendantsandfriends'friendsweareinforaninfiniteseries。Letusexaminethisquestion，however，onanotheroccasion；theself-sufficientwenowdefineasthatwhichwhenisolatedmakeslifedesirableandlackinginnothing；andsuchwethinkhappinesstobe；andfurtherwethinkitmostdesirableofallthings，withoutbeingcountedasonegoodthingamongothers-ifitweresocounteditwouldclearlybemademoredesirablebytheadditionofeventheleastofgoods；forthatwhichisaddedbecomesanexcessofgoods，andofgoodsthegreaterisalwaysmoredesirable。Happiness，then，issomethingfinalandself-sufficient，andistheendofaction。
　　Presumably，however，tosaythathappinessisthechiefgoodseemsaplatitude，andacleareraccountofwhatitisstilldesired。Thismightperhapsbegiven，ifwecouldfirstascertainthefunctionofman。Forjustasforaflute-player，asculptor，oranartist，and，ingeneral，forallthingsthathaveafunctionoractivity，thegoodandthe'well'isthoughttoresideinthefunction，sowoulditseemtobeforman，ifhehasafunction。Havethecarpenter，then，andthetannercertainfunctionsoractivities，andhasmannone？Ishebornwithoutafunction？Oraseye，hand，foot，andingeneraleachofthepartsevidentlyhasafunction，mayonelayitdownthatmansimilarlyhasafunctionapartfromallthese？Whatthencanthisbe？Lifeseemstobecommoneventoplants，butweareseekingwhatispeculiartoman。Letusexclude，therefore，thelifeofnutritionandgrowth。Nexttherewouldbealifeofperception，butitalsoseemstobecommoneventothehorse，theox，andeveryanimal。
　　Thereremains，then，anactivelifeoftheelementthathasarationalprinciple；ofthis，oneparthassuchaprincipleinthesenseofbeingobedienttoone，theotherinthesenseofpossessingoneandexercisingthought。And，as'lifeoftherationalelement'alsohastwomeanings，wemuststatethatlifeinthesenseofactivityiswhatwemean；forthisseemstobethemorepropersenseoftheterm。Nowifthefunctionofmanisanactivityofsoulwhichfollowsorimpliesarationalprinciple，andifwesay'so-and-so-and'agoodso-and-so'haveafunctionwhichisthesameinkind，e。g。alyre，andagoodlyre-player，andsowithoutqualificationinallcases，eminenceinrespectofgoodnessbeingiddedtothenameofthefunctionforthefunctionofalyre-playeristoplaythelyre，andthatofagoodlyre-playeristodosowell:ifthisisthecase，andwestatethefunctionofmantobeacertainkindoflife，andthistobeanactivityoractionsofthesoulimplyingarationalprinciple，andthefunctionofagoodmantobethegoodandnobleperformanceofthese，andifanyactioniswellperformedwhenitisperformedinaccordancewiththeappropriateexcellence:ifthisisthecase，humangoodturnsouttobeactivityofsoulinaccordancewithvirtue，andiftherearemorethanonevirtue，inaccordancewiththebestandmostcomplete。
　　Butwemustadd'inacompletelife。'Foroneswallowdoesnotmakeasummer，nordoesoneday；andsotoooneday，orashorttime，doesnotmakeamanblessedandhappy。
　　Letthisserveasanoutlineofthegood；forwemustpresumablyfirstsketchitroughly，andthenlaterfillinthedetails。Butitwouldseemthatanyoneiscapableofcarryingonandarticulatingwhathasoncebeenwelloutlined，andthattimeisagooddiscovererorpartnerinsuchawork；towhichfactstheadvancesoftheartsaredue；foranyonecanaddwhatislacking。Andwemustalsorememberwhathasbeensaidbefore，andnotlookforprecisioninallthingsalike，butineachclassofthingssuchprecisionasaccordswiththesubject-matter，andsomuchasisappropriatetotheinquiry。
　　Foracarpenterandageometerinvestigatetherightangleindifferentways；theformerdoessoinsofarastherightangleisusefulforhiswork，whilethelatterinquireswhatitisorwhatsortofthingitis；forheisaspectatorofthetruth。Wemustactinthesameway，then，inallothermattersaswell，thatourmaintaskmaynotbesubordinatedtominorquestions。Normustwedemandthecauseinallmattersalike；itisenoughinsomecasesthatthefactbewellestablished，asinthecaseofthefirstprinciples；thefactistheprimarythingorfirstprinciple。Nowoffirstprinciplesweseesomebyinduction，somebyperception，somebyacertainhabituation，andotherstooinotherways。Buteachsetofprincipleswemusttrytoinvestigateinthenaturalway，andwemusttakepainstostatethemdefinitely，sincetheyhaveagreatinfluenceonwhatfollows。Forthebeginningisthoughttobemorethanhalfofthewhole，andmanyofthequestionsweaskareclearedupbyit。
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　　Wemustconsiderit，however，inthelightnotonlyofourconclusionandourpremisses，butalsoofwhatiscommonlysaidaboutit；forwithatrueviewallthedataharmonize，butwithafalseonethefactssoonclash。Nowgoodshavebeendividedintothreeclasses，andsomearedescribedasexternal，othersasrelatingtosoulortobody；wecallthosethatrelatetosoulmostproperlyandtrulygoods，andpsychicalactionsandactivitiesweclassasrelatingtosoul。Thereforeouraccountmustbesound，atleastaccordingtothisview，whichisanoldoneandagreedonbyphilosophers。Itiscorrectalsointhatweidentifytheendwithcertainactionsandactivities；forthusitfallsamonggoodsofthesoulandnotamongexternalgoods。Anotherbeliefwhichharmonizeswithouraccountisthatthehappymanliveswellanddoeswell；forwehavepracticallydefinedhappinessasasortofgoodlifeandgoodaction。Thecharacteristicsthatarelookedforinhappinessseemalso，allofthem，tobelongtowhatwehavedefinedhappinessasbeing。Forsomeidentifyhappinesswithvirtue，somewithpracticalwisdom，otherswithakindofphilosophicwisdom，otherswiththese，oroneofthese，accompaniedbypleasureornotwithoutpleasure；whileothersincludealsoexternalprosperity。Nowsomeoftheseviewshavebeenheldbymanymenandmenofold，othersbyafeweminentpersons；
　　anditisnotprobablethateitheroftheseshouldbeentirelymistaken，butratherthattheyshouldberightinatleastsomeonerespectoreveninmostrespects。
