Thefirsteditionofthiswork，publishedearlyinJanuary，1877，containedtheconcentratedresultsofmystudiesduringan，uninterruptedresidenceofsixyearsinRussia——fromthebeginning，of1870totheendof1875。SincethattimeIhavespentinthe，EuropeanandCentralAsianprovinces，atdifferentperiods，nearly，twoyearsmore;andintheintervalsIhaveendeavouredtokeepin，touchwiththeprogressofevents。Myobservationsthusextend，overaperiodofthirty-fiveyears。
WhenIbegan，afewmonthsago，toprepareforpublicationthe，resultsofmymorerecentobservationsandresearches，myintention，wastowriteanentirelynewworkunderthetitleof“Russiainthe，TwentiethCentury，“butIsoonperceivedthatitwouldbe，impossibletoexplainclearlythepresentstateofthingswithout，referringconstantlytoeventsofthepast，andthatIshouldbe，obligedtoembodyinthenewworkalargeportionoftheoldone。
Theportiontobeembodiedgrewrapidlytosuchproportionsthat，inthecourseofafewweeks，Ibegantoaskmyselfwhetherit，wouldnotbebettersimplytorecastandcompletemyoldmaterial。
WithaviewtodecidingthequestionIpreparedalistofthe，principalchangeswhichhadtakenplaceduringthelastquarterof，acentury，andwhenIhadmarshalledtheminlogicalorder，I
recognisedthattheywereneithersonumerousnorsoimportantasI
hadsupposed。Certainlytherehadbeenmuchprogress，butithad，beennearlyallontheoldlines。EverywhereIperceived，continuityandevolution;nowherecouldIdiscoverradicalchanges，andnewdepartures。Inthecentralandlocaladministrationthe，reactionarypolicyofthelatterhalfofAlexanderII。’sreignhad，beensteadilymaintained;therevolutionarymovementhadwaxedand，waned，butitsaimswereessentiallythesameasofold;theChurch，hadremainedinitsusualsomnolentcondition;agraveagricultural，crisisaffectinglandedproprietorsandpeasantshadbegun，butit，wasmerelyadevelopmentofastateofthingswhichIhad，previouslydescribed;themanufacturingindustryhadmadegigantic，strides，buttheywereallinthedirectionwhichthemost，competentobservershadpredicted;inforeignpolicytheold，principlesofguidingthenaturalexpansiveforcesalongthelines，ofleastresistance，seekingtoreachwarm-waterports，andpegging，outterritorialclaimsforthefuturewerepersistentlyfollowed。
Nodoubttherewereprettyclearindicationsofmoreradical，changestocome，butthesechangesmustbelongtothefuture，and，itismerelywiththepastandthepresentthatawriterwhohasno，pretensionstobeingaprophethastodeal。
Underthesecircumstancesitseemedtomeadvisabletoadopta，middlecourse。InsteadofwritinganentirelynewworkI
determinedtoprepareamuchextendedandamplifiededitionofthe，oldone，retainingsuchinformationaboutthepastasseemedtome，ofpermanentvalue，andatthesametimemeetingasfaraspossible，therequirementsofthosewhowishtoknowthepresentconditionof，thecountry。
InaccordancewiththisviewIhaverevised，rearranged，and，supplementedtheoldmaterialinthelightofsubsequentevents，andIhaveaddedfiveentirelynewchapters——threeonthe，revolutionarymovement，whichhascomeintoprominencesince1877;
oneontheindustrialprogress，withwhichthelatestphaseofthe，movementiscloselyconnected;andoneonthemainlinesofthe，presentsituationasitappearstomeatthemomentofgoingto，press。
DuringthemanyyearswhichIhavedevotedtothestudyofRussia，Ihavereceivedunstintedassistancefrommanydifferentquarters。
Ofthefriendswhooriginallyfacilitatedmytask，andtowhomI
expressedmygratitudeintheprefaceandnotesoftheearly，editions，onlythreesurvive——Mme。deNovikoff，M。E。I。Yakushkin，andDr。Asher。Tothenumerousfriendswhohavekindlyassistedme，inthepresenteditionImustexpressmythankscollectively，but，therearetwowhostandoutfromthegroupsoprominentlythatI
