CHAPTERVII
　　OFTHEINFLUENCEOFLUXURY
　　Thesecondobjectiontotheprinciplesalreadyestablished，isderivedfromtheinfluenceofluxury，andaffirms“thatnations，likeindividuals，aresubjecttothephenomenaofyouthandoldage，andthat，whenapeoplebyeffeminacyanddepravationofmannershavesunkintodecrepitude，itisnotwithinthecompassofhumanabilitytorestorethemtovigourandinnocence。”
　　Thisideahasbeenpartlyfoundedupontheromanticnotionsofpastorallifeandthegoldenage。Innocenceisnotvirtue。Virtuedemandstheactiveemploymentofanardentmindinthepromotionofthegeneralgood。Nomancanbeeminentlyvirtuouswhoisnotaccustomedtoanextensiverangeofreflection。Hemustseeallthebenefitstoarisefromadisinterestedproceeding，andmustunderstandthepropermethodofproducingthosebenefits。
　　Ignorance，theslothfulhabitsandlimitedviewsofuncultivatedlife，havenotinthemmoreoftruevirtue，thoughtheymaybemoreharmless，thanluxury，vanityandextravagance。Individualsofexquisitefeeling，whosedisgusthasbeenexcitedbythehardenedselfishnessortheunblushingcorruptionwhichhaveprevailedintheirowntimes，haverecurredinimaginationtotheforestsofNorwayorthebleakanduncomfortableHighlandsofScotlandinsearchofapurerraceofmankind。Thisimaginationhasbeentheoffspringofdisappointment，notthedictateofreasonandphilosophy。
　　Itmaybetrue，thatignoranceisnearerthanprejudicetothereceptionofwisdom，andthattheabsenceofvirtueisaconditionmoreauspiciousthanthepresenceofitsopposite。Inthiscaseitwouldhavebeenjustertocompareanationsunkinluxurytoanindividualwithconfirmedhabitsofwrong，thantoanindividualwhomadebilitatedconstitutionwasbringingfasttothegrave。Butneitherwouldthatcomparisonhavebeenfairandequitable。
　　Theconditionofnationsismorefluctuating，andwillbefoundlessobstinateinitsresistancetoaconsistentendeavourfortheirimprovement，thanthatofindividuals。Innationssomeoftheirmemberswillbelessconfirmedinerrorthanothers。Acertainnumberwillbeonlyinaverysmalldegreeindisposedtolistentothevoiceoftruth。Thisnumber，fromtheverynatureofjustsentiments，mustintheordinarycourseofthingsperpetuallyincrease。Everynewconvertwillbethemeansofconvertingothers。Inproportionasthebodyofdisciplesisaugmented，themodesofattackupontheprejudicesofotherswillbevaried，andsuitedtothevarietyofmen’stempersandprepossessions。
　　Addtothisthatgenerationsofmenareperpetuallygoingoffthestage，whileothergenerationssucceed。Thenextgenerationwillnothavesomanyprejudicestosubdue。Supposeadespoticnationbysomerevolutioninitsaffairstobecomepossessedoftheadvantagesoffreedom。Thechildrenofthepresentracewillbebredinmorefirmandindependenthabitsofthinking；thesuppleness，thetimidity，andtheviciousdexterityoftheirfathers，willgiveplacetoanerectmienandaclearanddecisivejudgement。
　　Thepartialandimperfectchangeofcharacterwhichwasintroducedatfirstwillinthesucceedingagebecomemoreunalloyedandcomplete。
　　Lastly，thepowerofreasonableandjustideasinchangingthecharacterofnationsisinonerespectinfinitelygreaterthananypowerwhichcanbebroughttobearuponasolitaryindividual。Thecaseisnotofthatcustomarysort，wheretheforceoftheoryaloneistriedincuringanypersonofhiserrors；butisasifheshouldbeplacedinanentirelynewsituation。Hishabitsarebrokenthrough，andhismotivesofactionchanged。
