Theyoungmenappearedquitenakedinthepalaestra，andeventhegirlsofSpartaranracespubliclyinthesamecondition；[1]andsomedaywhenourbodiesandmindstoohavebecomecleanweshallreturntosimilarinstitutions。Butthatwillnotbejustyet。Aslongasthedefilementofthiscommercialcivilizationisonusweshallpreferourdirtandconcealment。Thepowersthatbewillprotestagainstchange。HeinrichScham，inhischarminglittlepamphletNackendeMenschen，[2]describestheconsternationofthecommercialpeopleatsuchideas:
“'Whatwillbecomeofus，'criedthetailors，'ifyougonaked?'
“Andallthelotofthem，hat，cravat，shirt，andshoemakersjoinedinthechorus。
“'ANDWHERESHALLICARRYMYMONEY?'criedonewhohadjustbeenmadeadirector。”
[1]SeeTheocritus，Idyllxviii。
[2]PublishedatLeipzigabout1893。
XIII。THEGENESISOFCHRISTIANITY
ReferringbacktotheexistenceofsomethingresemblingagreatWorld-religionwhichhascomedownthecenturies，continuallyexpandingandbranchingintheprocess，wehavenowtoconsiderthegenesisofthatspecialbrandorbranchofitwhichwecallChristianity。Eachreligionorcult，paganorChristian，hashad，aswehaveseen，avastamountincommonwiththegeneralWorld-religion；yeteachhashaditsownspecialcharacteristics。WhathavebeenthemaincharacteristicsoftheChristianbranch，asdifferentiatingitfromtheotherbranches?
WesawinthelastchapterthatacertainasceticattitudetowardsSexwasoneofthemostsalientmarksoftheChristianChurch；andthatwhereasmostofthepagancultsthoughoccasionallyfavoringfrightfulausteritiesandcruelsacrificesdidonthewholerejoiceinpleasureandtheworldofthesenses，Christianity——followinglargelyonJudaism——displayedatendencytowardsrenunciationoftheworldandtheflesh，andawithdrawalintotheinnerandmorespiritualregionsofthemind。ThesametendencymaybetracedintheEgyptianandPhrygiancultsofthatperiod。ItwillberememberedhowJuvenalSat。VI，510-40chaffsthepriestsofCybeleatRomeformakingthemselves“eunuchsforthekingdomofheaven'ssake，“
ortherichRomanladyforplunginginthewintryTiberforapropitiationtoIsis。Nodoubtamongthelaterpagans“thelongintolerabletyrannyofthesensesoverthesoul“
hadbecomeaveryseriousmatter。ButChristianityrepresentedperhapsthemostpowerfulreactionagainstthis；
andthisreactionhad，asindicatedinthelastchapter，theenormouslyvaluableresultthatforthetimeitdisentangledlovefromsexandestablishedLove，pureandundefiled，asruleroftheworld。“GodisLove。”But，asalsoindicated，thedivorcebetweenthetwoelementsofhumannature，carriedtoanextreme，ledintimetoacripplingofbothelementsandthedevelopmentofacertainmorbidityandself-consciousnesswhich，itcannotbedenied，ispainfullymarkedamongsomesectionsofChristians——especiallythoseofthealtruisticand'philanthropic'type。
AnothercharacteristicofChristianitywhichisalsoveryfineinitswaybuthasitslimitsofutility，hasbeenitsinsistenceon“morality。”Somemodernwritersindeedhavegonesofar——forgetting，Isuppose，theStoics——astoclaimthatChristianity'schiefmarkisitshighmorality，andthatthepagansgenerallywerequitewantinginthemoralsense！This，ofcourse，isaprofoundmistake。Ishouldsaythat，inthetruesenseoftheword，theearlyandtribalpeopleshavebeenmuchmore'moral'asarule——thatis，readyasindividualstopayrespecttotheneedsofthecommunity——thanthelaterandmorecivilizedsocieties。Butthemistakearisesfromthedifferentinterpretationsoftheword；forwhereasallthepaganreligionsinsistedverystronglyonthejust-
mentionedkindofmorality，whichweshouldcallcIVICDUTY
TOONE'SNEIGHBOR，theChristianmademoralitytoconsistmoreespeciallyinamansDUTYTOGOD。Itbecamewiththemaprivateaffairbetweenamansselfand-God，ratherthanapublicaffair；andthusledintheendtoaveryobnoxiousandquitepharisaickindofmorality，whosechiefinspirationwasnotthehelpingofone'sfellow-manbutthesavingofone'sownsoul。
TheremayperhapsbeothersalientpointsofdifferentiationbetweenChristianityandtheprecedingpaganreligions；butforthepresentwemayrecognizethesetwo——athetendencytowardsarenunciationoftheworld，andtheconsequentcultivationofapurelyspiritualloveandbtheinsistenceonamoralitywhoseinspirationwasaprivatesenseofdutytoGodratherthanapublicsenseofdutytoone'sneighborandtosocietygenerally。Itmaybeinterestingtotracethecauseswhichledtothisdifferentiation。
ThreecenturiesbeforeoureratheconquestsofAlexanderhadhadtheeffectofspreadingtheGreekthoughtandcultureovermostoftheknownworld。Avastnumberofsmallbodiesofworshipersoflocaldeities，withtheirvariousritualsandreligiouscustoms，hadthusbeenbrokenup，oratleastbroughtintocontactwitheachotherandpartiallymodifiedandhellenized。Theorbitofamoregeneralconceptionoflifeandreligionwasalreadybeingtraced。
BythetimeofthefoundingofthefirstChristianChurchtheimmenseconquestsofRomehadgreatlyextendedandestablishedtheprocess。TheMediterraneanhadbecomeagreatRomanlake。Merchantshipsandroutesoftrafficcrosseditinalldirections；touristsvisiteditsshores。Theknownworldhadbecomeone。Thenumberlesspeoples，tribes，nations，societieswithinthegirdleoftheEmpire，withtheirvariouslanguages，creeds，customs，religions，philosophies，wereprofoundlyinfluencingeachother。[1]Agreatfusionwastakingplace；anditwasbecominginevitablethatthenextgreatreligiousmovementwouldhaveaworld-widecharacter。
[1]ForanenlargementonthisthemeseeGlover'sConflictofReligionsintheearlyRomanEmpire；alsoS。J。Case，EvolutionofEarlyChristianityUniversityofChicago，1914。TheAdonisworship，forinstancearesurrection-cult，“wasstillthrivinginSyriaandCypruswhenPaulpreachedthere，“andtheworshipofIsisandSerapishadalreadyreachedthen，RomeandNaples。
Itwasprobablethatthisnewreligionwouldcombinemanyelementsfromtheprecedingritualsinonecult。InconnectionwiththefinetemplesandelaborateservicesofIsisandCybeleandMithratherewasgrowingupapowerfulpriesthood；FranzCumont[1]speaksof“thelearnedpriestsoftheAsiaticcults“asbuildingup，onthefoundationsofoldfetichismandsuperstition，acompletereligiousphilosophy——justastheBrahminshadbuiltthemonismoftheVedantaonthe“monstrousidolatriesofHinduism。”
Anditwaslikelythatasimilarprocesswouldevolvethenewreligionexpected。ToutainagaincallsattentiontothepatronageaccordedtoallthesecultsbytheRomanEmperors，asfavoringanewcombinationandsynthesis:——
“Hadrien，Commode，SeptimeSevere，JuliaDomna，Elagabal，AlexandreSevere，enparticulierontcontribubepersonnellementalapopulariteetausuccesdescultesquisecelebraientenl'honneurdeSerapisetd'Isis，desdivinitessyriennesetdeMithra。”[2]
[1]SeeCumont，ReligionsOrientalesdanslePaganismeRomainParis，1906，p。253。
[2]Cultespaiensdansl'EmpireRomain2vols。，1911，vol。ii，p。263。
ItwasalsoprobablethatthisnewReligionwouldshowasindicatedinthelastchapterareactionagainstmeresex-indulgence；and，asregardsitsstandardofMoralitygenerally，that，amongsomanyconflictingpeopleswiththeirvariouscivicandlocalcustoms，itcouldnotwellidentifyitselfwithanyONEofthesebutwouldevolveaninnerinspirationofitsownwhichinitsbestformwouldbeloveoftheneighbor，regardlessoftherace，creedorcustomsoftheneighbor，andwhosesanctionwouldnotresideinanyoftheexternalauthoritiesthusconflictingwitheachother，butinthesenseofthesoul'sdirectresponsibilitytoGod。