maybeallowedtomentionthempersonally：thesearePrince，AlexanderGrigorievitchStcherbatof，whosuppliedmewith，voluminousmaterialsregardingtheagrarianquestiongenerallyand，thepresentconditionofthepeasantryinparticular，andM。Albert，Brockhaus，whoplacedatmydisposalthegiganticRussian，EncyclopaediarecentlypublishedbyhisfirmEntsiklopeditcheski，Slovar，LeipzigandSt。Petersburg，1890-1904。Thismonumental，work，inforty-onevolumes，isaninexhaustiblestorehouseof，accurateandwell-digestedinformationonallsubjectsconnected，withtheRussianEmpire，andithasoftenbeenofgreatusetome，inmattersofdetail。
WithregardtothelastchapterofthiseditionImustclaimthe，reader’sindulgence，becausethemeaningofthetitle，“thepresent，situation，“changesfromdaytoday，andIcannotforeseewhat，furtherchangesmayoccurbeforetheworkreachesthehandsofthe，public。
LONDON，22ndMay，1905。
RUSSIA
CHAPTERI
TRAVELLINGINRUSSIA
Railways——StateInterference——RiverCommunications——Russian“Grand，Tour“——TheVolga——Kazan——ZhigulinskiyaGori——FinnsandTartars——The，Don——DifficultiesofNavigation——Discomforts——Rats——Hotelsand，TheirPeculiarCustoms——Roads——HibernianPhraseologyExplained——
Bridges——Posting——ATarantass——RequisitesforTravelling——
TravellinginWinter——Frostbitten——DisagreeableEpisodes——Sceneat，aPost-Station。
OfcoursetravellinginRussiaisnolongerwhatitwas。During，thelasthalfcenturyavastnetworkofrailwayshasbeen，constructed，andonecannowtravelinacomfortablefirst-class，carriagefromBerlintoSt。PetersburgorMoscow，andthenceto，Odessa，Sebastopol，theLowerVolga，theCaucasus，CentralAsia，or，EasternSiberia。Untiltheoutbreakofthewartherewasatrain，twiceaweek，withthroughcarriages，fromMoscowtoPortArthur。
Anditmustbeadmittedthatonthemainlinesthepassengershave，notmuchtocomplainof。Thecarriagesaredecidedlybetterthan，inEngland，andinwintertheyarekeptwarmbysmallironstoves，assistedbydoublewindowsanddoubledoors——averynecessary，precautioninalandwherethethermometeroftendescendsto30
degreesbelowzero。Thetrainneverattains，itistrue，ahigh，rateofspeed——soatleastEnglishandAmericansthink——butthenwe，mustrememberthatRussiansarerarelyinahurry，andliketohave，frequentopportunitiesofeatinganddrinking。InRussiatimeis，notmoney;ifitwere，nearlyallthesubjectsoftheTsarwould，alwayshavealargestockofreadymoneyonhand，andwouldoften，havegreatdifficultyinspendingit。Inreality，beit，parentheticallyremarked，aRussianwithasuperabundanceofready，moneyisaphenomenonrarelymetwithinreallife。
Inconveyingpassengersattherateoffromfifteentothirtymiles，anhour，therailwaycompaniesdoatleastallthattheypromise;
butinoneveryimportantrespecttheydonotalwaysstrictly，fulfiltheirengagements。Thetravellertakesaticketfora，certaintown，andonarrivingatwhatheimaginestobehis，destination，hemayfindmerelyarailway-stationsurroundedby，fields。Onmakinginquiries，hediscovers，tohisdisappointment，thatthestationisbynomeansidenticalwiththetownbearingthe，samename，andthattherailwayhasfallenseveralmilesshortof，fulfillingthebargain，asheunderstoodthetermsofthecontract。
Indeed，itmightalmostbesaidthatasageneralrulerailwaysin，Russia，likecamel-driversincertainEasterncountries，studiously，avoidthetowns。Thisseemsatfirstastrangefact。Itis，possibletoconceivethattheBedouinissoenamouredoftentlife，andnomadichabitsthatheshunsatownashewouldaman-trap;but，surelycivilengineersandrailwaycontractorshavenosuchdread，ofbrickandmortar。Thetruereason，Isuspect，isthatland，withinorimmediatelybeyondthemunicipalbarrierisrelatively，dear，andthattherailways，beingcompletelybeyondthe，invigoratinginfluenceofhealthycompetition，canaffordtolook，uponthecomfortandconvenienceofpassengersasasecondary，consideration。Gradually，itistrue，thisstateofthingsis，beingimprovedbyprivateinitiative。Astherailwaysrefuseto，cometothetowns，thetownsareextendingtowardstherailways，andalreadysomeprophetsarefoundboldenoughtopredictthatin，thecourseoftimethoselong，new，stragglingstreets，withoutan，inhabitedhinterland，whichatpresenttrysoseverelythesprings，oftherickettydroshkis，willbeproperlypavedandkeptindecent，repair。Formyownpart，IconfessIamalittlescepticalwith，regardtothisprediction，andIcanonlyuseafavourite，expressionoftheRussianpeasants——daiBog！，Godgrantitmaybe，so！