　　Insteadofbeingperpetuallyrecalledtoviciouspracticesbytherecurrenceofhisformerconnections，thewholesocietyreceivesanimpulsefromthesamecausethatactsupontheindividual。Newideasaresuggested，andthelanguorandimbecilitywhichmightbeincidenttoeacharecounteractedbythespectacleofgeneralenthusiasmandconcert。
　　Butithasbeenfurtheralleged，“that，evenshouldaluxuriousnationbeinduced，byintolerablegrievances，andnotorioususurpation，toembracejustprinciplesofhumansociety，theywouldbeunabletoperpetuatethem，andwouldsoonbeledbackbytheirevilhabitstotheirformervicesandcorruption：“thatis，theywouldbecapableoftheheroicenergythatshouldexpeltheusurper，butnotofthemoderateresolutionthatshouldpreventhisreturn。Theywouldrousethemselvessofarfromtheirlethargyastoassumeanewcharacterandenterintodifferentviews；but，afterhavingforsometimeactedupontheirconvictions，theywouldsuddenlybecomeincapableofunderstandingthetruthoftheirprinciplesandfeelingtheirinfluence。
　　Menalwaysactupontheirapprehensionsofpreferableness。Therearefewerrorsofwhichtheyareguiltywhichmaynotberesolvedintoanarrowandinadequateviewofthealternativepresentedfortheirchoice。Presentpleasuremayappearmorecertainandeligiblethandistantgood。Buttheyneverchooseevilasapprehendedtobeevil。Whereveraclearandunanswerablenotionofanysubjectispresentedtotheirview，acorrespondentactionorcourseofactionsinevitablyfollows。Havingthusgainedonestepintheacquisitionoftruth，itcannoteasilybeconceivedaslost。Abodyofmen，havingdetectedtheinjuriousconsequencesofanevilunderwhichtheyhavelonglaboured，andhavingshakenitoff，willscarcelyvoluntarilyrestorethemischieftheyhaveannihilated。Norecollectionofpasterrorcanreasonablybesupposedtohavestrengthenoughtoleadback，intoabsurdityanduncompensatedsubjection，menwhohaveoncebeenthoroughlyawakenedtotheperceptionoftruth。
　　CHAPTERVIII
　　HUMANINVENTIONSSUSCEPTIBLEOFPERPETUALIMPROVEMENT
　　Beforeweproceedtothedirectsubjectofthepresentenquiry，itmaynotbeimpropertoresumethesubjectofhumanimprovableness，andconsideritinasomewhatgreaterdetail。Anopinionhasbeenextensivelyentertained“thatthedifferencesofthehumanspeciesindifferentagesandcountries，particularlysofarasrelatestomoralprinciplesofconduct，areextremelyinsignificantandtrifling；thatwearedeceivedinthisrespectbydistanceandconfoundedbyglare；butthatinrealitythevirtuesandvicesofmen，collectivelytaken，alwayshaveremained，andofconsequence。”itissaid，“alwayswillremain，nearlyatthesamepoint。”
　　Theerroneousnessofthisopinionwillperhapsbemorecompletelyexposed，byasummaryrecollectionoftheactualhistoryofourspecies，thanbytheclosestdeductionsofabstractreason。Wewillinthisplacesimplyremindthereaderofthegreatchangeswhichmanhasundergoneasanintellectualbeing，entitlingustoinfertheprobabilityofimprovementsnotlessessential，toberealizedinfuture。Theconclusiontobededucedfromthisdelineation，thathismoralimprovementswillinsomedegreekeeppacewithhisintellectual，andhisactionscorrespondwithhisopinions，mustdependforitsforceuponthetrainofreasoningwhichhasalreadybeenbroughtforwardunderthathead。1*