　　Withthosewhoidentifyhappinesswithvirtueorsomeonevirtueouraccountisinharmony；fortovirtuebelongsvirtuousactivity。Butitmakes，perhaps，nosmalldifferencewhetherweplacethechiefgoodinpossessionorinuse，instateofmindorinactivity。Forthestateofmindmayexistwithoutproducinganygoodresult，asinamanwhoisasleeporinsomeotherwayquiteinactive，buttheactivitycannot；foronewhohastheactivitywillofnecessitybeacting，andactingwell。AndasintheOlympicGamesitisnotthemostbeautifulandthestrongestthatarecrownedbutthosewhocompeteforitissomeofthesethatarevictorious，sothosewhoactwin，andrightlywin，thenobleandgoodthingsinlife。
　　Theirlifeisalsoinitselfpleasant。Forpleasureisastateofsoul，andtoeachmanthatwhichheissaidtobealoverofispleasant；e。g。notonlyisahorsepleasanttotheloverofhorses，andaspectacletotheloverofsights，butalsointhesamewayjustactsarepleasanttotheloverofjusticeandingeneralvirtuousactstotheloverofvirtue。Nowformostmentheirpleasuresareinconflictwithoneanotherbecausethesearenotbynaturepleasant，buttheloversofwhatisnoblefindpleasantthethingsthatarebynaturepleasant；andvirtuousactionsaresuch，sothatthesearepleasantforsuchmenaswellasintheirownnature。Theirlife，therefore，hasnofurtherneedofpleasureasasortofadventitiouscharm，buthasitspleasureinitself。For，besideswhatwehavesaid，themanwhodoesnotrejoiceinnobleactionsisnotevengood；
　　sincenoonewouldcallamanjustwhodidnotenjoyactingjustly，noranymanliberalwhodidnotenjoyliberalactions；andsimilarlyinallothercases。Ifthisisso，virtuousactionsmustbeinthemselvespleasant。Buttheyarealsogoodandnoble，andhaveeachoftheseattributesinthehighestdegree，sincethegoodmanjudgeswellabouttheseattributes；hisjudgementissuchaswehavedescribed。Happinessthenisthebest，noblest，andmostpleasantthingintheworld，andtheseattributesarenotseveredasintheinscriptionatDelos-
　　Mostnobleisthatwhichisjustest，andbestishealth；
　　Butpleasantestisittowinwhatwelove。
　　Forallthesepropertiesbelongtothebestactivities；andthese，orone-thebest-ofthese，weidentifywithhappiness。
　　Yetevidently，aswesaid，itneedstheexternalgoodsaswell；
　　foritisimpossible，ornoteasy，todonobleactswithouttheproperequipment。Inmanyactionsweusefriendsandrichesandpoliticalpowerasinstruments；andtherearesomethingsthelackofwhichtakesthelustrefromhappiness，asgoodbirth，goodlychildren，beauty；forthemanwhoisveryuglyinappearanceorill-bornorsolitaryandchildlessisnotverylikelytobehappy，andperhapsamanwouldbestilllesslikelyifhehadthoroughlybadchildrenorfriendsorhadlostgoodchildrenorfriendsbydeath。Aswesaid，then，happinessseemstoneedthissortofprosperityinaddition；forwhichreasonsomeidentifyhappinesswithgoodfortune，thoughothersidentifyitwithvirtue。
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　　Forthisreasonalsothequestionisasked，whetherhappinessistobeacquiredbylearningorbyhabituationorsomeothersortoftraining，orcomesinvirtueofsomedivineprovidenceoragainbychance。Nowifthereisanygiftofthegodstomen，itisreasonablethathappinessshouldbegod-given，andmostsurelygod-givenofallhumanthingsinasmuchasitisthebest。Butthisquestionwouldperhapsbemoreappropriatetoanotherinquiry；
　　happinessseems，however，evenifitisnotgod-sentbutcomesasaresultofvirtueandsomeprocessoflearningortraining，tobeamongthemostgodlikethings；forthatwhichistheprizeandendofvirtueseemstobethebestthingintheworld，andsomethinggodlikeandblessed。
　　Itwillalsoonthisviewbeverygenerallyshared；forallwhoarenotmaimedasregardstheirpotentialityforvirtuemaywinitbyacertainkindofstudyandcare。Butifitisbettertobehappythusthanbychance，itisreasonablethatthefactsshouldbeso，sinceeverythingthatdependsontheactionofnatureisbynatureasgoodasitcanbe，andsimilarlyeverythingthatdependsonartoranyrationalcause，andespeciallyifitdependsonthebestofallcauses。Toentrusttochancewhatisgreatestandmostnoblewouldbeaverydefectivearrangement。
　　Theanswertothequestionweareaskingisplainalsofromthedefinitionofhappiness；forithasbeensaidtobeavirtuousactivityofsoul，ofacertainkind。Oftheremaininggoods，somemustnecessarilypre-existasconditionsofhappiness，andothersarenaturallyco-operativeandusefulasinstruments。Andthiswillbefoundtoagreewithwhatwesaidattheoutset；forwestatedtheendofpoliticalsciencetobethebestend，andpoliticalsciencespendsmostofitspainsonmakingthecitizenstobeofacertaincharacter，viz。goodandcapableofnobleacts。
　　Itisnatural，then，thatwecallneitheroxnorhorsenoranyotheroftheanimalshappy；fornoneofthemiscapableofsharinginsuchactivity。Forthisreasonalsoaboyisnothappy；forheisnotyetcapableofsuchacts，owingtohisage；andboyswhoarecalledhappyarebeingcongratulatedbyreasonofthehopeswehaveforthem。
　　Forthereisrequired，aswesaid，notonlycompletevirtuebutalsoacompletelife，sincemanychangesoccurinlife，andallmannerofchances，andthemostprosperousmayfallintogreatmisfortunesinoldage，asistoldofPriamintheTrojanCycle；andonewhohasexperiencedsuchchancesandhasendedwretchedlynoonecallshappy。
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　　Mustnooneatall，then，becalledhappywhilehelives；mustwe，asSolonsays，seetheend？Evenifwearetolaydownthisdoctrine，isitalsothecasethatamanishappywhenheisdead？
　　Orisnotthisquiteabsurd，especiallyforuswhosaythathappinessisanactivity？Butifwedonotcallthedeadmanhappy，andifSolondoesnotmeanthis，butthatonecanthensafelycallamanblessedasbeingatlastbeyondevilsandmisfortunes，thisalsoaffordsmatterfordiscussion；forbothevilandgoodarethoughttoexistforadeadman，asmuchasforonewhoisalivebutnotawareofthem；e。g。honoursanddishonoursandthegoodorbadfortunesofchildrenandingeneralofdescendants。Andthisalsopresentsaproblem；forthoughamanhaslivedhappilyuptooldageandhashadadeathworthyofhislife，manyreversesmaybefallhisdescendants-someofthemmaybegoodandattainthelifetheydeserve，whilewithotherstheoppositemaybethecase；andclearlytoothedegreesofrelationshipbetweenthemandtheirancestorsmayvaryindefinitely。Itwouldbeodd，then，ifthedeadmanweretoshareinthesechangesandbecomeatonetimehappy，atanotherwretched；whileitwouldalsobeoddifthefortunesofthedescendantsdidnotforsometimehavesomeeffectonthehappinessoftheirancestors。