Itisbutfairtostatethatinonecelebratedinstanceneither，engineersnorrailwaycontractorsweredirectlytoblame。FromSt。
PetersburgtoMoscowthelocomotiverunsforadistanceof400
milesalmostas“thecrow“issupposedtofly，turningneitherto，therighthandnortotheleft。Fortwelvewearyhoursthe，passengerintheexpresstrainlooksoutonforestandmorass，and，rarelycatchessightofhumanhabitation。Onlyonceheperceives，inthedistancewhatmaybecalledatown;itisTverwhichhas，beenthusfavoured，notbecauseitisaplaceofimportance，but，simplybecauseithappenedtobenearthebee-line。Andwhywas，therailwayconstructedinthisextraordinaryfashion？，Forthe，bestofallreasons——becausetheTsarsoorderedit。Whenthe，preliminarysurveywasbeingmade，NicholasI。learnedthatthe，officersentrustedwiththetask——andtheMinisterofWaysand，Roadsinthenumber——werebeinginfluencedmorebypersonalthan，technicalconsiderations，andhedeterminedtocuttheGordianknot，intrueImperialstyle。WhentheMinisterlaidbeforehimthemap，withtheintentionofexplainingtheproposedroute，hetooka，ruler，drewastraightlinefromtheoneterminustotheother，and，remarkedinatonethatprecludedalldiscussion，“Youwill，constructthelineso！”Andthelinewassoconstructed——remaining，toallfutureages，likeSt。PetersburgandthePyramids，a，magnificentmonumentofautocraticpower。
Formerlythiswell-knownincidentwasoftencitedinwhispered，philippicstoillustratetheevilsoftheautocraticformof，government。Imperialwhims，itwassaid，over-ridegraveeconomic，considerations。Inrecentyears，however，achangeseemstohave，takenplaceinpublicopinion，andsomepeoplenowassertthatthis，so-calledImperialwhimwasanactoffar-seeingpolicy。Asbyfar，thegreaterpartofthegoodsandpassengersarecarriedthewhole，lengthoftheline，itiswellthatthelineshouldbeasshortas，possible，andthatbranchlinesshouldbeconstructedtothetowns，lyingtotherightandleft。Evidentlythereisagooddealtobe，saidinfavourofthisview。
Inthedevelopmentoftherailwaysystemtherehasbeenanother，disturbingcause，whichisnotlikelytooccurtotheEnglishmind。
InEngland，individualsandcompanieshabituallyactaccordingto，theirprivateinterests，andtheStateinterferesaslittleas，possible;privateinitiativedoesasitpleases，unlessthe，authoritiescanprovethatimportantbadconsequenceswill，necessarilyresult。InRussia，theonusprobandiliesontheother，side;privateinitiativeisallowedtodonothinguntilitgives，guaranteesagainstallpossiblebadconsequences。Whenanygreat，enterpriseisprojected，thefirstquestionis——“Howwillthisnew，schemeaffecttheinterestsoftheState？”Thus，whenthecourse，ofanewrailwayhastobedetermined，themilitaryauthoritiesare，amongthefirsttobeconsulted，andtheiropinionhasagreat，influenceontheultimatedecision。Thenaturalconsequenceis，thattherailway-mapofRussiapresentstotheeyeofthe，strategistmuchthatisquiteunintelligibletotheordinary，observer——afactthatwillbecomeapparenteventotheuninitiated，assoonasawarbreaksoutinEasternEurope。Russiaisnolonger，whatshewasinthedaysoftheCrimeanWar，whentroopsandstores，hadtobeconveyedhundredsofmilesbythemostprimitivemeansof，transport。Atthattimeshehadonly750milesofrailway;nowshe，hasover36，000miles，andeveryyearnewlinesareconstructed。
Thewater-communicationhaslikewiseinrecentyearsbeengreatly，improved。Ontheprincipalriverstherearenowgoodsteamers。