SomuchforwhatwemightexpectaprioriastotheinfluenceofthesurroundingsonthegeneralformofthenewReligion。Andwhataboutthekindofcreedorcreedswhichthatreligionwouldfavor?Hereagainwemustseethattheinfluenceofthesurroundingscompelledacertainresult。Thosedoctrineswhichwehavedescribedintheprecedingchapters——doctrinesofSinandSacrifice，aSavior，theEucharist，theTrinity，theVirgin-birth，andsoforth——wereintheirvariousformsseething，sotospeak，allaround。Itwasimpossibleforanynewreligioussynthesistoescapethem；allitcoulddowouldbetoappropriatethem，andtogivethemperhapsacolorofitsown。Thusitisintothemidstofthisgerminatingmassthatwemustimaginethevariouspagancults，likefertilizingstreams，descending。Totraceallthesestreamswouldofcoursebeanimpossibletask；butitmaybeofuse，asanexampleoftheprocess，totakethecaseofsomeparticularbelief。LetustakethebeliefinthecomingofaSavior-god；andthiswillbethemoresuitableasitisabeliefwhichhasinthepastbeencommonlyheldtobedistinctiveofChristianity。Ofcourseweknownowthatitisnotinanysensedistinctive，butthatthelongtraditionoftheSaviorcomesdownfromtheremotesttimes，andperhapsfromeverycountryoftheworld。[1]TheMessianicpropheciesoftheJewsandthefifty-thirdchapterofIsaiahemptiedthemselvesintotheChristianteachings，andinfectedthemtosomedegreewithaJudaictinge。The“Messiah“meansofcoursetheAnointedOne。TheHebrewwordoccurssome40timesintheOldTestament；
andeachtimeintheSeptuagintorGreektranslationmademainlyinthethirdcenturyBEFOREourerathewordistranslated，orChristos，whichagainmeansAnointed。Thusweseethattheideaortheword“TheChrist“wasinvogueinAlexandriaasfarbackcertainlyas280B。C。，ornearlythreecenturiesbeforeJesus。Andwhattheword“TheAnointed“strictlyspeakingmeans，andfromwhattheexpressionisprobablyderived，willappearlater。
InTheBookofEnoch，writtennotlaterthanB。C。170，[2]
theChristisspokenofasalreadyexistinginheaven，andabouttocomeasjudgeofallmen，andisdefinitelycalled“theSonofMan。”TheBookofRevelationsisFULLofpassagesfromEnoch；soaretheEpistlesofPaul；
sotootheGospels。TheBookofEnochbelievesinaGoldenAgethatistocome；ithasDantesquevisionsofHeavenandHell，andofAngelsgoodandevil，anditspeaksofa“gardenofRighteousness“withthe“TreeofWisdom“initsmidst。Everywhere，saysProf。Drews，inthefirstcenturyB。C。，therewasthelongingforacomingSavior。
[1]Evento-day，theArabianlandsarealwaysvibratingwithpropheciesofacomingMahdi。
[2]SeeEditionbyR。H。Charles1893。
ButtheSavior-god，aswealsoknow，wasafamiliarfigureinEgypt。ThegreatOsiriswastheSavioroftheworld，bothinhislifeanddeath:inhislifethroughthenobleworkshewroughtforthebenefitofmankind，andinhisdeaththroughhisbetrayalbythepowersofdarknessandhisresurrectionfromthetombandascentintoheaven。[1]
TheEgyptiandoctrinesdescendedthroughAlexandriaintoChristianity——andthoughtheydidnotinfluencethelatterdeeplyuntilabout300A。D。，yettheythensucceededinreachingtheChristianChurches，givingacolortotheirteachingswithregardtotheSavior，andpersuadingthemtoacceptandhonortheEgyptianworshipofIsisintheChristianformoftheVirginMary。
[1]Seech。ii。
Again，anothergreatstreamofinfluencedescendedfromPersiaintheformofthecultofMithra。Mithra，aswehaveseen，[1]stoodasagreatMediatorbetweenGodandman。
Withhisbaptismsandeucharists，andhistwelvedisciples，andhisbirthinacave，andsoforth，heseemedtotheearlyFathersaninventionofthedevilandamostdangerousmockeryonChristianity——andallthemoresobecausehisworshipwasbecomingsoexceedinglypopular。ThecultseemstohavereachedRomeaboutB。C。70。ItspreadfarandwidethroughtheEmpire。ItextendedtoGreatBritain，andnumerousremainsofMithraicmonumentsandsculpturesinthiscountry——atYork，Chesterandotherplaces——testifytoitswideacceptanceevenhere。AtRomethevogueofMithraismbecamesogreatthatinthethirdcenturyA。D。，itwasquitedoubtful[2]whetheritORChristianitywouldtriumph；theEmperorAurelianin273
foundedacultoftheInvincibleSuninconnectionwithMithraism；[3]andasSt。Jerometellsusinhisletters，[4]
thelatterculthadatalatertimetobesuppressedinRomeandAlexandriabyPHYSICALFORCE，sopowerfulwasit。
[1]Ch。ii。
[2]SeeCumont，op。cit。，whosays，p。171:——“Jamais，pasmemea1'epoquedesinvasionsmussulmanes，l'Europenesemblapluspresdedevenirasiatiquequ'aumomentouDiocletienreconnaissaitofficiellementenMithra，leprotecteurdel'empirereconstitue。”
SeealsoCumont'sMysteresdeMithra，preface。TheRomanArmy，infact，stucktoMithrathroughout，asagainstChristianity；andsodidtheRomannobility。SeeS。Augustine'sConfessions，BookVIII，ch。2。
[3]CumontindeedsaysthattheidentificationofMithrawiththeSuntheemblemofimperialpowerformedonereasonwhyMithraismwasNOTpersecutedatthattime。
[4]Epist。cvii，adLaetam。SeeRobertson'sPaganChrists，p。
350。
Norwasforcetheonlymethodemployed。IMITATIONisnotonlythesincerestflattery，butitisoftenthemostsubtleandeffectivewayofdefeatingarival。ThepriestsoftherisingChristianChurchwere，likethepriestsofALL
religions，notwantingincraft；andatthismomentwhenthequestionofaWorld-religionwasinthebalance，itwasanobviouspolicyforthemtothrowintotheirownscaleasmanyelementsaspossibleofthepopularPagancults。
Mithraismhadbeenflourishingfor600years；anditis，tosaytheleast，CURIOUSthattheMithraicdoctrinesandlegendswhichIhavejustmentionedshouldallhavebeenadoptedquiteunintentionallyofcourse！intoChristianity；
andstillmoresothatsomeothersfromthesamesource，likethelegendoftheShepherdsattheNativityandthedoctrineoftheResurrectionandAscension，whichareNOTmentionedatallintheoriginaldraftoftheearliestGospelSt。Mark，shouldhavemadetheirappearance，intheChristianwritingsatalatertime，whenMithraismwasmakinggreatforwardstrides。HistoryshowsthatasaChurchprogressesandexpandsitgenerallyfeelscompelledtoenlargeandfortifyitsownfoundationsbyinsertingmaterialwhichwasnotthereatfirst。Ishallshortlygiveanotherillustrationofthis；atpresentIwillmerelypointoutthattheChristianwriters，astimewenton，notonlyintroducednewdoctrines，legends，miraclesandsoforth——mostofwhichwecantracetoantecedentpagansources——butthattheytookespecialpainstodestroythepaganrecordsandsoobliteratetheevidenceoftheirowndishonesty。WelearnfromPorphyry[1]thattherewereseveralelaboratetreatisessettingforththereligionofMithra；andJ。M。RobertsonaddsPaganChrists，p。325:“everyoneofthesehasbeendestroyedbythecareoftheChurch，anditisremarkablethateventhetreatiseofFirmicusismutilatedatapassagev。whereheseemstobeaccusingChristiansoffollowingMithraicusages。”WhileagainProfessorMurraysays，“ThepolemicliteratureofChristianityisloudandtriumphant；thebooksofthePaganshavebeenDESTROYED。”[2]
[1]DeAbstinentia，ii。56；iv。16。
[2]FourStages，p。180。WehaveprobablyaninstanceofthisdestructioninthetotaldisappearanceofCelsus'livelyattackonChristianity180A。D。，ofwhich，however，portionshavebeenfortunatelypreservedinOrigen'sratherprolixrefutationofthesame。
ReturningtothedoctrineoftheSavior，Ihavealreadyinprecedingchaptersgivensomanyinstancesofbeliefinsuchadeityamongthepagans——whetherhebecalledKrishnaorMithraorOsirisorHorusorApolloorHercules——thatitisnotnecessarytodwellonthesubjectanyfurtherinordertopersuadethereaderthatthedoctrinewas'intheair'atthetimeoftheadventofChristianity。EvenDionysus，thenaprominentfigureinthe'Mysteries，'
wascalledEleutherios，TheDeliverer。ButitmaybeofinteresttotracethesamedoctrineamongthePRE-CHRISTIAN
sectsofGnostics。TheGnostics，saysProfessorMurray，[1]
“arestillcommonlythoughtofasabodyofCHRISTIAN