　　Butwemustreturntoourfirstdifficulty；forperhapsbyaconsiderationofitourpresentproblemmightbesolved。Nowifwemustseetheendandonlythencallamanhappy，notasbeinghappybutashavingbeensobefore，surelythisisaparadox，thatwhenheishappytheattributethatbelongstohimisnottobetrulypredicatedofhimbecausewedonotwishtocalllivingmenhappy，onaccountofthechangesthatmaybefallthem，andbecausewehaveassumedhappinesstobesomethingpermanentandbynomeanseasilychanged，whileasinglemanmaysuffermanyturnsoffortune'swheel。Forclearlyifweweretokeeppacewithhisfortunes，weshouldoftencallthesamemanhappyandagainwretched，makingthehappymanouttobechameleonandinsecurelybased。Oristhiskeepingpacewithhisfortunesquitewrong？Successorfailureinlifedoesnotdependonthese，buthumanlife，aswesaid，needstheseasmereadditions，whilevirtuousactivitiesortheiroppositesarewhatconstitutehappinessorthereverse。
　　Thequestionwehavenowdiscussedconfirmsourdefinition。Fornofunctionofmanhassomuchpermanenceasvirtuousactivitiesthesearethoughttobemoredurableeventhanknowledgeofthesciences，andofthesethemselvesthemostvaluablearemoredurablebecausethosewhoarehappyspendtheirlifemostreadilyandmostcontinuouslyinthese；forthisseemstobethereasonwhywedonotforgetthem。Theattributeinquestion，then，willbelongtothehappyman，andhewillbehappythroughouthislife；foralways，orbypreferencetoeverythingelse，hewillbeengagedinvirtuousactionandcontemplation，andhewillbearthechancesoflifemostnoblyandaltogetherdecorously，ifheis'trulygood'and'foursquarebeyondreproach'。
　　Nowmanyeventshappenbychance，andeventsdifferinginimportance；smallpiecesofgoodfortuneorofitsoppositeclearlydonotweighdownthescalesoflifeonewayortheother，butamultitudeofgreateventsiftheyturnoutwellwillmakelifehappierfornotonlyaretheythemselvessuchastoaddbeautytolife，butthewayamandealswiththemmaybenobleandgood，whileiftheyturnoutilltheycrushandmaimhappiness；fortheybothbringpainwiththemandhindermanyactivities。Yeteveninthesenobilityshinesthrough，whenamanbearswithresignationmanygreatmisfortunes，notthroughinsensibilitytopainbutthroughnobilityandgreatnessofsoul。
　　Ifactivitiesare，aswesaid，whatgiveslifeitscharacter，nohappymancanbecomemiserable；forhewillneverdotheactsthatarehatefulandmean。Forthemanwhoistrulygoodandwise，wethink，bearsallthechanceslifebecominglyandalwaysmakesthebestofcircumstances，asagoodgeneralmakesthebestmilitaryuseofthearmyathiscommandandagoodshoemakermakesthebestshoesoutofthehidesthataregivenhim；andsowithallothercraftsmen。Andifthisisthecase，thehappymancanneverbecomemiserable；
　　thoughhewillnotreachblessedness，ifhemeetwithfortuneslikethoseofPriam。
　　Nor，again，ishemany-colouredandchangeable；forneitherwillhebemovedfromhishappystateeasilyorbyanyordinarymisadventures，butonlybymanygreatones，nor，ifhehashadmanygreatmisadventures，willherecoverhishappinessinashorttime，butifatall，onlyinalongandcompleteoneinwhichhehasattainedmanysplendidsuccesses。
　　Whenthenshouldwenotsaythatheishappywhoisactiveinaccordancewithcompletevirtueandissufficientlyequippedwithexternalgoods，notforsomechanceperiodbutthroughoutacompletelife？Ormustweadd'andwhoisdestinedtolivethusanddieasbefitshislife'？Certainlythefutureisobscuretous，whilehappiness，weclaim，isanendandsomethingineverywayfinal。Ifso，weshallcallhappythoseamonglivingmeninwhomtheseconditionsare，andaretobe，fulfilled-buthappymen。Somuchforthesequestions。
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　　Thatthefortunesofdescendantsandofallaman'sfriendsshouldnotaffecthishappinessatallseemsaveryunfriendlydoctrine，andoneopposedtotheopinionsmenhold；butsincetheeventsthathappenarenumerousandadmitofallsortsofdifference，andsomecomemoreneartousandotherslessso，itseemsalong-nay，aninfinite-tasktodiscusseachindetail；ageneraloutlinewillperhapssuffice。If，then，assomeofaman'sownmisadventureshaveacertainweightandinfluenceonlifewhileothersare，asitwere，lighter，sotootherearedifferencesamongthemisadventuresofourfriendstakenasawhole，anditmakesadifferencewhetherthevarioussufferingbefallthelivingorthedeadmuchmoreeventhanwhetherlawlessandterribledeedsarepresupposedinatragedyordoneonthestage，thisdifferencealsomustbetakenintoaccount；
　　orrather，perhaps，thefactthatdoubtisfeltwhetherthedeadshareinanygoodorevil。Foritseems，fromtheseconsiderations，thatevenifanythingwhethergoodorevilpenetratestothem，itmustbesomethingweakandnegligible，eitherinitselforforthem，orifnot，atleastitmustbesuchindegreeandkindasnottomakehappythosewhoarenothappynortotakeawaytheirblessednessfromthosewhoare。Thegoodorbadfortunesoffriends，then，seemtohavesomeeffectsonthedead，buteffectsofsuchakindanddegreeasneithertomakethehappyunhappynortoproduceanyotherchangeofthekind。
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　　Thesequestionshavingbeendefinitelyanswered，letusconsiderwhetherhappinessisamongthethingsthatarepraisedorratheramongthethingsthatareprized；forclearlyitisnottobeplacedamongpotentialities。Everythingthatispraisedseemstobepraisedbecauseitisofacertainkindandisrelatedsomehowtosomethingelse；
　　forwepraisethejustorbravemanandingeneralboththegoodmanandvirtueitselfbecauseoftheactionsandfunctionsinvolved，andwepraisethestrongman，thegoodrunner，andsoon，becauseheisofacertainkindandisrelatedinacertainwaytosomethinggoodandimportant。Thisisclearalsofromthepraisesofthegods；foritseemsabsurdthatthegodsshouldbereferredtoourstandard，butthisisdonebecausepraiseinvolvesareference，tosomethingelse。