Unfortunately，theclimateputsseriousobstructionsinthewayof，navigation。Fornearlyhalfoftheyeartheriversarecovered，withice，andduringagreatpartoftheopenseasonnavigationis，difficult。Whentheiceandsnowmelttheriversoverflowtheir，banksandlayagreatpartofthelow-lyingcountryunderwater，so，thatmanyvillagescanonlybeapproachedinboats;butverysoon，thefloodsubsides，andthewaterfallssorapidlythatby，midsummerthelargersteamershavegreatdifficultyinpicking，theirwayamongthesandbanks。TheNevaalone——thatqueenof，northernrivers——hasatalltimesaplentifulsupplyofwater。
BesidestheNeva，theriverscommonlyvisitedbythetouristare，theVolgaandtheDon，whichformpartofwhatmaybecalledthe，Russiangrandtour。Englishmenwhowishtoseesomethingmorethan，St。PetersburgandMoscowgenerallygobyrailtoNizhni-Novgorod，wheretheyvisitthegreatfair，andthengetonboardoneofthe，Volgasteamers。Forthosewhohavemasteredtheimportantfact，thatRussiaisnotacountryoffinescenery，thevoyagedownthe，riverispleasantenough。Theleftbankisasflatasthebanksof，theRhinebelowCologne，buttherightbankishigh，occasionally，wellwooded，andnotdevoidofacertaintamepicturesqueness。
EarlyontheseconddaythesteamerreachesKazan，oncethecapital，ofanindependentTartarkhanate，andstillcontaininga，considerableTartarpopulation。SeveralmetchetsastheMahometan，housesofprayerareheretermed，withtheirdiminutiveminarets，inthelowerpartofthetown，showthatIslamismstillsurvives，thoughthekhanatewasannexedtoMuscovymorethanthreecenturies，ago;butthetown，asawhole，hasaEuropeanratherthanan，Asiaticcharacter。Ifanyonevisitsitinthehopeofgetting“a，glimpseoftheEast，“hewillbegrievouslydisappointed，unless，indeed，hehappenstobeoneofthoseimaginativetouristswho，alwaysdiscoverwhattheywishtosee。Andyetitmustbeadmitted，that，ofallthetownsontheroute，Kazanisthemostinteresting。
ThoughnotOriental，ithasapeculiarcharacterofitsown，whilst，alltheothers——Simbirsk，Samara，Saratof——areasuninterestingas，Russianprovincialtownscommonlyare。Thefullforceand，solemnityofthatexpressionwillbeexplainedinthesequel。
Probablyaboutsunriseonthethirddaysomethinglikearangeof，mountainswillappearonthehorizon。Itmaybewelltosayat，once，topreventdisappointment，thatinrealitynothingworthyof，thenameofmountainistobefoundinthatpartofthecountry。
Thenearestmountain-rangeinthatdirectionistheCaucasus，which，ishundredsofmilesdistant，andconsequentlycannotbyany，possibilitybeseenfromthedeckofasteamer。Theelevationsin，questionaresimplyalowrangeofhills，calledtheZhigulinskiya，Gori。InWesternEuropetheywouldnotattractmuchattention，but，“inthekingdomoftheblind，“astheFrenchproverbhasit，“the，one-eyedmanisking“;andinaflatregionlikeEasternRussia，thesehillsformaprominentfeature。Thoughtheyhavenothingof，Alpinegrandeur，yettheirwell-woodedslopes，comingdowntothe，water’sedge——especiallywhencoveredwiththedelicatetintsof，earlyspring，ortherichyellowandredofautumnalfoliage——leave，animpressiononthememorynoteasilyeffaced。
Onthewhole——withallduedeferencetotheopinionsofmy，patrioticRussianfriends——ImustsaythatVolgasceneryhardly，repaysthetime，troubleandexpensewhichavoyagefromNizhnito，Tsaritsindemands。Therearesomeprettybitshereandthere，but，theyare“fewandfarbetween。”，Aglassofthemostexquisitewine，dilutedwithagallonofwatermakesaveryinsipidbeverage。The，deckofthesteamerisgenerallymuchmoreinterestingthanthe，banksoftheriver。Thereonemeetswithcurioustravelling，companions。ThemajorityofthepassengersareprobablyRussian，peasants，whoarealwaysreadytochatfreelywithoutdemandinga，formalintroduction，andtorelate——withcertainrestrictions——toa，newacquaintancethesimplestoryoftheirlives。OftenIhave，thuswhiledawaythewearyhoursbothpleasantlyandprofitably，andhavealwaysbeenimpressedwiththepeasant’shomelycommon，sense，good-naturedkindliness，half-fatalisticresignation，and，strongdesiretolearnsomethingaboutforeigncountries。This，lastpeculiaritymakeshimquestionaswellascommunicate，andhis，questions，thoughsometimesapparentlychildish，aregenerallyto，thepoint。