heretics。InrealitytherewereGnosticsectsscatteredovertheHellenisticworldBEFOREChristianityaswellasafter。
TheymusthavebeenestablishedinAntiochandprobablyinTarsuswellbeforethedaysofPaulorApollos。TheirSavior，liketheJewishMessiah，wasestablishedinmen'smindsbeforetheSavioroftheChristians。'Ifwelookclose，'saysProfessorBousset，'theresultemergeswithgreatclearnessthatthefigureoftheRedeemerassuchdidnotwaitforChristianitytoforceitswayintothereligionofGnosis，butwasalreadypresentthereundervariousforms。'“
[1]FourStages，p。143。
ThisGnosticRedeemer，continuesProfessorMurray，“isdescendedbyafairlycleargenealogyfromthe'TritosSoter''thirdSavior'[1]ofearlyGreece，contaminatedwithsimilarfigures，likeAttisandAdonisfromAsiaMinor，OsirisfromEgypt，andthespecialJewishconceptionoftheMessiahoftheChosenpeople。Hehasvariousnames，whichthenameofJesusor'Christos，''theAnointed，'tendsgraduallytosupersede。Aboveall，heisinsomesenseMan，or'thesecondMan'or'theSonofMan'……
Heisthereal，theultimate，theperfectandeternalMan，ofwhomallbodilymenarefeeblecopies。”[2]
[1]Thereseemstobesomedoubtabouttheexactmeaningofthisexpression。EvenZeushimselfwassometimescalled'Soter，'andatfeasts，itissaid，theTHIRDgobletwasalwaysdrunkinhishonor。
[2]SeealsoTheGnosticStoryofJesusChrist，byGilbertT。
SadlerC。W。Daniel，1919。
ThispassagebringsvividlybeforethemindtheprocessofwhichIhavespoken，namely，thefusionandmutualinterchangeofideasonthesubjectoftheSaviorduringtheperiodanteriortoourera。AlsoitexemplifiestousthroughwhatanabstractsphereofGnosticreligiousspeculationthedoctrinehadtotravelbeforereachingitsexpressioninChristianity。[1]ThisexaltedandhighphilosophicalconceptionpassedonandcameoutagaintosomedegreeintheFourthGospelandthePaulineEpistlesespeciallyICor。xv；butIneedhardlysayitwasnotmaintained。
TheenthusiasmofthelittlescatteredChristianbodies——
withtheircommunismofpracticewithregardtoTHIS
worldandtheirintensityoffaithwithregardtothenext——begantowaneinthesecondandthirdcenturiesA。D。AstheChurchwithcapitalinitialgrew，sowasitlessandlessoccupiedwithrealreligiousfeeling，andmoreandmorewithitsbattlesagainstpersecutionfromoutside，anditsquarrelsanddissensionsconcerningheresieswithinitsownborders。AndwhenattheCouncilofNicaea325
A。Ditendeavoredtoestablishanofficialcreed，thestrifeandbitternessonlyincreased。“Thereisnowildbeast，“saidtheEmperorJulian，“likeanangrytheologian。”
WherethefourthEvangelisthadpreachedthegospelofLove，andPaulhadannouncedredemptionbyaninnerandspiritualidentificationwithChrist，“AsinAdamalldie，soinChristshallallbemadealive“；andwhereassomeatanyrateofthePagancultshadtaughtaglorioussalvationbythenewbirthofadivinebeingwithineachman:
“Beofgoodcheer，Oinitiatesinthemysteryoftheliberatedgod；FortoyoutoooutofallyourlaborsandsorrowsshallcomeLiberation“——theNicenecreedhadnothingtopropoundexceptsomeextremelyfutilespeculationsabouttherelationtoeachotheroftheFatherandtheSon，andtherelationofBOTHtotheHolyGhost，andofallTHREEtotheVirginMary——speculationswhichonlyservedfortherenewalofshamefulstrifeandanimosities——riotsandbloodshedandmurder——withintheChurch，andthemockeryoftheheathenwithout。Andasfarasitdealtwiththecrucifixion，deathandresurrectionoftheLorditdidnotdifferfromthescoreofprecedingpagancreeds，exceptinthethoroughmaterialismandlackofpoetryinstatementwhichitexhibits。AftertheCouncilofNicaea，infact，theJudaictingeinthedoctrinesoftheChurchbecomesmoreapparent，andmoreandmoreitsSchemeofSalvationthroughChristtakesthecharacterofarathersordidandhucksteringbargainbywhichMangetsthebetterofGodbypersuadingthelattertosacrificehisownSonfortheredemptionoftheworld！WiththeexceptionofafewepisodesliketheformationduringtheMiddleAgesofthenoblebrotherhoodsandsisterhoodsofFrairsandNuns，dedicatedtothehelpandhealingofsufferinghumanity，andtheappearanceofafewrealloversofmankindandtheanimalslikeSt。Francis——andthesemanifestationscanhardlybeclaimedbytheChurch，whichprettyconsistentlyopposedthem——itmaybesaidthatafteraboutthefourthcenturytherealspiritandlightofearlyChristianenthusiasmdiedaway。TheincursionsofbarbariantribesfromtheNorthandEast，andlaterofMoorsandArabsfromtheSouth，familiarizedtheEuropeanpeopleswiththeideasofbloodshedandviolence；grossandmaterialconceptionsoflifewereintheascendant；andaromanticandaspiringChristianitygaveplacetoaworldlyandvulgarChurchianity。
[1]WhentravellinginIndiaIfoundthattheGnanisorWiseMentherequitecommonlymaintainedthatJesusjudgingfromhisteachingmusthavebeeninitiatedatsometimeintheesotericdoctrinesoftheVedanta。
Ihaveinthesetwoorthreepagesdealtonly——andthatverybriefly——withtheentryofthepagandoctrineoftheSaviorintotheChristianfield，showingitstransformationthereandhowChristianitycouldnotwellescapehavingadoctrineofaSavior，oravoidgivingacolorofitsowntothatdoctrine。Tofollowoutthesamecoursewithotherdoctrines，likethosewhichIhavementionedabove，wouldobviouslybeanendlesstask——whichmustbelefttoeachstudentorreadertopursueaccordingtohisopportunityandcapacity。Itisclearanyhow，thatalltheseelementsofthepaganreligions——pouringdownintothevastreservoir，orratherwhirlpool，oftheRomanEmpire，andmixingamongallthesenumerousbrotherhoods，societies，collegia，mystery-clubs，andgroupswhichwereatthattimelookingoutintentlyforsomenewrevelationorinspiration——
didmoreorlessautomaticallyactandreactuponeachother，andbythegeneralconditionsprevailingweremodified，tilltheyultimatelycombinedandtookunitedshapeinthemovementwhichwecallChristianity，butwhichonly——asIhavesaid——narrowlyescapedbeingcalledMithraism——sonearlyrelatedandcloselyalliedwerethesecultswitheachother。
Atthispointitwillnaturallybeasked:“AndwhereinthisschemeoftheGenesisofChristianityisthechieffigureandaccreditedleaderofthemovement——namelyJesusChristhimself——fortoallappearanceintheaccountheregivenofthematterheispracticallynon-existentoranegligiblequantity?“Andthequestionisaverypertinentone，andverydifficulttoanswer。“WhereisthefounderoftheReligion?“——ortoputitinanotherform:
“IsitnecessarytosupposeahumanandvisibleFounderatall?“Afewyearsagosuchamerequestionwouldhavebeenaccountedrankblasphemy，andwouldonly——
ifpassedover——havebeenignoredonaccountofitssupposedabsurdity。To-day，however，owingtotheenormousamountofworkwhichhasbeendoneoflateonthesubjectofChristianorigins，thequestiontakesonquiteadifferentcomplexion。AndfromStraussonwardsagrowinglyinfluentialandlearnedbodyofcriticsisinclinedtoregardthewholestoryoftheGospelsasLEGENDARY。ArthurDrews，forinstance，aprofessoratKarlsruhe，inhiscelebratedbookTheChrist-Myth，[1]placesDavidF。Straussasfirstinthemythfield——thoughheallowsthatDupuisinL'originedetouslescultes1795hadgiventhecluetothewholeidea。HethenmentionsBrunoBauer1877ascontendingthatJesuswasapureinventionofMark's，andJohnM。RobertsonashavinginhisChristianityandMythology1900giventhefirstthoroughlyreasonedexpositionofthelegendarytheory；alsoEmilioBossiinItaly，whowroteJesuChristononemaiesistito，andsimilarauthorsinHolland，Poland，andothercountries，includingW。BenjaminSmith，theAmericanauthorofThePre-christianJesus1906，andP。JenseninDasGilgameschEposindenWelt-literatur1906，whomakestheJesus-storyavariantoftheBabylonianepic，2000B。C。Aprettystronglist！[2]“But，“