　　Letuscarrybackourmindstomaninhisoriginalstate，abeingcapableofimpressionsandknowledgetoanunboundedextent，butnothavingasyetreceivedtheoneorcultivatedtheother；letuscontrastthisbeingwithallthatscienceandgeniushaveeffected；andfromhencewemayformsomeideawhatitisofwhichhumannatureiscapable。Itistoberememberedthatthisbeingdidnot，asnow，deriveassistancefromthecommunicationsofhisfellows，norhadhisfeebleandcrudeconceptionsamendedbytheexperienceofsuccessivecenturies；butthatinthestatewearefiguringallmenwereequallyignorant。Thefieldofimprovementwasbeforethem~
　　butforeverystepinadvancetheyweretobeindebtedtotheiruntutoredefforts。Norisitofconsequencewhethersuchwasactuallytheprogressofmind，orwhether，asothersteach，theprogresswasabridged，andmanwasimmediatelyadvancedhalfwaytotheendofhiscareerbytheinterpositionoftheauthorofhisnature。Inanycaseitisanallowable，andwillbefoundnounimprovingspeculation，toconsidermindasitisinitself，andtoenquirewhatwouldhavebeenitshistoryif，immediatelyuponitsproduction，ithadbeenlefttobeacteduponbythoseordinarylawsoftheuniversewithwhoseoperationweareacquainted。
　　Oneoftheacquisitionsmostevidentlyrequisiteasapreliminarytoourpresentimprovementsisthatoflanguage。Butitisimpossibletoconceiveanacquisitionthatmusthavebeeninitsoriginmoredifferentfromwhatatpresentitisfound，orthatlesspromisedthatcopiousnessandrefinementithassinceexhibited。
　　Itsbeginningwasprobablyfromthoseinvoluntarycrieswhichinfants，forexample，arefoundtoutterintheearlieststagesoftheirexistence，andwhich，previouslytotheideaofexcitingpityorprocuringassistance，spontaneouslyarisefromtheoperationofpainuponouranimalframe。Thesecries，whenactuallyuttered，becomeasubjectofperceptiontohimbywhomtheyareuttered；and，beingobservedtobeconstantlyassociatedwithcertainantecedentimpressionsandtoexcitetheideaofthoseimpressionsinthehearer，mayafterwardsberepeatedfromreflectionandthedesireofrelief。Eagerdesiretocommunicateanyinformationtoanotherwillalsopromptustouttersomesimplesoundforthepurposeofexcitingattention：
　　thissoundwillprobablyfrequentlyrecurtoorgansunpractisedtovariety，andwillatlengthstandasitwerebyconventionfortheinformationintendedtobeconveyed。Butthedistanceisextremefromthesesimplemodesofcommunication，whichwepossessincommonwithsomeoftheinferioranimals，toalltheanalysisandabstractionwhichlanguagesrequire。
　　Abstractionindeed，though，asitiscommonlyunderstood，itbeoneofthesublimestoperationsofmind，isinsomesortcoevalwithandinseparablefromtheexistenceofmind。2*Thenextsteptosimpleperceptionisthatofcomparison，orthecouplingtogetheroftwoideasandtheperceptionoftheirresemblancesanddifferences。Withoutcomparisontherecanbenopreference，andwithoutpreferencenovoluntaryaction：thoughitmustbeacknowledged，thatthiscomparisonisanoperationwhichmaybeperformedbythemindwithoutadvertingtoitsnature，andthatneitherthebrutenorthesavagehasaconsciousnessoftheseveralstepsoftheintellectualprogress。Comparisonimmediatelyleadstoimperfectabstraction。Thesensationofto-dayisclassed，ifsimilar，withthesensationofyesterday，andaninferenceismaderespectingtheconducttobeadopted。Withoutthisdegreeofabstraction，thefaintdawningsoflanguagealreadydescribed，couldneverhaveexisted。Abstraction，whichwasnecessarytothefirstexistenceoflanguage，isagainassistedinitsoperationsbylanguage。