　　Butififpraiseisforthingssuchaswehavedescribed，clearlywhatappliestothebestthingsisnotpraise，butsomethinggreaterandbetter，asisindeedobvious；forwhatwedotothegodsandthemostgodlikeofmenistocallthemblessedandhappy。Andsotoowithgoodthings；noonepraiseshappinessashedoesjustice，butrathercallsitblessed，asbeingsomethingmoredivineandbetter。
　　Eudoxusalsoseemstohavebeenrightinhismethodofadvocatingthesupremacyofpleasure；hethoughtthatthefactthat，thoughagood，itisnotpraisedindicatedittobebetterthanthethingsthatarepraised，andthatthisiswhatGodandthegoodare；forbyreferencetotheseallotherthingsarejudged。Praiseisappropriatetovirtue，forasaresultofvirtuementendtodonobledeeds，butencomiaarebestowedonacts，whetherofthebodyorofthesoul。Butperhapsnicetyinthesemattersismorepropertothosewhohavemadeastudyofencomia；tousitisclearfromwhathasbeensaidthathappinessisamongthethingsthatareprizedandperfect。Itseemstobesoalsofromthefactthatitisafirstprinciple；foritisforthesakeofthisthatwealldoallthatwedo，andthefirstprincipleandcauseofgoodsis，weclaim，somethingprizedanddivine。
　　13
　　Sincehappinessisanactivityofsoulinaccordancewithperfectvirtue，wemustconsiderthenatureofvirtue；forperhapsweshallthusseebetterthenatureofhappiness。Thetruestudentofpolitics，too，isthoughttohavestudiedvirtueaboveallthings；forhewishestomakehisfellowcitizensgoodandobedienttothelaws。AsanexampleofthiswehavethelawgiversoftheCretansandtheSpartans，andanyothersofthekindthattheremayhavebeen。Andifthisinquirybelongstopoliticalscience，clearlythepursuitofitwillbeinaccordancewithouroriginalplan。Butclearlythevirtuewemuststudyishumanvirtue；forthegoodwewereseekingwashumangoodandthehappinesshumanhappiness。Byhumanvirtuewemeannotthatofthebodybutthatofthesoul；andhappinessalsowecallanactivityofsoul。Butifthisisso，clearlythestudentofpoliticsmustknowsomehowthefactsaboutsoul，asthemanwhoistohealtheeyesorthebodyasawholemustknowabouttheeyesorthebody；andallthemoresincepoliticsismoreprizedandbetterthanmedicine；butevenamongdoctorsthebesteducatedspendmuchlabouronacquiringknowledgeofthebody。Thestudentofpolitics，then，muststudythesoul，andmuststudyitwiththeseobjectsinview，anddosojusttotheextentwhichissufficientforthequestionswearediscussing；forfurtherprecisionisperhapssomethingmorelaboriousthanourpurposesrequire。
　　Somethingsaresaidaboutit，adequatelyenough，eveninthediscussionsoutsideourschool，andwemustusethese；e。g。thatoneelementinthesoulisirrationalandonehasarationalprinciple。
　　Whethertheseareseparatedasthepartsofthebodyorofanythingdivisibleare，oraredistinctbydefinitionbutbynatureinseparable，likeconvexandconcaveinthecircumferenceofacircle，doesnotaffectthepresentquestion。
　　Oftheirrationalelementonedivisionseemstobewidelydistributed，andvegetativeinitsnature，Imeanthatwhichcausesnutritionandgrowth；foritisthiskindofpowerofthesoulthatonemustassigntoallnurslingsandtoembryos，andthissamepowertofullgrowncreatures；thisismorereasonablethantoassignsomedifferentpowertothem。Nowtheexcellenceofthisseemstobecommontoallspeciesandnotspecificallyhuman；forthispartorfacultyseemstofunctionmostinsleep，whilegoodnessandbadnessareleastmanifestinsleepwhencecomesthesayingthatthehappyarenotbetteroffthanthewretchedforhalftheirlives；andthishappensnaturallyenough，sincesleepisaninactivityofthesoulinthatrespectinwhichitiscalledgoodorbad，unlessperhapstoasmallextentsomeofthemovementsactuallypenetratetothesoul，andinthisrespectthedreamsofgoodmenarebetterthanthoseofordinarypeople。Enoughofthissubject，however；letusleavethenutritivefacultyalone，sinceithasbyitsnaturenoshareinhumanexcellence。
　　Thereseemstobealsoanotherirrationalelementinthesoul-onewhichinasense，however，sharesinarationalprinciple。Forwepraisetherationalprincipleofthecontinentmanandoftheincontinent，andthepartoftheirsoulthathassuchaprinciple，sinceiturgesthemarightandtowardsthebestobjects；butthereisfoundinthemalsoanotherelementnaturallyopposedtotherationalprinciple，whichfightsagainstandresiststhatprinciple。
　　Forexactlyasparalysedlimbswhenweintendtomovethemtotherightturnonthecontrarytotheleft，soisitwiththesoul；theimpulsesofincontinentpeoplemoveincontrarydirections。Butwhileinthebodyweseethatwhichmovesastray，inthesoulwedonot。Nodoubt，however，wemustnonethelesssupposethatinthesoultoothereissomethingcontrarytotherationalprinciple，resistingandopposingit。Inwhatsenseitisdistinctfromtheotherelementsdoesnotconcernus。Noweventhisseemstohaveashareinarationalprinciple，aswesaid；atanyrateinthecontinentmanitobeystherationalprincipleandpresumablyinthetemperateandbravemanitisstillmoreobedient；forinhimitspeaks，onallmatters，withthesamevoiceastherationalprinciple。
　　Thereforetheirrationalelementalsoappearstobetwo-fold。Forthevegetativeelementinnowaysharesinarationalprinciple，buttheappetitiveandingeneralthedesiringelementinasensesharesinit，insofarasitlistenstoandobeysit；thisisthesenseinwhichwespeakof'takingaccount'ofone'sfatherorone'sfriends，notthatinwhichwespeakof'accountingforamathematicalproperty。
　　Thattheirrationalelementisinsomesensepersuadedbyarationalprincipleisindicatedalsobythegivingofadviceandbyallreproofandexhortation。Andifthiselementalsomustbesaidtohavearationalprinciple，thatwhichhasarationalprincipleaswellasthatwhichhasnotwillbetwofold，onesubdivisionhavingitinthestrictsenseandinitself，andtheotherhavingatendencytoobeyasonedoesone'sfather。
　　Virtuetooisdistinguishedintokindsinaccordancewiththisdifference；forwesaythatsomeofthevirtuesareintellectualandothersmoral，philosophicwisdomandunderstandingandpracticalwisdombeingintellectual，liberalityandtemperancemoral。Forinspeakingaboutaman'scharacterwedonotsaythatheiswiseorhasunderstandingbutthatheisgood-temperedortemperate；yetwepraisethewisemanalsowithrespecttohisstateofmind；andofstatesofmindwecallthosewhichmeritpraisevirtues。