continuesDrews，“ordinaryhistoriansstillignoreallthis。”
Finally，hedismissesJesusas“afigureswimmingobscurelyinthemistsoftradition。”NeverthelessIneedhardlyremarkthat，largeandlearnedasthebodyofopinionhererepresentedis，astilllargerbutlesslearnedbodyfightsdesperatelyfortheactualHISTORICITYofJesus，andsomeevenstillfortheoldviewofhimasaquiteuniqueandmiraculousrevelationofGodhoodonearth。
[1]DieChristus-mythe:verbesserteunderweitezteAusgabe，Jena，1910。
[2]TowhichwemayalsoaddSchweitzer'sQuestofthehistoricalJesus1910。
Atfirst，nodoubt，theLEGENDARYtheoryseemsalittleTOO
far-fetched。Thereisafashioninallthesethings，anditMAYbethatthereisafashionevenhere。ButwhenyoureflecthowrapidlylegendsgrowupeveninthesedaysofexactScienceandanomniscientPress；howthefigureofShakespeare，deadonly300years，isalmostcompletelylostinthemistofTime，andeventheauthenticityofhisworkshasbecomeasubjectofcontroversy；whenyoufindthatWilliamTell，supposedtohavelivedsome300
yearsagainbeforeShakespeare，andwhosedeedsinminutestdetailhavebeenrecitedandhonoredalloverEurope，isalmostcertainlyapureinvention，andneverexisted；whenyouremember——asmentionedearlierinthisbook[1]——thatitwasmorethanfivehundredyearsafterthesupposedbirthofJesusbeforeanyseriouseffortwasmadetoestablishthedateofthatbirth——andthatthenapurelymythicaldatewaschosen:the25thDecember，thedayoftheSUN'Snewbirthafterthewintersolstice，andthetimeofthesupposedbirthofApollo，Bacchus，andtheotherSungods；
when，moreover，youthinkforamomentwhatthestateofhistoricalcriticismmusthavebeen，andthegeneralstandardofcredibility，1，900yearsago，inacountrylikeSyria，andamonganignorantpopulation，whereanystorycirculatingfromliptolipwasassuredofcredenceifsufficientlymarvelousorimaginative；——why，thenthelegendarytheorydoesnotseemsoimprobable。ThereisnodoubtthatafterthedestructionofJerusaleminA。D。
70，littlegroupsofbelieversinaredeeming'Christ'wereformedthereandinotherplaces，justastherehadcertainlyexisted，inthefirstcenturyB。C。，groupsofGnostics，Therapeutae，EssenesandotherswhoseteachingswereverySIMILARtotheChristian，andtherewasnowademandfrommanyofthesegroupsfor'writings'and'histories'whichshouldheartenandconfirmtheyoungandgrowingChurches。
TheGospelsandEpistles，ofwhichtherearestillextantagreatabundance，bothapocryphalandcanonical，metthisdemand；buthowfartheirrecordsofthepersonofJesusofNazaretharereliablehistory，orhowfartheyaremerelyimaginativepicturesofthekindofmantheSaviourmightbeexpectedtobe，[2]isaquestionwhich，asIhavealreadysaid，isadifficultoneforskilledcriticstoanswer，andoneonwhichIcertainlyhavenointentionofgivingapositiveverdict。PersonallyImustsayIthinkthe'legendary'
solutionquitelikely，andinsomewaysmoresatisfactorythantheoppositeone——forthesimplereasonthatitseemsmuchmoreencouragingtosupposethatthestoryofJesus，graciousandbeautifulasitisisamythwhichgraduallyformeditselfintheconscienceofmankind，andthuspointsthewayofhumanity'sfutureevolution，thantosupposeittobethemererecordofanuniqueandmiraculousinterpositionofProvidence，whichdependedentirelyonthepowersabove，andcouldhardlybeexpectedtooccuragain。
[1]Ch。II。
[2]OneofCelsus'accusationsagainsttheChristianswasthattheirGospelshadbeenwritten“severaltimesover“seeOrigen，ContraCelsum，ii。26，27。
However，thequestionisnotwhatwedesire，butwhatwecanprovetobetheactualfact。AndcertainlythedifficultiesinthewayofregardingtheGospelstoryorstories，forthereisnotoneconsistentstoryasTRUEareenormous。Ifanyonewillread，forinstance，inthefourGospels，theeventsofthenightprecedingthecrucifixionandreckonthetimewhichtheywouldnecessarilyhavetakentoenact——
theLastSupper，theagonyintheGarden，thebetrayalbyJudas，thehalingbeforeCaiaphasandtheSanhedrin，andthenbeforePilateintheHallofjudgmentthoughcourtsforthetrialofmalefactorsdonotGENERALLYsitinthemiddleofthenight；then——inLuke——theinterposedvisittoHerod，andtheRETURNtoPilate；Pilate'sspeechesandwashingofhandsbeforethecrowd；thenthescourgingandthemockingandthearrayingofJesusinpurplerobeasaking；thenthepreparationofaCrossandthelongandpainfuljourneytoGolgotha；andfinallytheCrucifixionatsunrise；——hewillsee——ashasoftenbeenpointedout——
thatthewholestoryisphysicallyimpossible。Asarecordofactualeventsthestoryisimpossible；butasarecordorseriesofnotesderivedfromthewitnessingofa“mystery-
play“——andsuchplayswithVERYSIMILARincidentswerecommonenoughinantiquityinconnectionwithcultsofadyingSavior，itverylikelyIStrueonecanseetheverydramaticcharacteroftheincidents:thewashingofhands，thethreefolddenialbyPeter，thepurplerobeandcrownofthorns，andsoforth；andassuchitisnowacceptedbymanywell-qualifiedauthorities。[1]
[1]Dr。FrazerinTheGoldenBoughvol。ix，“TheScapegoat，“p。
400speaksofthefrequencyinantiquityofaMystery-playrelatingtoaGod-manwhogiveshislifeandbloodforthepeople；andheputsforwardtentativelyandbynomeansdogmaticallythefollowingnote:——“Suchadrama，ifweareright，wastheoriginalstoryofEstherandMordecai，ortogivetheiroldernamesIshtarandMarduk。ItwasplayedinBabylonia，andfromBabyloniathereturningCaptivesbroughtittoJudaea，whereitwasacted，ratherasanhistoricalthanamythicalpiece，byplayerswho，havingtodieingrimearnestonacrossorgallows，werenaturallydrawnfromthegaolratherthanthegreen-room。A
chainofcauses，whichbecausewecannotfollowthemmight——inthelooselanguageofcommonlife——becalledanaccident，determinedthatthepartofthedyinggodinthisannualplayshouldbethrustuponJesusofNazareth，whomtheenemieshehadmadeinhighplacesbyhisoutspokenstrictureswereresolvedtoputoutoftheway。”Seealsovol。iv，“TheDyingGod，“inthesamebook。
Therearemanyotherdifficulties。TheraisingofLazarus，alreadydeadthreedays，theturningofwaterintowineamiracleattributedtoBacchus，ofold，thefeedingofthefivethousand，andothersofthemarvelsare，tosaytheleast，noteasyofdigestion。The“SermonontheMount“which，withthe“Lord'sPrayer“embeddedinit，formsthegreatandacceptedrepositoryof'Christian'
teachingandpiety，iswellknowntobeacollectionofsayingsfrompre-christianwritings，includingthePsalms，Isaiah，Ecclesiasticus，theSecretsofEnoch，theShemonehesrehabookofHebrewprayers，andothers；andthefactthatthiscollectionwasreallymadeAFTERthetimeofJesus，andcouldnothaveoriginatedfromhim，isclearfromthestresswhichitlayson“persecutions“and“falseprophets“——thingswhichwerecertainlynotasourceoftroubleatthetimeJesusissupposedtobespeaking，thoughtheywereatalatertime——aswellasfromtheoccurrenceoftheword“Gentiles，“whichbeinghereusedapparentlyincontra-
distinctionto“Christians“couldnotwellbeappropriateatatimewhennorecognizedChristianbodiesasyetexisted。
ButthemostremarkablepointinthisconnectionistheabsolutesilenceoftheGospelofMarkonthesubjectoftheResurrectionandAscension——thatis，oftheORIGINAL
Gospel，foritisnowallowedonallhandsthatthetwelveversesMarkxvi。9totheend，arealaterinsertion。Consideringthenatureofthisevent，astoundingindeed，ifphysicallytrue，anduniqueinthehistoryoftheworld，itisstrangethatthisGospel——theearliestwrittenofthefourGospels，andnearestintimetotheactualevidence——
makesnomentionofit。ThenextGospelinpointoftime——thatofMatthew——mentionsthematterratherbrieflyandtimidly，andreportsthestorythatthebodyhadbeenSTOLENfromthesepulchre。Lukeenlargesconsiderablyandgivesawholelongchaptertotheresurrectionandascension；