　　Thatgeneralization，whichisimpliedintheverynotionofathinkingbeing，beingthusembodiedandrenderedamatterofsensibleimpression，makesthemindacquaintedwithitsownpowers，andcreatesarestlessdesireafterfurtherprogress。
　　But，thoughitbebynomeansimpossibletotracethecausesthatconcurredtotheproductionoflanguage，andtoprovethemadequatetotheireffect，itdoesnotthelessappearthatthisisanacquisitionofslowgrowthandinestimablevalue。Theverysteps，werewetopursuethem，wouldappearlikeanendlesslabyrinth。Thedistanceisimmeasurablebetweenthethreeorfourvagueandinarticulatesoundsutteredbyanimals，andthecopiousnessoflexicographyortheregularityofgrammar。Thegeneralandspecialnamesbywhichthingsareatfirstcomplicatedandafterwardsdivided，thenamesbywhichpropertiesareseparatedfromtheirsubstances，andpowersfromboth，thecomprehensivedistributionofpartsofspeech，verbs，adjectivesandparticles，theinflectionsofwordsbywhichthechangeoftheirterminationschangestheirmeaningthroughavarietyofshadings，theirconcordsandtheirgovernments，allofthempresentuswithsuchaboundlesscatalogueofsciencethathewhoontheonehanddidnotknowthatthetaskhadbeenactuallyperformed，orwhoontheotherwasnotintimatelyacquaintedwiththeprogressivenatureofmind，wouldpronouncetheaccomplishmentofthemimpossible。
　　Asecondinvention，wellcalculatedtoimpressuswithasenseoftheprogressivenatureofman，isthatofalphabeticalwriting。Hieroglyphicalorpicture-writingappearsatsometimetohavebeenuniversal，andthedifficultyofconceivingthegradationfromthistoalphabeticalissogreatastohaveinducedHartley，oneofthemostacutephilosophicalwriters，tohaverecoursetomiraculousinterpositionastheonlyadequatesolution。
　　Inrealitynoproblemcanbeimaginedmoreoperosethanthatofdecomposingthesoundsofwordsintofourandtwentysimpleelementsorletters，andagainfindingtheseelementsinallotherwords。Whenwehaveexaminedthesubjectalittlemoreclosely，andperceivedthestepsbywhichthislabourwasaccomplished，perhapstheimmensityofthelabourwillrathergainuponus，ashethatshallhavecountedamillionofunitswillhaveavasterideauponthesubjectthanhethatonlyconsiderstheminthegross。
　　InChinahieroglyphicalwritinghasneverbeensupersededbyalphabetical，andthisfromtheverynatureoftheirlanguage，whichisconsiderablymonosyllabic，thesamesoundbeingmadetosignifyagreatvarietyofobjects，bymeansofcertainshadingsoftonetoodelicateforanalphabettorepresent。
　　Theyhavehowevertwokindsofwriting，oneforthelearned，andanotherforthevulgar。Thelearnedadherecloselytotheirhieroglyphicalwriting，representingeverywordbyitscorrespondingpicture；butthevulgararefrequentintheirdeviationsfromit。
　　Hieroglyphicalwritingandspeechmayindeedbeconsideredinthefirstinstanceastwolanguagesrunningparalleltoeachother，butwithnonecessaryconnection。Thepictureandtheword，eachofthem，representtheidea，oneasimmediatelyastheother。But，thoughindependent，theywillbecomeaccidentallyassociated；thepictureatfirstimperfectly，andafterwardsmoreconstantlysuggestingtheideaofitscorrespondentsound。ItisinthismannerthatthemercantileclassesofChinabegantocorrupt，asitisstyled，theirhieroglyphicalwriting。Theyhadawordsupposeoftwosyllablestowrite。Thecharacterappropriatetothatwordtheywerenotacquaintedwith，oritfailedtosuggestitselftotheirmemory。Eachofthesyllableshoweverwasadistinctwordinthelanguage，andthecharactersbelongingtothemperfectlyfamiliar。Theexpedientthatsuggesteditselfwastowritethesetwocharacterswithamarksignifyingtheirunion，thoughinrealitythecharactershadhithertobeenappropriatedtoideasofadifferentsort，whollyunconnectedwiththatnowintendedtobeconveyed。