　　BOOKII
　　1
　　VIRTUE，then，beingoftwokinds，intellectualandmoral，intellectualvirtueinthemainowesbothitsbirthanditsgrowthtoteachingforwhichreasonitrequiresexperienceandtime，whilemoralvirtuecomesaboutasaresultofhabit，whencealsoitsnameethikeisonethatisformedbyaslightvariationfromthewordethoshabit。Fromthisitisalsoplainthatnoneofthemoralvirtuesarisesinusbynature；fornothingthatexistsbynaturecanformahabitcontrarytoitsnature。Forinstancethestonewhichbynaturemovesdownwardscannotbehabituatedtomoveupwards，notevenifonetriestotrainitbythrowingituptenthousandtimes；norcanfirebehabituatedtomovedownwards，norcananythingelsethatbynaturebehavesinonewaybetrainedtobehaveinanother。Neitherbynature，then，norcontrarytonaturedothevirtuesariseinus；ratherweareadaptedbynaturetoreceivethem，andaremadeperfectbyhabit。
　　Again，ofallthethingsthatcometousbynaturewefirstacquirethepotentialityandlaterexhibittheactivitythisisplaininthecaseofthesenses；foritwasnotbyoftenseeingoroftenhearingthatwegotthesesenses，butonthecontrarywehadthembeforeweusedthem，anddidnotcometohavethembyusingthem；butthevirtueswegetbyfirstexercisingthem，asalsohappensinthecaseoftheartsaswell。Forthethingswehavetolearnbeforewecandothem，welearnbydoingthem，e。g。menbecomebuildersbybuildingandlyreplayersbyplayingthelyre；sotoowebecomejustbydoingjustacts，temperatebydoingtemperateacts，bravebydoingbraveacts。
　　Thisisconfirmedbywhathappensinstates；forlegislatorsmakethecitizensgoodbyforminghabitsinthem，andthisisthewishofeverylegislator，andthosewhodonoteffectitmisstheirmark，anditisinthisthatagoodconstitutiondiffersfromabadone。
　　Again，itisfromthesamecausesandbythesamemeansthateveryvirtueisbothproducedanddestroyed，andsimilarlyeveryart；foritisfromplayingthelyrethatbothgoodandbadlyre-playersareproduced。Andthecorrespondingstatementistrueofbuildersandofalltherest；menwillbegoodorbadbuildersasaresultofbuildingwellorbadly。Forifthiswerenotso，therewouldhavebeennoneedofateacher，butallmenwouldhavebeenborngoodorbadattheircraft。This，then，isthecasewiththevirtuesalso；bydoingtheactsthatwedoinourtransactionswithothermenwebecomejustorunjust，andbydoingtheactsthatwedointhepresenceofdanger，andbeinghabituatedtofeelfearorconfidence，webecomebraveorcowardly。Thesameistrueofappetitesandfeelingsofanger；somemenbecometemperateandgood-tempered，othersself-indulgentandirascible，bybehavinginonewayortheotherintheappropriatecircumstances。Thus，inoneword，statesofcharacterariseoutoflikeactivities。Thisiswhytheactivitiesweexhibitmustbeofacertainkind；itisbecausethestatesofcharactercorrespondtothedifferencesbetweenthese。Itmakesnosmalldifference，then，whetherweformhabitsofonekindorofanotherfromourveryyouth；itmakesaverygreatdifference，orratherallthedifference。
　　2
　　Since，then，thepresentinquirydoesnotaimattheoreticalknowledgeliketheothersforweareinquiringnotinordertoknowwhatvirtueis，butinordertobecomegood，sinceotherwiseourinquirywouldhavebeenofnouse，wemustexaminethenatureofactions，namelyhowweoughttodothem；forthesedeterminealsothenatureofthestatesofcharacterthatareproduced，aswehavesaid。Now，thatwemustactaccordingtotherightruleisacommonprincipleandmustbeassumed-itwillbediscussedlater，i。e。bothwhattherightruleis，andhowitisrelatedtotheothervirtues。
　　Butthismustbeagreeduponbeforehand，thatthewholeaccountofmattersofconductmustbegiveninoutlineandnotprecisely，aswesaidattheverybeginningthattheaccountswedemandmustbeinaccordancewiththesubject-matter；mattersconcernedwithconductandquestionsofwhatisgoodforushavenofixity，anymorethanmattersofhealth。Thegeneralaccountbeingofthisnature，theaccountofparticularcasesisyetmorelackinginexactness；fortheydonotfallunderanyartorpreceptbuttheagentsthemselvesmustineachcaseconsiderwhatisappropriatetotheoccasion，ashappensalsointheartofmedicineorofnavigation。
　　Butthoughourpresentaccountisofthisnaturewemustgivewhathelpwecan。First，then，letusconsiderthis，thatitisthenatureofsuchthingstobedestroyedbydefectandexcess，asweseeinthecaseofstrengthandofhealthfortogainlightonthingsimperceptiblewemustusetheevidenceofsensiblethings；bothexcessiveanddefectiveexercisedestroysthestrength，andsimilarlydrinkorfoodwhichisaboveorbelowacertainamountdestroysthehealth，whilethatwhichisproportionatebothproducesandincreasesandpreservesit。Sotooisit，then，inthecaseoftemperanceandcourageandtheothervirtues。Forthemanwhofliesfromandfearseverythinganddoesnotstandhisgroundagainstanythingbecomesacoward，andthemanwhofearsnothingatallbutgoestomeeteverydangerbecomesrash；andsimilarlythemanwhoindulgesineverypleasureandabstainsfromnonebecomesself-indulgent，whilethemanwhoshunseverypleasure，asboorsdo，becomesinawayinsensible；temperanceandcourage，then，aredestroyedbyexcessanddefect，andpreservedbythemean。
　　Butnotonlyarethesourcesandcausesoftheiroriginationandgrowththesameasthoseoftheirdestruction，butalsothesphereoftheiractualizationwillbethesame；forthisisalsotrueofthethingswhicharemoreevidenttosense，e。g。ofstrength；itisproducedbytakingmuchfoodandundergoingmuchexertion，anditisthestrongmanthatwillbemostabletodothesethings。Sotooisitwiththevirtues；byabstainingfrompleasureswebecometemperate，anditiswhenwehavebecomesothatwearemostabletoabstainfromthem；andsimilarlytoointhecaseofcourage；forbybeinghabituatedtodespisethingsthatareterribleandtostandourgroundagainstthemwebecomebrave，anditiswhenwehavebecomesothatweshallbemostabletostandourgroundagainstthem。
　　3