Amongthepassengersareprobablyalsosomerepresentativesofthe，variousFinnishtribesinhabitingthispartofthecountry;they，maybeinterestingtotheethnologistwholovestostudy，physiognomy，buttheyarefarlesssociablethantheRussians。
Natureseemstohavemadethemsilentandmorose，whilsttheir，conditionsoflifehavemadethemshyanddistrustful。TheTartar，ontheotherhand，isalmostsuretobealivelyandamusing，companion。Mostprobablyheisapeddlerorsmalltraderofsome，kind。Thebundleonwhichhereclinescontainshisstock-in-trade，composed，perhaps，ofcottonprintedgoodsandespeciallybright-
colouredcottonhandkerchiefs。Hehimselfisenvelopedina，capaciousgreasykhalat，ordressing-gown，andwearsafurcap，thoughthethermometermaybeat90degreesintheshade。The，roguishtwinkleinhissmallpiercingeyescontrastsstronglywith，thesombre，stolidexpressionoftheFinnishpeasantssittingnear，him。HehasmuchtorelateaboutSt。Petersburg，Moscow，and，perhapsAstrakhan;but，likeagenuinetrader，heisveryreticent，regardingthemysteriesofhisowncraft。Towardssunsethe，retireswithhiscompanionstosomequietspotonthedeckto，reciteeveningprayers。HereallthegoodMahometansonboard，assembleandstroketheirbeards，kneelontheirlittlestripsof，carpetandprostratethemselves，allkeepingtimeasiftheywere，performingsomenewkindofdrillundertheeveofaseveredrill-
sergeant。
IfthevoyageismadeabouttheendofSeptember，whenthetraders，arereturninghomefromthefairatNizhni-Novgorod，the，ethnologistwillhaveastillbetteropportunityofstudy。Hewill，thenfindnotonlyrepresentativesoftheFinnishandTartarraces，butalsoArmenians，Circassians，Persians，Bokhariots，andother，Orientals——amotleyandpicturesquebutdecidedlyunsavourycargo。
Howevergreattheethnographicalvarietyonboardmaybe，the，travellerwillprobablyfindthatfourdaysontheVolgaarequite，enoughforallpracticalandaestheticpurposes，andinsteadof，goingontoAstrakhanhewillquitthesteameratTsaritsin。Here，hewillfindarailwayofaboutfiftymilesinlength，connecting，theVolgaandtheDon。Isayadvisedlyarailway，andnotatrain，becausetrainsonthislinearenotveryfrequent。WhenIfirst，visitedthelocality，thirtyyearsago，therewereonlytwoaweek，sothatifyouinadvertentlymissedonetrainyouhadtowaitabout，threedaysforthenext。Prudent，nervouspeoplepreferred，travellingbytheroad，forontherailwaythestrangejoltsand，mysteriouscreakingswereveryalarming。Ontheotherhandthe，pacewassoslowthatrunningofftherailswouldhavebeenmerely，anamusingepisode，andevenacollisioncouldscarcelyhavebeen，attendedwithseriousconsequences。Happilythingsareimproving，eveninthisoutlyingpartofthecountry。Nowthereisonetrain，daily，anditgoesatalessfunerealpace。
FromKalatch，attheDonendoftheline，asteamerstartsfor，Rostoff，whichissituatednearthemouthoftheriver。The，navigationoftheDonismuchmoredifficultthanthatofthe，Volga。Theriverisextremelyshallow，andthesand-banksare，continuallyshifting，sothatmanytimesinthecourseoftheday，thesteamerrunsaground。Sometimessheisgotoffbysimply，reversingtheengines，butnotunfrequentlyshestickssofastthat，theengineshavetobeassisted。Thisiseffectedinacurious，way。ThecaptainalwaysgivesanumberofstalwartCossacksafree，passageonconditionthattheywillgivehimtheassistancehe，requires;andassoonastheshipsticksfastheordersthemto，jumpoverboardwithastouthawserandhaulheroff！，Thetaskis，notapleasantone，especiallyasthepoorfellowscannot，afterwardschangetheirclothes;buttheorderisalwaysobeyed，withalacrityandwithoutgrumbling。Cossacks，itwouldseem，have，nopersonalacquaintancewithcoldsandrheumatism。
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