whiletheFourthGospel，writtenfullytwentyyearslaterstill——sayaboutA。D。120——givestwochaptersandaGREAT
VARIETYOFDETAILS！
Thisincreaseofdetail，however，asonegetsfartherandfartherfromtheactualeventisjustwhatonealwaysfinds，asIhavesaidbefore，inlegendarytraditions。A
veryinterestingexampleofthishaslatelycometolightinthecaseofthetraditionsconcerningthelifeanddeathofthePersianBab。TheBab，asmostofmyreaderswillknow，wastheFounderofagreatreligiousmovementwhichnownumbersornumberedbeforetheGreatWar
somemillionsofadherents，chieflyMahommedans，Christians，JewsandParsees。Theperiodofhismissionaryactivitywasfrom1845to1850。HisGospelwassingularlylikethatofJesus——agospeloflovetomankind——onlyasmightbeexpectedfromthedifferenceofdatewithanevenwiderandmoredeliberateinclusionofallclasses，creedsandraces，sinnersandsaints；andtheincidentsandentourageofhisministrywerealsosingularlysimilar。
HewasbornatShirazin1820，andgrowingupapromisingboyandyouth，fellattheageOf21undertheinfluenceofacertainSeyyidKazim，leaderofaheterodoxsect，andakindoffore-runnerorJohntheBaptisttotheBab。Theresultwasaperiodofmentaltroublelikethe“temptationinthewilderness“，afterwhichtheyouthreturnedtoShirazandattheageoftwenty-fivebeganhisownmission。
HisrealnamewasMirzaAliMuhammad，buthecalledhimselfthenceforthTheBab，i。e。theGate“IamtheWay“；
andgraduallytheregatheredroundhimdisciples，drawnbythefascinationofhispersonalityandthedevotionofhischaracter。ButwiththerapidincreaseofhisfollowinggreatjealousyandhatredwereexcitedamongtheMullahs，theupholdersofafanaticalandnarrow-
mindedMahommedanismandquitecorrespondingtotheScribesandPhariseesoftheNewTestament。BythemhewasdenouncedtotheTurkishGovernment。Hewasarrestedonachargeofcausingpoliticaldisturbance，andwascondemnedtodeath。Amonghisdiscipleswasonefavorite，[1]whowasabsolutelydevotedtohisMasterandrefusedtoleavehimatthelast。SotogethertheyweresuspendedoverthecitywallatTabrizandsimultaneouslyshot。Thiswasonthe8thJuly，1850。
[1]MirzaMuhammadAli；andoneshouldnotethesimilarityofthetwonames。
InNovember1850——orbetweenthatdateandOctober1851，abookappeared，writtenbyoneoftheBb'searliestandmostenthusiasticdisciples——amerchantofKashan——
andgivinginquitesimpleandunpretendingformarecordoftheaboveevents。Thereisinitnoaccountofmiraclesorofgreatpretensionstogodhoodandthelike。Itisjustaplainhistoryofthelifeanddeathofabelovedteacher。Itwascordiallyreceivedandcirculatedfarandwide；andwehavenoreasonfordoubtingitsessentialveracity。Andevenifprovednowtobeinaccurateinoneortwodetails，thiswouldnotinvalidatethemoraloftherestofthestory——whichisasfollows:
AfterthedeathoftheBabagreatpersecutiontookplacein1852；thereweremanyBabimartyrs，andforsomeyearsthegeneralfollowerswerescattered。Butintimetheygatheredthemselvestogetheragain；successorstotheoriginalprophetwereappointed——thoughnotwithoutdissensions——andaBabichurch，chieflyatAccaorAcreinSyria，begantobeformed。Itwasduringthisperiodthatagreatnumberoflegendsgrewup——legendsofmiraculousbabyhoodandboyhood，legendsofmiraclesperformedbythematureBab，andsoforth；andwhenthenewly-
formingChurchcametolookintothematteritconcludedquitenaturally！thatsuchasimplehistoryasIhaveoutlinedabovewouldneverdoforthefoundationofitsplans，nowgrownsomewhatambitious。SoanewGospelwasframed，calledtheTarikh-i-Jadid“ThenewHistory“
or“ThenewWay“，embodyingandincludingalotoflegendarymatter，andissuedwiththeauthorityof“theChurch。”Thiswasin1881-2；andcomparingthiswiththeoriginalrecordcalledThepointofKafwegetaluminousviewofthegrowthoffableinthosethirtybriefyearswhichhadelapsedsincetheBab'sdeath。Meanwhileitbecameverynecessaryofcoursetowithdrawfromcirculationasfaraspossibleallcopiesoftheoriginalrecord，lesttheyshouldgivethelietothelater'Gospel'；andthisapparentlywasdoneveryeffectively——soeffectivelyindeedthatProfessorEdwardBrownetowhomtheworldowessomuchonaccountofhislaborsinconnectionwithBabism，afterarduoussearch，cameatonetimetotheconclusionthattheoriginalwasnolongerextant。Mostfortunately，however，thewell-knownComtedeGobineauhadinthecourseofhisstudiesonEasternReligionsacquiredacopyofThepointofKaf；andthis，afterhisdeath，wasfoundamonghisliterarytreasuresandidentifiedaswasmostfittingbyProfessorBrownehimself。
SuchinbriefisthehistoryoftheearlyBabiChurch[1]——
aChurchwhichhasgrownupandexpandedgreatlywithinthememoryofmanyyetliving。Muchmightbewrittenaboutit，butthechiefpointatpresentisforustonotethewell-verifiedandinterestingexampleitgivesoftherapidgrowthinSyriaofareligiouslegendandthereasonswhichcontributedtothisgrowth——andtobewarnedhowmuchmorerapidlysimilarlegendsprobablygrewupinthesamelandinthemiddleoftheFirstCentury，A。D。
ThestoryoftheBabisalsointerestingtousbecause，whilethismassoflegendwasformedaroundit，thereisnopossibledoubtabouttheactualexistenceofahistoricalnucleusinthepersonofMirzaAliMuhammad。
[1]Forliterature，seeEdwardG。Browne'sTraveller'sNarrativeontheEpisodeoftheBab1891，andhisNewHistoryoftheBabtranslatedfromthePersianoftheTarikh-i-JadidCambridge，1893。AlsoSermonsandEssaysbyHerbertRixWilliamsandNorgate，1907，pp。295-325，“ThePersianBab。”
Onthewhole，oneissometimesinclinedtodoubtwhetheranygreatmovementevermakesitselffeltintheworld，withoutdatingfirstfromsomepowerfulpersonalityorgroupofpersonalities，ROUNDwhichtheidealizingandmyth-
makinggeniusofmankindtendstocrystallize。Butonemustnotevenherebetoocertain。SomethingoftheApostlePaulweknow，andsomethingof'John'theEvangelistandwriteroftheEpistleIJohn；andthatthe'Christian'doctrinesdatedlargelyfromthepreachingandteachingofthesetwowecannotdoubt；butPaulneversawJesusexcept“intheSpirit“，nordoesheevermentionthemanpersonally，oranyincidentofhisactuallifethe“crucifiedChrist“beingalwaysanidealfigure；
and'John'whowrotetheGospelwascertainlynotthesameasthedisciplewho“layinJesus'bosom“——thoughanintercalatedverse，thelastbutoneintheGospel，assertstheidentity。[1]
[1]Itisobvious，infact，thattheWHOLEofthelastchapterofSt。Johnisalaterinsertion，andagainthatthetwolastversesofthatchapterarelaterthanthechapteritself！
TheremayhavebeenahistoricJesus——andifso，togetareliableoutlineofhislifewouldindeedbeatreasure；
butatpresentitwouldseemthereisnosignofthat。IfthehistoricityofJesus，inanydegree，couldbeproved，itwouldgiveusreasonforsupposing——whatIhavepersonallyalwaysbeeninclinedtobelieve——thattherewasalsoahistoricalnucleusforsuchpersonagesasOsiris，Mithra，Krishna，Hercules，Apolloandtherest。Thequestion，infact，narrowsitselfdowntothis，Havetherebeeninthecourseofhumanevolutioncertain，sotospeak，NODAL
pointsorperiodsatwhichthepsychologiccurrentsrantogetherandcondensedthemselvesforanewstart；andhaseachsuchnodeorpointofcondensationbeenmarkedbytheappearanceofanactualandheroicmanorwoman
whosuppliedanecessaryimpetusforthenewdeparture，andgavehisnametotheresultingmovement?ORisitsufficienttosupposetheautomaticformationofsuchnodesorstarting-pointswithouttheinterventionofanyspecialheroorgenius，andtoimaginethatineachcasethemyth-
makingtendencyofmankindCREATEDalegendaryandinspiringfigureandworshipedthesameforalongperiodafterwardsasagod?