　　Wemusttakeasasignofstatesofcharacterthepleasureorpainthatensuesonacts；forthemanwhoabstainsfrombodilypleasuresanddelightsinthisveryfactistemperate，whilethemanwhoisannoyedatitisself-indulgent，andhewhostandshisgroundagainstthingsthatareterribleanddelightsinthisoratleastisnotpainedisbrave，whilethemanwhoispainedisacoward。Formoralexcellenceisconcernedwithpleasuresandpains；itisonaccountofthepleasurethatwedobadthings，andonaccountofthepainthatweabstainfromnobleones。Henceweoughttohavebeenbroughtupinaparticularwayfromourveryyouth，asPlatosays，soasbothtodelightinandtobepainedbythethingsthatweought；
　　forthisistherighteducation。
　　Again，ifthevirtuesareconcernedwithactionsandpassions，andeverypassionandeveryactionisaccompaniedbypleasureandpain，forthisreasonalsovirtuewillbeconcernedwithpleasuresandpains。Thisisindicatedalsobythefactthatpunishmentisinflictedbythesemeans；foritisakindofcure，anditisthenatureofcurestobeeffectedbycontraries。
　　Again，aswesaidbutlately，everystateofsoulhasanaturerelativetoandconcernedwiththekindofthingsbywhichittendstobemadeworseorbetter；butitisbyreasonofpleasuresandpainsthatmenbecomebad，bypursuingandavoidingthese-eitherthepleasuresandpainstheyoughtnotorwhentheyoughtnotorastheyoughtnot，orbygoingwronginoneoftheothersimilarwaysthatmaybedistinguished。Hencemenevendefinethevirtuesascertainstatesofimpassivityandrest；notwell，however，becausetheyspeakabsolutely，anddonotsay'asoneought'and'asoneoughtnot'
　　and'whenoneoughtoroughtnot'，andtheotherthingsthatmaybeadded。Weassume，then，thatthiskindofexcellencetendstodowhatisbestwithregardtopleasuresandpains，andvicedoesthecontrary。
　　Thefollowingfactsalsomayshowusthatvirtueandviceareconcernedwiththesesamethings。Therebeingthreeobjectsofchoiceandthreeofavoidance，thenoble，theadvantageous，thepleasant，andtheircontraries，thebase，theinjurious，thepainful，aboutallofthesethegoodmantendstogorightandthebadmantogowrong，andespeciallyaboutpleasure；forthisiscommontotheanimals，andalsoitaccompaniesallobjectsofchoice；foreventhenobleandtheadvantageousappearpleasant。
　　Again，ithasgrownupwithusallfromourinfancy；thisiswhyitisdifficulttoruboffthispassion，engrainedasitisinourlife。Andwemeasureevenouractions，someofusmoreandothersless，bytheruleofpleasureandpain。Forthisreason，then，ourwholeinquirymustbeaboutthese；fortofeeldelightandpainrightlyorwronglyhasnosmalleffectonouractions。
　　Again，itishardertofightwithpleasurethanwithanger，touseHeraclitus'phrase'，butbothartandvirtuearealwaysconcernedwithwhatisharder；foreventhegoodisbetterwhenitisharder。
　　Thereforeforthisreasonalsothewholeconcernbothofvirtueandofpoliticalscienceiswithpleasuresandpains；forthemanwhousesthesewellwillbegood，hewhousesthembadlybad。
　　Thatvirtue，then，isconcernedwithpleasuresandpains，andthatbytheactsfromwhichitarisesitisbothincreasedand，iftheyaredonedifferently，destroyed，andthattheactsfromwhichitarosearethoseinwhichitactualizesitself-letthisbetakenassaid。
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　　Thequestionmightbeasked，；whatwemeanbysayingthatwemustbecomejustbydoingjustacts，andtemperatebydoingtemperateacts；
　　forifmendojustandtemperateacts，theyarealreadyjustandtemperate，exactlyas，iftheydowhatisinaccordancewiththelawsofgrammarandofmusic，theyaregrammariansandmusicians。
　　Oristhisnottrueevenofthearts？Itispossibletodosomethingthatisinaccordancewiththelawsofgrammar，eitherbychanceoratthesuggestionofanother。Amanwillbeagrammarian，then，onlywhenhehasbothdonesomethinggrammaticalanddoneitgrammatically；
　　andthismeansdoingitinaccordancewiththegrammaticalknowledgeinhimself。
　　Again，thecaseoftheartsandthatofthevirtuesarenotsimilar；
　　fortheproductsoftheartshavetheirgoodnessinthemselves，sothatitisenoughthattheyshouldhaveacertaincharacter，butiftheactsthatareinaccordancewiththevirtueshavethemselvesacertaincharacteritdoesnotfollowthattheyaredonejustlyortemperately。Theagentalsomustbeinacertainconditionwhenhedoesthem；inthefirstplacehemusthaveknowledge，secondlyhemustchoosetheacts，andchoosethemfortheirownsakes，andthirdlyhisactionmustproceedfromafirmandunchangeablecharacter。
　　Thesearenotreckonedinasconditionsofthepossessionofthearts，exceptthebareknowledge；butasaconditionofthepossessionofthevirtuesknowledgehaslittleornoweight，whiletheotherconditionscountnotforalittlebutforeverything，i。e。theveryconditionswhichresultfromoftendoingjustandtemperateacts。
　　Actions，then，arecalledjustandtemperatewhentheyaresuchasthejustorthetemperatemanwoulddo；butitisnotthemanwhodoesthesethatisjustandtemperate，butthemanwhoalsodoesthemasjustandtemperatemendothem。Itiswellsaid，then，thatitisbydoingjustactsthatthejustmanisproduced，andbydoingtemperateactsthetemperateman；withoutdoingthesenoonewouldhaveevenaprospectofbecominggood。
　　Butmostpeopledonotdothese，buttakerefugeintheoryandthinktheyarebeingphilosophersandwillbecomegoodinthisway，behavingsomewhatlikepatientswholistenattentivelytotheirdoctors，butdononeofthethingstheyareorderedtodo。Asthelatterwillnotbemadewellinbodybysuchacourseoftreatment，theformerwillnotbemadewellinsoulbysuchacourseofphilosophy。
　　5
　　Nextwemustconsiderwhatvirtueis。Sincethingsthatarefoundinthesoulareofthreekinds-passions，faculties，statesofcharacter，virtuemustbeoneofthese。BypassionsImeanappetite，anger，fear，confidence，envy，joy，friendlyfeeling，hatred，longing，emulation，pity，andingeneralthefeelingsthatareaccompaniedbypleasureorpain；byfacultiesthethingsinvirtueofwhichwearesaidtobecapableoffeelingthese，e。g。ofbecomingangryorbeingpainedorfeelingpity；bystatesofcharacterthethingsinvirtueofwhichwestandwellorbadlywithreferencetothepassions，e。g。withreferencetoangerwestandbadlyifwefeelitviolentlyortooweakly，andwellifwefeelitmoderately；andsimilarlywithreferencetotheotherpassions。