　　Thusasortofrebusorcharadewasproduced。Inothercasestheword，thoughmonosyllabic，wascapableofbeingdividedintotwosounds，andthesameprocesswasemployed。Thisisafirststeptowardsalphabeticalanalysis。Someword，suchastheinterjectionO！ortheparticleA，isalreadyasoundperfectlysimple，andthusfurnishesafirststonetotheedifice。But，thoughtheseideasmayperhapspresentuswithafaintviewofthemannerinwhichanalphabetwasproduced，yettheactualproductionofacompletealphabetisperhapsofallhumandiscoveriesthatwhichrequiredthemostperseveringreflection，theluckiestconcurrenceofcircumstances，andthemostpatientandgradualprogress。
　　Letushoweversupposemantohavegainedthetwofirstelementsofknowledge，speakingandwriting；letustracehimthroughallhissubsequentimprovements，throughwhateverconstitutestheinequalitybetweenNewtonandtheploughman，andindeedmuchmorethanthis，sincethemostignorantploughmanincivilizedsocietyisinfinitelydifferentfromwhathewouldhavebeenwhenstrippedofallthebenefitshehasderivedfromliteratureandthearts。Letussurveytheearthcoveredwiththelaboursofman，houses，enclosures，harvests，manufactures，instruments，machines，togetherwithallthewondersofpainting，poetry，eloquenceandphilosophy。
　　Suchwasmaninhisoriginalstate，andsuchismanasweatpresentbeholdhim。Isitpossibleforustocontemplatewhathehasalreadydonewithoutbeingimpressedwithastrongpresentimentoftheimprovementshehasyettoaccomplish？Thereisnosciencethatisnotcapableofadditions；
　　thereisnoartthatmaynotbecarriedtoastillhigherperfection。Ifthisbetrueofallothersciences，whynotofmorals？Ifthisbetrueofallotherarts，whynotofsocialinstitution？Theveryconceptionofthisaspossibleisinthehighestdegreeencouraging。Ifwecanstillfurtherdemonstrateittobeapartofthenaturalandregularprogressofmind，ourconfidenceandourhopeswillthenbecomplete。Thisisthetemperwithwhichweoughttoengageinthestudyofpoliticaltruth。Letuslookback，thatwemayprofitbytheexperienceofmankind；butletusnotlookback，asifthewisdomofourancestorswassuch，astoleavenoroomforfutureimprovement。
　　NOTES：
　　1。ChapterV。
　　2。Thequestionwhetherornotthehumanmindiscapableofformingabstractideas，hasbeenthesubjectofmuchprofoundandseriousdisquisition。
　　Itiscertainthatwehaveageneralstandardofsomesort，inconsequenceofwhich，ifananimalispresentedtoourview，wecaninmostcasesdecidethatitis，orisnotahorse，aman，&；c。；norisittobeimaginedthatweshouldbeunabletoformsuchjudgements，evenifweweredeniedtheuseofspeech。
　　Itisacuriousfact，andonthataccountworthytobementionedinthisplace，thatthehumanmindisperhapsincapableofentertaininganybutgeneralideas。Take，forexample，awineglass。If，afterthisglassiswithdrawn，Ipresenttoyouanotherfromthesameset，youwillprobablybeunabletodeterminewhetheritisanotherorthesame。Itiswithalikeinattentionthatpeopleingeneralviewaflockofsheep。Theshepherdonlydistinguishesthefeaturesofeveryoneofhissheepfromthefeaturesofeveryother。Butitisimpossiblesotoindividualizeourremarksastocauseourideatobetrulyparticular，andnotspecial。Thustherearememorableinstancesofonemansonearlyresemblinganother，astobeabletopasshimselfuponthewifeandalltherelativesofthisman，asifhewerethesame。