AsIhavesaidbefore，thisisaquestionwhich，interestingasitis，isnotreallyveryimportant。ThemainthingbeingthatthepropheticandcreativespiritofmankindHASfromtimetotimeevolvedthosefiguresasidealizationsofits“heart'sdesire“andplacedahaloroundtheirheads。
ThelongprocessionofthembecomesaREALpieceofHistory——thehistoryoftheevolutionofthehumanheart，andofhumanconsciousness。ButwiththepsychologyofthewholesubjectIshalldealinthenextchapter。
Imayhere，however，dwellforamomentontwootherpointswhichbelongproperlytothischapter。Ihavealreadymentionedthegreatrelianceplacedbytheadvocatesofaunique'revelation'onthehighmoralitytaughtintheGospelsandtheNewTestamentgenerally。Thereisnoneedofcoursetochallengethatmoralityortodepreciateitunduly；buttheargumentassumesthatitissogreatlysuperiortoanythingofthekindthathadbeentaughtbeforethatwearecompelledtosupposesomethinglikearevelationtoexplainitsappearance——whereasofcourseanyonefamiliarwiththewritingsofantiquity，amongtheGreeksorRomansorEgyptiansorHindusorlaterJews，knowsperfectlywellthatthereportedsayingsofJesusandtheApostlesmaybeparalleledabundantlyfromthesesources。
IhaveillustratedthisalreadyfromtheSermonontheMount。IfanyonewillglanceattheTestamentoftheTwelvePatriarchs——aJewishbookcomposedabout120B。C——hewillseethatitisfullofmoralprecepts，andespeciallypreceptsofloveandforgiveness，soardentandsonoblethatithardlysuffersinanywaywhencomparedwiththeNewTestamentteaching，andthatconsequentlynospecialmiracleisrequiredtoexplaintheappearanceofthelatter。
ThetwelvePatriarchsinquestionarethetwelvesonsofJacob，andthebookconsistsoftheirsupposeddeathbedscenes，inwhicheachpatriarchinturnreciteshisownmoreorlessimaginarylifeanddeedsandgivespiouscounseltohischildrenandsuccessors。Itiscomposedinafineandpoeticstyle，andisfullofloftythought，remindfulinscoresofpassagesoftheGospels——wordsandall——
thecoincidencesbeingtoostrikingtobeaccidental。ItevidentlyhadadeepinfluenceontheauthorsoftheGospels，aswellasonSt。Paul。ItaffirmsabeliefinthecomingofaMessiah，andinsalvationfortheGentiles。Thefollowingaresomequotationsfromit:[1]TestamentofZebulunp。116:“Mychildren，IbidyoukeepthecommandsoftheLord，andshowmercytoyourneighbours，andhavecompassiontowardsall，nottowardsmenonly，butalsotowardsbeasts。”Danp。127:“LovetheLordthroughallyourlife，andoneanotherwithatrueheart。”Josephp。173:“Iwassick，andtheLordvisitedme；inprison，andmyGodshowedfavoruntome。”Benjaminp。209:
“Forasthesunisnotdefiledbyshiningondungandmire，butratherdriethupbothanddrivethawaytheevilsmell，soalsothepuremind，encompassedbythedefilementsofearth，rathercleanseththemandisnotitselfdefiled。”
[1]ThereferencesbeingtotheEditionbyR。H。Charles1907。
Ithinkthesequotationsaresufficienttoprovethehighstandardofthisbook，whichwaswrittenintheSecondCenturyB。C。，andFROMwhichtheNewTestamentauthorscopiouslyborrowed。
Theotherpointhastodowithmystatementatthebeginningofthischapterthattwoofthemain'characteristics'
ofChristianitywereitsinsistenceonaatendencytowardsrenunciationoftheworld，andaconsequentcultivationofapurelyspirituallove，andbonamoralitywhoseinspirationwasaprivatesenseofdutytoGodratherthanapublicsenseofdutytoone'sneighborandtosocietygenerally。Ithink，however，thatthelast-mentionedcharacteristicoughttobeviewedinrelationtoathird，namely，ctheextraordinarilyDEMOCRATICtendencyofthenewReligion。[1]CelsusA。D。200jeeredattheearlyChristiansfortheirextremedemocracy:“Itisonlythesimpletons，theignoble，thesenseless——slavesandwomenfolkandchildren——whomtheywishtopersuade[tojointheirchurches]orCANpersuade“——“wool-dressersandcobblersandfullers，themostuneducatedandvulgarpersons，“and“whosoeverisasinner，orunintelligentorafool，inaword，whoeverisgod-forsaken，himtheKingdomofGodwillreceive。”[2]ThusCelsus，theaccomplished，clever，philosophicandwithalhumorouscritic，laughedatthenewreligionists，andprophesiedtheirspeedyextinction。Neverthelesshewasmistaken。ThereislittledoubtthatjusttheinclusionofwomenandweaklingsandoutcastsdidcontributeLARGELYtothespreadofChristianityandMithraism。Itbroughthopeandasenseofhumandignitytothedespisedandrejectedoftheearth。
OftheimmensenumbersoflesserofficialswhocarriedonthevastorganizationoftheRomanEmpire，mostperhaps，weretakenfromtheranksofthefreedmenandquondamslaves，drawnfromagreatvarietyofracesandalreadyfamiliarwithpagancultsofallkinds——Egyptian，Syrian，Chaldean，Iranian，andsoforth。[3]ThisfacthelpedtogivetoChristianity——underthefinetoleranceoftheEmpire——
itsdemocraticcharacterandalsoitswillingnesstoacceptall。Therudeandmenialmasses，whohadhithertobeenalmostbeneaththenoticeofGreekandRomanculture，flockedin；andthoughthiswasdoubtless，astimewenton，asourceofweaknesstotheChurch，andacauseofdissensionandsuperstition，yetitwasintheinevitablelineofhumanevolution，andhadapsychologicalbasiswhichImustnowendeavortoexplain。
[1]Itisimportanttonote，however，thatthissamedemocratictendencywasverymarkedinMithraism。“Ilestcertain，“saysCumont，“qu'ilafaitsespremieresconquetesdanslesclassesinferieuresdelasocieteetc'estl'aunfaitconsiderable；lemithracismeestrestelongtempslareligiondeshumbles。”
MysteresdeMithra，p。68。
[2]SeeGlover'sConflictofReligionsintheearlyRomanEmpire，ch。viii。
[3]SeeToutain，Cultespaiens，vol。ii，conclusion。
XIV。THEMEANINGOFITALL
Thegeneraldriftandmeaningofthepresentbookmustnow，I
think，frommanyhintsscatteredinthecourseofit，begrowingclear。Butitwillbewellperhapsinthischapter，attheriskofsomerepetition，tobringthewholeargumenttogether。Andtheargumentisthatsincethedawnofhumanityontheearth——manyhundredsofthousandsorperhapsamillionyearsago——therehasbeenaslowpsychologicevolution，agradualdevelopmentorrefinementofConsciousness，whichatacertainstagehasspontaneouslygivenbirthinthehumanracetothephenomenaofreligiousbeliefandreligiousritual——thesephenomenawhetherintheraceatlargeorinanybranchofitalwaysfollowing，stepbystep，acertainorderdependingonthedegreesofpsychologicevolutionconcerned；andthatitisthisgeneralfactwhichaccountsforthestrangesimilaritiesofbeliefandritualwhichhavebeenobservedallovertheworldandinplacesfarremotefromeachother，andwhichhavebeenbrieflynotedintheprecedingchapters。
Andthemainstagesofthispsychologicevolution——thoseatanyratewithwhichwearehereconcerned——areThree:
thestageofSimpleConsciousness，thestageofSelf-
consciousness，andathirdStagewhichforwantofabetterwordwemaytermthestageofUniversalConsciousness。
Ofcoursethesethreestagesmayatsomefuturetimebeanalyzedintolesserdegrees，withusefulresult——
butatpresentIonlydesiretodrawattentiontothemintherough，sotospeak，toshowthatitisfromthemandfromtheirpassageoneintoanotherthattherehasflowedbyaperfectlynaturallogicandconcatenationthestrangepanoramaofhumanity'sreligiousevolution——itssuperstitionsandmagicandsacrificesanddancingsandritualgenerally，andlateritsincantationsandprophecies，andservicesofspeechandverse，andpaintingsandformsofartandfiguresofthegods。AwonderfulPanoramaindeed，orpoemoftheCenturies，or，ifyoulike，World-symphonywiththreegreatleadingmotives！
AndfirstwehavethestageofSimpleConsciousness。ForhundredsofcenturieswecannotdoubtManpossessedadegreeofconsciousnessnotradicallydifferentfromthatofthehigherAnimals，thoughprobablymorequickandvaried。Hesaw，heheard，hefelt，henoted。Heactedorreacted，quicklyorslowly，inresponsetotheseimpressions。
ButtheconsciousnessofhimSELF，asabeingseparatefromhisimpressions，asseparatefromhissurroundings，hadnotyetarisenortakenholdonhim。Hewasaninstinctivepart，ofNature。AndinthisrespecthewasveryneartotheAnimals。Self-consciousnessintheanimals，inagerminalformisthere，nodoubt，butEMBEDDED，sotospeak，inthegeneralworldconsciousness。Itisonthisaccountthattheanimalshavesuchamarvellouslyacuteperceptionandinstinct，beingembeddedinNature。AndprimitiveManhadthesame。Alsowemust，asIhavesaidbefore，allowthatmaninthatstagemusthavehadthesamesortofgraceandperfectionofformandmovementasweadmireinthewildanimalsnow。Itwouldbequiteunreasonabletosupposethathe，thecrowninthesamesenseofcreation，wasfromthebeginningalameandill-madeabortion。Foralongperiodthetribesofmen，likethetribesofthehigheranimals，musthavebeenonthewhole，andallowingforoccasionalprivationsandsufferingsandconflictswelladaptedtotheirsurroundingsandharmoniouswiththeearthandwitheachother。TheremusthavebeenaperiodresemblingaGoldenAge——someconditionatanyratewhich，comparedwithsubsequentmiseries，meritedtheepithet'golden。'