　　Nowneitherthevirtuesnorthevicesarepassions，becausewearenotcalledgoodorbadonthegroundofourpassions，butaresocalledonthegroundofourvirtuesandourvices，andbecauseweareneitherpraisednorblamedforourpassionsforthemanwhofeelsfearorangerisnotpraised，noristhemanwhosimplyfeelsangerblamed，butthemanwhofeelsitinacertainway，butforourvirtuesandourviceswearepraisedorblamed。
　　Again，wefeelangerandfearwithoutchoice，butthevirtuesaremodesofchoiceorinvolvechoice。Further，inrespectofthepassionswearesaidtobemoved，butinrespectofthevirtuesandtheviceswearesaidnottobemovedbuttobedisposedinaparticularway。
　　Forthesereasonsalsotheyarenotfaculties；forweareneithercalledgoodnorbad，norpraisednorblamed，forthesimplecapacityoffeelingthepassions；again，wehavethefacultiesbynature，butwearenotmadegoodorbadbynature；wehavespokenofthisbefore。If，then，thevirtuesareneitherpassionsnorfaculties，allthatremainsisthattheyshouldbestatesofcharacter。
　　Thuswehavestatedwhatvirtueisinrespectofitsgenus。
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　　Wemust，however，notonlydescribevirtueasastateofcharacter，butalsosaywhatsortofstateitis。Wemayremark，then，thateveryvirtueorexcellencebothbringsintogoodconditionthethingofwhichitistheexcellenceandmakestheworkofthatthingbedonewell；e。g。theexcellenceoftheeyemakesboththeeyeanditsworkgood；foritisbytheexcellenceoftheeyethatweseewell。Similarlytheexcellenceofthehorsemakesahorsebothgoodinitselfandgoodatrunningandatcarryingitsriderandatawaitingtheattackoftheenemy。Therefore，ifthisistrueineverycase，thevirtueofmanalsowillbethestateofcharacterwhichmakesamangoodandwhichmakeshimdohisownworkwell。
　　Howthisistohappenwehavestatedalready，butitwillbemadeplainalsobythefollowingconsiderationofthespecificnatureofvirtue。Ineverythingthatiscontinuousanddivisibleitispossibletotakemore，less，oranequalamount，andthateitherintermsofthethingitselforrelativelytous；andtheequalisanintermediatebetweenexcessanddefect。BytheintermediateintheobjectImeanthatwhichisequidistantfromeachoftheextremes，whichisoneandthesameforallmen；bytheintermediaterelativelytousthatwhichisneithertoomuchnortoolittle-andthisisnotone，northesameforall。Forinstance，iftenismanyandtwoisfew，sixistheintermediate，takenintermsoftheobject；
　　foritexceedsandisexceededbyanequalamount；thisisintermediateaccordingtoarithmeticalproportion。Buttheintermediaterelativelytousisnottobetakenso；iftenpoundsaretoomuchforaparticularpersontoeatandtwotoolittle，itdoesnotfollowthatthetrainerwillordersixpounds；forthisalsoisperhapstoomuchforthepersonwhoistotakeit，ortoolittle-toolittleforMilo，toomuchforthebeginnerinathleticexercises。
　　Thesameistrueofrunningandwrestling。Thusamasterofanyartavoidsexcessanddefect，butseekstheintermediateandchoosesthis-theintermediatenotintheobjectbutrelativelytous。
　　Ifitisthus，then，thateveryartdoesitsworkwell-bylookingtotheintermediateandjudglingitsworksbythisstandardsothatweoftensayofgoodworksofartthatitisnotpossibleeithertotakeawayortoaddanything，implyingthatexcessanddefectdestroythegoodnessofworksofart，whilethemeanpreservesit；andgoodartists，aswesay，looktothisintheirwork，andif，further，virtueismoreexactandbetterthananyart，asnaturealsois，thenvirtuemusthavethequalityofaimingattheintermediate。I
　　meanmoralvirtue；foritisthisthatisconcernedwithpassionsandactions，andinthesethereisexcess，defect，andtheintermediate。Forinstance，bothfearandconfidenceandappetiteandangerandpityandingeneralpleasureandpainmaybefeltbothtoomuchandtoolittle，andinbothcasesnotwell；buttofeelthemattherighttimes，withreferencetotherightobjects，towardstherightpeople，withtherightmotive，andintherightway，iswhatisbothintermediateandbest，andthisischaracteristicofvirtue。Similarlywithregardtoactionsalsothereisexcess，defect，andtheintermediate。Nowvirtueisconcernedwithpassionsandactions，inwhichexcessisaformoffailure，andsoisdefect，whiletheintermediateispraisedandisaformofsuccess；andbeingpraisedandbeingsuccessfularebothcharacteristicsofvirtue。
　　Thereforevirtueisakindofmean，since，aswehaveseen，itaimsatwhatisintermediate。
　　Again，itispossibletofailinmanywaysforevilbelongstotheclassoftheunlimited，asthePythagoreansconjectured，andgoodtothatofthelimited，whiletosucceedispossibleonlyinonewayforwhichreasonalsooneiseasyandtheotherdifficult-tomissthemarkeasy，tohititdifficult；forthesereasonsalso，then，excessanddefectarecharacteristicofvice，andthemeanofvirtue；
　　Formenaregoodinbutoneway，butbadinmany。
　　Virtue，then，isastateofcharacterconcernedwithchoice，lyinginamean，i。e。themeanrelativetous，thisbeingdeterminedbyarationalprinciple，andbythatprinciplebywhichthemanofpracticalwisdomwoulddetermineit。Nowitisameanbetweentwovices，thatwhichdependsonexcessandthatwhichdependsondefect；andagainitisameanbecausethevicesrespectivelyfallshortoforexceedwhatisrightinbothpassionsandactions，whilevirtuebothfindsandchoosesthatwhichisintermediate。Henceinrespectofitssubstanceandthedefinitionwhichstatesitsessencevirtueisamean，withregardtowhatisbestandrightanextreme。
　　Butnoteveryactionnoreverypassionadmitsofamean；forsomehavenamesthatalreadyimplybadness，e。g。spite，shamelessness，envy，andinthecaseofactionsadultery，theft，murder；foralloftheseandsuchlikethingsimplybytheirnamesthattheyarethemselvesbad，andnottheexcessesordeficienciesofthem。Itisnotpossible，then，evertoberightwithregardtothem；onemustalwaysbewrong。Nordoesgoodnessorbadnesswithregardtosuchthingsdependoncommittingadulterywiththerightwoman，attherighttime，andintherightway，butsimplytodoanyofthemistogowrong。Itwouldbeequallyabsurd，then，toexpectthatinunjust，cowardly，andvoluptuousactionthereshouldbeamean，anexcess，andadeficiency；foratthatratetherewouldbeameanofexcessandofdeficiency，anexcessofexcess，andadeficiencyofdeficiency。Butasthereisnoexcessanddeficiencyoftemperanceandcouragebecausewhatisintermediateisinasenseanextreme，sotoooftheactionswehavementionedthereisnomeannoranyexcessanddeficiency，buthowevertheyaredonetheyarewrong；foringeneralthereisneitherameanofexcessanddeficiency，norexcessanddeficiencyofamean。
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　　Wemust，however，notonlymakethisgeneralstatement，butalsoapplyittotheindividualfacts。Foramongstatementsaboutconductthosewhicharegeneralapplymorewidely，butthosewhichareparticulararemoregenuine，sinceconducthastodowithindividualcases，andourstatementsmustharmonizewiththefactsinthesecases。Wemaytakethesecasesfromourtable。Withregardtofeelingsoffearandconfidencecourageisthemean；ofthepeoplewhoexceed，hewhoexceedsinfearlessnesshasnonamemanyofthestateshavenoname，whilethemanwhoexceedsinconfidenceisrash，andhewhoexceedsinfearandfallsshortinconfidenceisacoward。Withregardtopleasuresandpains-notallofthem，andnotsomuchwithregardtothepains-themeanistemperance，theexcessself-indulgence。Personsdeficientwithregardtothepleasuresarenotoftenfound；hencesuchpersonsalsohavereceivednoname。Butletuscallthem'insensible'。
　　Withregardtogivingandtakingofmoneythemeanisliberality，theexcessandthedefectprodigalityandmeanness。Intheseactionspeopleexceedandfallshortincontraryways；theprodigalexceedsinspendingandfallsshortintaking，whilethemeanmanexceedsintakingandfallsshortinspending。Atpresentwearegivingamereoutlineorsummary，andaresatisfiedwiththis；laterthesestateswillbemoreexactlydetermined。Withregardtomoneytherearealsootherdispositions-amean，magnificenceforthemagnificentmandiffersfromtheliberalman；theformerdealswithlargesums，thelatterwithsmallones，anexcess，tastelessnessandvulgarity，andadeficiency，niggardliness；thesedifferfromthestatesopposedtoliberality，andthemodeoftheirdifferencewillbestatedlater。Withregardtohonouranddishonourthemeanisproperpride，theexcessisknownasasortof'emptyvanity'，andthedeficiencyisunduehumility；andaswesaidliberalitywasrelatedtomagnificence，differingfromitbydealingwithsmallsums，sothereisastatesimilarlyrelatedtoproperpride，beingconcernedwithsmallhonourswhilethatisconcernedwithgreat。Foritispossibletodesirehonourasoneought，andmorethanoneought，andless，andthemanwhoexceedsinhisdesiresiscalledambitious，themanwhofallsshortunambitious，whiletheintermediatepersonhasnoname。
　　Thedispositionsalsoarenameless，exceptthatthatoftheambitiousmaniscalledambition。Hencethepeoplewhoareattheextremeslayclaimtothemiddleplace；andweourselvessometimescalltheintermediatepersonambitiousandsometimesunambitious，andsometimespraisetheambitiousmanandsometimestheunambitious。Thereasonofourdoingthiswillbestatedinwhatfollows；butnowletusspeakoftheremainingstatesaccordingtothemethodwhichhasbeenindicated。
　　Withregardtoangeralsothereisanexcess，adeficiency，andamean。Althoughtheycanscarcelybesaidtohavenames，yetsincewecalltheintermediatepersongood-temperedletuscallthemeangoodtemper；ofthepersonsattheextremeslettheonewhoexceedsbecalledirascible，andhisviceirascibility，andthemanwhofallsshortaninirasciblesortofperson，andthedeficiencyinirascibility。
　　Therearealsothreeothermeans，whichhaveacertainlikenesstooneanother，butdifferfromoneanother:fortheyareallconcernedwithintercourseinwordsandactions，butdifferinthatoneisconcernedwithtruthinthissphere，theothertwowithpleasantness；andofthisonekindisexhibitedingivingamusement，theotherinallthecircumstancesoflife。Wemustthereforespeakofthesetoo，thatwemaythebetterseethatinallthingsthemeanispraise-worthy，andtheextremesneitherpraiseworthynorright，butworthyofblame。Nowmostofthesestatesalsohavenonames，butwemusttry，asintheothercases，toinventnamesourselvessothatwemaybeclearandeasytofollow。Withregardtotruth，then，theintermediateisatruthfulsortofpersonandthemeanmaybecalledtruthfulness，whilethepretencewhichexaggeratesisboastfulnessandthepersoncharacterizedbyitaboaster，andthatwhichunderstatesismockmodestyandthepersoncharacterizedbyitmock-modest。Withregardtopleasantnessinthegivingofamusementtheintermediatepersonisready-wittedandthedispositionreadywit，theexcessisbuffooneryandthepersoncharacterizedbyitabuffoon，whilethemanwhofallsshortisasortofboorandhisstateisboorishness。Withregardtotheremainingkindofpleasantness，thatwhichisexhibitedinlifeingeneral，themanwhoispleasantintherightwayisfriendlyandthemeanisfriendliness，whilethemanwhoexceedsisanobsequiouspersonifhehasnoendinview，aflattererifheisaimingathisownadvantage，andthemanwhofallsshortandisunpleasantinallcircumstancesisaquarrelsomeandsurlysortofperson。
　　Therearealsomeansinthepassionsandconcernedwiththepassions；sinceshameisnotavirtue，andyetpraiseisextendedtothemodestman。Foreveninthesemattersonemanissaidtobeintermediate，andanothertoexceed，asforinstancethebashfulmanwhoisashamedofeverything；whilehewhofallsshortorisnotashamedofanythingatallisshameless，andtheintermediatepersonismodest。Righteousindignationisameanbetweenenvyandspite，andthesestatesareconcernedwiththepainandpleasurethatarefeltatthefortunesofourneighbours；themanwhoischaracterizedbyrighteousindignationispainedatundeservedgoodfortune，theenviousman，goingbeyondhim，ispainedatallgoodfortune，andthespitefulmanfallssofarshortofbeingpainedthatheevenrejoices。Butthesestatestherewillbeanopportunityofdescribingelsewhere；withregardtojustice，sinceithasnotonesimplemeaning，weshall，afterdescribingtheotherstates，distinguishitstwokindsandsayhoweachofthemisamean；andsimilarlyweshalltreatalsooftherationalvirtues。