ItwasduringthisperiodapparentlythatthesystemofTotemsarose。Thetribesfelttheirrelationshiptotheirwingedandfourfootedmatesincludingalsootherobjectsofnaturesodeeplyandintenselythattheyadoptedthelatterastheiremblems。Thepre-civilizationManfairlyworshipped，theanimalsandwasproudtobecalledafterthem。Ofcoursewemodernsfindthisstrange。We，whoseconceptionsofthesebeautifulcreaturesaremostlyderivedfromabroken-downcab-horse，oramelancholymilk-rummagedcowinasootyfield，oradiseasedanddespondentlionoreagleattheZoo，haveneverevenseenorlovedthemandhaveonlywonderedwithourtruecommercialinstinctwhatprofitwecouldextractfromthem。
Butthey，theprimitives，lovedandadmiredtheanimals；
theydomesticatedmanyofthembytheforceofanaturalfriendship，[1]andaccordedthemakindofdivinity。ThiswastheageoftribalsolidarityandofalatentsenseofsolidaritywithNature。AndthepointofitalliswithregardtothesubjectwehaveinhandthatthiswasalsotheagefromwhichbyanaturalevolutionthesenseofReligioncametomankind。IfReligioninmanisthesenseoftiesbindinghisinnerselftothepowersoftheuniversearoundhim，thenitisevidentIthinkthatprimitivemanasIhavedescribedhimpossessedtheREALITYofthissense——thoughsofarburiedandsubconsciousthathewashardlyawareofit。Itwasonlylater，andwiththecomingoftheSecondStage，thatthissensebegantorisedistinctlyintoconsciousness。
[1]Seech。iv。TylorinhisPrimitiveCulturevol。i，p。460，edn。1903says:“Thesenseofanabsolutepsychicaldistinctionbetweenmanandbeast，soprevalentinthecivilizedworld，ishardlytobefoundamongthelowerraces。”
LetuspassthentotheSecondStage。Thereisamomentintheevolutionofachild——somewhereperhapsabouttheageofthree[1]——whenthesimplealmostanimal-likeconsciousnessofthebabeistroubledbyanewelement——SELF-consciousness。Thechangeissomarked，sodefinite，thatinthedepthoftheinfant'seyesyoucanalmostSEEittakeplace。Sointheevolutionofthehumanracetherehasbeenaperiod——alsomarkedanddefinite，thoughextendingintermittentoveravastintervaloftime——whenonmeningeneraltheredawnedtheconsciousnessofTHEMSELVES，oftheirownthoughtsandactions。TheoldsimpleacceptanceofsensationsandexperiencesgaveplacetoREFLECTION。
Thequestionarose:“HowdothesesensationsandexperiencesaffectME?Whatcan_I_dotomodifythem，toencouragethepleasurable，toavoidorinhibitthepainful，andsoon?“Fromthatmomentanewmotivewasaddedtolife。Themindrevolvedroundanewcentre。Itbegantospinlikealittleeddyrounditsownaxis。ItstudiedITSELFfirstandbecamedeeplyconcernedaboutitsownpleasuresandpains，losingtouchthewhilewiththelargerlifewhichoncedominatedit——thelifeofNature，thelifeoftheTribe。Theoldunityofthespirit，theoldsolidarity，werebrokenup。
[1]SeeBucke'sCosmicConsciousnessPhiladelphia，1901，pp。1
and39；alsoW。McDougall'sSocialPsychology1908，p。146——
wherethesameageistentativelysuggested。
Ihavetouchedonthissubjectbefore，butitissoimportantthatthereadermustexcuserepetition。Therecameaninevitableseverance，aninevitableperiodofstrife。Themagicmirrorofthesoul，reflectingnatureasheretoforeincalmandsimplegrace，wassuddenlycrackedacross。
Thenewself-consciousmannotallatoncebutgradually
becamealienatedfromhistribe。Helapsedintostrifewithhisfellows。Ambition，vanity，greed，theloveofdomination，thedesireforpropertyandpossessions，setin。
Theinfluencesoffellowshipandsolidaritygrewfeebler。
HebecamealienatedfromhisgreatMother。Hisinstinctswerelessandlesssure——andthatinproportionasbrain-
activityandself-regardingcalculationtooktheirplace。
Loveandmutualhelpwerelesscompellinginproportionasthedemandsofself-interestgrewlouderandmoreinsistent。
Ultimatelythecrisiscame。Cainmurderedhisbrotherandbecameanoutcast。TheGardenofEdenandtheGoldenAgeclosedtheirgatesbehindhim。Heentereduponaperiodofsuffering——aperiodoflaborandtoilandsorrowsuchashehadneverbeforeknown，andsuchastheanimalscertainlyhaveneverknown。Andinthatdistressfulstate，inthatdolefulvalleyofhislongpilgrimage，hestillremainsto-day。
Thushasthecankerofself-consciousnessdoneitswork。
Itwouldbefoolishanduselesstorailagainsttheprocess，ortoblameanyoneforit。Ithadtobe。Throughthisdismalvaleofself-seekingmankindhadtopass——ifonlyinorderatlasttofindtheTrueSelfwhichwasandstillremainsitsgoal。Thepilgrimagewillnotlastforever。
IndeedtherearesignsthattherecentGreatWarandthefollowingEventsmarkthelowestpointofdescentandthebeginningofthehumansoul'sreturntosanityandascenttowardstheheavenlyKingdom。NodoubtManwillarriveagainSOMEdayatthegrace，composureandleisurelybeautyoflifewhichtheanimalsrealizedlongago，thoughheseemsapreciouslongtimeaboutit；andwhenallthisnightmareofGreedandVanityandSelf-conceitandCrueltyandLustofoppressionanddomination，whichmarksthepresentperiod，ispast——anditWILLpass——thenHumanitywillcomeagaintoitsGoldenAgeandtothatParadiseofredemptionandpeacewhichhasforsolongbeenprophesied。
ButwearedealingwiththeoriginsofReligion；andwhatIwantthereadertoseeisthatitwasjustthisbreakingupoftheoldpsychologicunityandcontinuityofmanwithhissurroundingswhichledtothewholepanoramaoftheritualsandcreeds。Man，centeringroundhimself，necessarilybecameanexilefromthegreatWhole。HecommittedthesinifitwasasinofSeparation。AnyhowNemesiswasswift。Thesenseoflonelinessandthesenseofguiltcameonhim。TherealizationofhimselfasaseparateconsciousbeingnecessarilyledtohisattributingasimilarconsciousnessofsomekindtothegreatLifearoundhim。Actionandreactionareequalandopposite。Whateverhemayhavefeltbefore，itbecamecleartohimnowthatbeingsmoreorlesslikehimself——thoughdoubtlessvasterandmorepowerful——movedbehindtheveilofthevisibleworld。
FromthatmomentthebeliefinMagicandDemonsandGodsaroseorslowlydevelopeditself；andinthemidstofthisturmoilofperilousandconflictingpowers，heperceivedhimselfanalienandanexile，strickenwithFear，strickenwiththesenseofSin。Ifbefore，hehadexperiencedfear——inthekindofautomaticwayofself-preservationinwhichtheanimalsfeelit——henow，withfeveredself-
regardandexcitedimagination，experienceditindoubleortrebledegree。Andif，before，hehadbeenawarethatfortuneandchancewerenotalwaysfriendlyandpropitioustohisdesigns，henowperceivedorthoughtheperceivedineveryadversehappeningthedeliberatepersecutionofthepowers，andanaccusationofguiltdirectedagainsthimforsomeneglectordeficiencyinhisrelationtothem。
Hencebyaperfectlylogicalandnaturalsequencetherearosethebeliefinother-worldorsupernaturalpowers，whetherpurelyfortuitousandmagicalormoredistinctlyrationalandpersonal；therearosethesenseofSin，orofoffenceagainstthesepowers；therearoseacomplexritualofExpiation——whetherbypersonalsacrificeandsufferingorbythesacrificeofvictims。Therearosetooawholecatalogueofceremonies——ceremoniesofInitiation，bywhichthenoviceshouldlearntokeepwithinthegoodgraceofthePowers，andundertheblessingofhisTribeandtheprotectionofitsTotem；ceremoniesofEucharisticmealswhichshouldrestorethelostsanctityofthecommonlifeandremovethesenseofguiltandisolation；ceremoniesofMarriageandrulesandritesofsex-connection，fittedtocurbtheterrificanddemonicviolenceofpassionswhichelseindeedmighteasilyrendthecommunityasunder。
Andsoon。Itiseasytoseethatgrantedanearlystageofsimpleunreflectingnature-consciousness，andgrantingthisbrokenintoand，afteratime，shatteredbythearrivalofSELF-consciousnesstherewouldnecessarilyfollowinspontaneousyetlogicalorderawholeseriesofreligiousinstitutionsandbeliefs，whichphantasmalandunrealastheymayappeartous，werebynomeansunrealtoourancestors。Itiseasyalsotoseethatasthepsychologicalprocesswasnecessarilyofsimilargeneralcharacterineverybranchofthehumanraceandallovertheworld，sothereligiousevolutions——thecreedsandrituals——tookonmuchthesamecomplexioneverywhere；and，thoughtheydifferedindetailsaccordingtoclimateandotherinfluences，ranonsuchremarkablyparallellinesaswehavenoted。
Finally，tomakethewholematterclear，letmerepeatthatthisevent，theinbreakofSelf-consciousness，tookplace，orBEGANtotakeplace，anenormoustimeago，perhapsinthebeginningoftheNeolithicAge。Idwellontheword“began“becauseIthinkitisprobablethatinitsbeginnings，andforalongperiodafter，thisnewbornconsciousnesshadaninfantileandveryinnocentcharacter，quitedifferentfromitslaterandmoreaggressiveforms——justasweseeself-consciousnessinalittlechildhasacharmandagracewhichitloseslaterinaboastfulorgraspingboyhoodandmanhood。Sowemayunderstandthatthoughself-consciousnessmayhavebeguntoappearinthehumanraceatthisveryearlytimeandmoreorlesscontemporaneouslywiththeinventionofveryrudetoolsandunformedlanguage，thereprobablydidelapseaverylongperiod——
perhapsthewholeoftheNeolithicAge——beforetheevilsofthissecondstageofhumanevolutioncametoahead。
MaxMullerhaspointedoutthatamongthewordswhicharecommontothevariousbranchesofAryanlanguage，andwhichthereforebelongtotheveryearlyperiodbeforetheseparationofthesebranches，therearenotfoundthewordsdenotingwarandconflictandtheweaponsandinstrumentsofstrife——afactwhichsuggestsalongcontinuanceofpeacefulhabitamongmankindAFTERthefirstformationanduseoflanguage。
Thatthebirthoflanguageandthebirthofself-consciousnesswereAPPROXIMATELYsimultaneousisaprobabletheory，andonefavoredbymanythinkers；[1]buttheslowbeginningsofbothmusthavebeensoveryprotractedthatitisperhapsuselesstoattemptanyveryexactdetermination。LateresearchesseemtoshowthatlanguagebeganinwhatmightbecalledTRIBALexpressionsofmoodandfeelingholophraseslike“go-hunting-kill-bear“withoutreferencetoindividualpersonalitiesandrelationships；
andthatitwasonlyatalaterstagethatwordslike“I“
and“Thou“cameintouse，andtheholophrasesbrokeupinto“partsofspeech“andtookonadefinitegrammaticalstructure。[2]Iftrue，thesefactspointclearlytoalongforegroundofrudecommunallanguage，somethinglikethoughgreatlysuperiortothatoftheanimals，precedingorpreparingtheevolutionofSelf-consciousnessproper，intheformsof“I“and“Thou“andthegrammarofpersonalactionsandrelations。“Theyshowthatthepluralandallotherformsofnumberingrammararisenotbymultiplicationofanoriginal'I，'butbyselectionandgradualEXCLUSIONfromanoriginalcollective'we。'“[3]Accordingtothisviewthebirthofself-consciousnessinthehumanfamily，orinanyparticularraceorsectionofthehumanfamily，musthavebeenequallyslowandhesitating；anditwouldbeeasytoimagine，asjustsaid，thattheremayhavebeenaverylongand'golden'periodatitsbeginning，beforethenewconsciousnesstookonitsmaturerandharsherforms。
[1]Dr。BuckeCosmicConsciousnessinsistsontheirsimultaneity，butplacesbotheventsexcessivelyfarback，asweshouldthink，i。e。200，000or300，000yearsago。Possiblyhedoesnotdifferentiatesufficientlybetweentherudelanguageoftheholophraseandthemuchlatergrowthofformedandgrammaticalspeech。
[2]SeeA。E。Crawley'sIdeaoftheSoul，ch。ii；JaneHarrison'sThemis，pp。473-5；andE。J。Payne'sHistoryoftheNewWorldcalledAmerica，vol。ii，pp。115sq。，wherethebeginningofself-consciousnessisassociatedwiththebreak-upoftheholophrase。
[3]Themis，p。471。
AllestimatesoftheTimeinvolvedintheseevolutionsofearlymanarenotoriouslymostdivergentandmostdifficulttobesureof；butifwetake500，000yearsagoforthefirstappearanceofveritableManhomoprimigenius，[2]
andfollowingProfessorW。J。Sollas[3]30，000or40，000yearsagoforthefirsttool-usingmenhomosapiensoftheChelleanAgepalaeolithic，15，000fortherock-paintingsandinscriptionsoftheAurignacianandMagdalenianpeoples，and5，000yearsagoforthefirstactualhistoricalrecordsthathavecomedowntous，wemayperhapsgetsomethinglikeaproportionbetweenthedifferentperiods。Thatistosay，halfamillionyearsforthepurelyanimalmaninhisdifferentformsandgradesofevolution。ThensomewheretowardstheendofpalaeolithicorcommencementofneolithictimesSelf-consciousnessdimlybeginningand，aftersome10，000yearsofslowgerminationandpre-historicculture，culminatingintheactualhistoricperiodandthedawnofcivilization40or50centuriesago，andto-daywehope，reachingtheclimaxwhichprecedesorforetellsitsabatementandtransformation。
[2]ThoughDr。ArthurKeith，AncientTypesofMan1911，pp。93
and102，putsthefigureatmorelikeamillion。
[3]SeeAncientHunters1915；alsoHastings'sEncycl。art。
“Ethnology“；andHavelockEllis，“TheOriginofWar，“inThePhilosophyofConflictandotherEssays。
NodoubtmanygeologistsandanthropologistswouldfavorperiodsgreatlyLONGERthanthoseherementioned；butpossiblytherewouldbesomeagreementastotheRATIO
toeachotherofthetimesconcerned:thatis，thesaidauthoritieswouldprobablyallowforaVERYlonganimal-man[1]-
periodcorrespondingtothefirststage；foramuchshorteraggressively'selfconscious'period，correspondingtotheSecondStage——perhapslastingonlyonethirtiethorfiftiethofthetimeofthefirstperiod；andthen——iftheylookedforwardatalltoathirdstage——wouldbeinclinedforobviousreasonstoattributetothatagainaveryextendedduration。
[1]Iusethephrase'animal-man'here，notwithanyflavorofcontemptorreprobation，asthedearVictorianswouldhaveusedit，butwithasenseofgenuinerespectandadmirationsuchasonefeelstowardstheanimalsthemselves。
However，allthisisveryspeculative。ToreturntothedifficultyaboutLanguageandtheconsiderationofthoseearlytimeswhenwordsadequatetotheexpressionofreligiousormagicalideassimplydidnotexist，itisclearthattheonlyavailable，oratanyratetheCHIEFmeansofexpression，inthosetimes，musthaveconsistedingestures，inattitudes，inceremonialACTIONS——inamoreorlesselaborateritual，infact。[1]SuchideasasAdoration，Thanksgiving，confessionofGuilt，placationofWrath，Expiation，Sacrifice，CelebrationofCommunity，sacramentalAtonement，andascoreofotherscouldatthattimebeexpressedbyappropriaterites——andasamatteroffactareoftensoexpressedevennow——MOREreadilyanddirectlythanbylanguage。
'Dancing'——whenthatwordcametobeinvented——didnotmeanamereflingingaboutofthelimbsinrecreation，butanyexpressivemovementsofthebodywhichmightbeusedtoconveythefeelingsofthedanceroroftheaudiencewhomherepresented。Andsothe'religiousdance'becameamostimportantpartofritual。
[1]Seech。ixandxi。
SomuchforthesecondstageofConsciousness。LetusnowpassontotheThirdStage。Itisevidentthattheprocessofdisruptionanddissolution——disruptionbothofthehumanmind，andofsocietyroundaboutit，duetotheactionoftheSecondStage——couldnotgoonindefinitely。
Therearehundredsofthousandsofpeopleatthepresentmomentwhoaredyingofmentalorbodilydisease——theirnervoussystemsbrokendownbytroublesconnectedwithexcessiveself-consciousness——selfishfearsandworriesandrestlessness。Societyatlargeisperishingbothinindustryandinwarfarethroughthedominationinitsorganismoftheself-motivesofgreedandvanityandambition。Thiscannotgoonforever。Thingsmusteithercontinueinthesamestrain，inwhichcaseitisevidentthatweareapproachingacrisisofutterdissolution，ORanewelementmustenterin，anewinspirationoflife，andweasindividuals
andthesocietyofwhichweformapart，mustmakeafreshstart。Whatisthatnewandnecessaryelementofregeneration?
Itisevidentthatitmustbeanewbirth——theentryintoafurtherstageofconsciousnesswhichmustsupersedethepresentone。Throughsomesuchcrisisaswehavespokenof，throughtheextremeofsuffering，themindofMan，ASATPRESENTCONSTITUTED，hastodie。[1]Self-consciousnesshastodie，andbeburied，andriseagaininanewform。
Probablynothingbuttheextremeofsufferingcanbringthisabout。[2]Andwhatisthisnewforminwhichconsciousnesshastorearise?Obviously，sincethemiseriesoftheworldduringcountlesscenturieshavedatedfromthatfatalattempttomakethelittlepersonalSELFthecentreofeffortandactivity，andsincethatattempthasinevitablyledtodisunityanddiscordanddeath，bothwithintheminditselfandwithinthebodyofsociety，thereisnothingleftbutthereturntoaConsciousnesswhichshallhaveUnityasitsfoundation-principle，andwhichshallproceedfromthedirectSENSEANDPERCEPTIONofsuchanunitythroughoutcreation。ThesimplemindofEarlyManandtheAnimalswasofthatcharacter——aconsciousness，sotospeak，continuousthroughnature，andthoughrunningtopointsofilluminationandfociofspecialactivityinindividuals，yetatnopointessentiallybrokenorimprisonedinseparatecompartments。AnditisthisCONTINUITYoftheprimitivemindwhichenablesus，asIhavealreadyexplained，tounderstandthemysteriousworkingsofinstinctandintuition。