　　Theoppositionwhichhasbeensoingeniouslymaintainedagainstthedoctrineofabstractideasseemschieflytohavearisenfromahabitofwingthetermidea，not，asLockehasdone，foreveryconceptionthatcanexistinthemind，butasconstantlydescriptiveofanimage，orpicture。
　　Thefollowingviewofthesubjectwillperhapsserveinsomedegreetoremoveanyambiguitythatmightcontinuetorestuponit。
　　Ideas，consideringthattermascomprehendingallperceptions，bothprimary，orofthesenses，andsecondary，orofthememory，maybedividedintofourclasses：1。perfect。Theexistenceofthesewehavedisproved。
　　2。imperfect，suchasthosewhichareproducedinusbyanearandcarefulinspectionofanyvisibleobject。3。imperfect，suchasthoseproducedbyaslightanddistantview。4。imperfect，soastohavenoresemblancetoanimageofanyexternalobject。Theperceptionproducedinusinslightandcurrentdiscoursebythewordsriver，field，areofthisnature；andhavenomoreresemblancetotheimageofanyvisibleobjectthantheperceptionordinarilyproducedinusbythewordsconquest，government，virtue。
　　ThesubjectofthislastclassofideasisveryingeniouslytreatedbyBurke，inhisEnquiryintotheSublime，PartV。Hehashowevercommittedonematerialerrorinthediscussion，byrepresentingtheseasinstancesoftheemploymentof“wordswithoutideas。”Ifwerecollectthatbruteshavesimilarabstractions，andageneralconception，ofthefemaleoftheirownspecies，ofman，offood，ofthesmartofawhip，&；c。，weshallprobablyadmitthatsuchperceptionsandinalleventstheyareperceptions，or，accordingtotheestablishedlanguageuponthesubject，ideasarenotnecessarilyconnectedwiththeemploymentofwords。
　　PJ2BOOKII
　　PRINCIPALSOFSOCIETY
　　CHAPTERI
　　INTRODUCTION
　　Intheprecedingbookwehaveclearedthefoundationsfortheremainingbranchesofenquiry，andshownwhataretheprospectsitisreasonabletoentertainastofuturepoliticalimprovement。Theeffectswhichareproducedbypositiveinstitutionshavetherebeendelineated，aswellastheextentofthepowersofman，consideredinhissocialcapacity。Itistimethatweproceedtothosedisquisitionswhicharemoreimmediatelytheobjectofthepresentwork。
　　Politicalenquirymaybedistributedundertwoheads：first，whataretheregulationswhichwillconducetothewellbeingofmaninsociety；
　　and，secondly，whatistheauthoritywhichiscompetenttoprescriberegulations。
　　Theregulationstowhichtheconductofmenlivinginsocietyoughttobeconformedmaybeconsideredintwoways：first，thosemorallawswhichareenjoineduponusbythedictatesofenlightenedreason；and，secondly，thoseprinciplesadeviationfromwhichtheinterestofthecommunitymaybesupposedtorenderitpropertorepressbysanctionsandpunishment。
　　Moralityisthatsystemofconductwhichisdeterminedbyaconsiderationofthegreatestgeneralgood：heisentitledtothehighestmoralapprobationwhoseconductis，inthegreatestnumberofinstances，orinthemostmomentousinstances，governedbyviewsofbenevolence，andmadesubservienttopublicutility。Inlikemannertheonlyregulationswhichanypoliticalauthoritycanbejustlyentitledtoenforcearesuchasarebestadaptedtopublicutility。Consequently，justpoliticalregulationsarenothingmorethanacertainselectpartofmorallaw。Thesupremepowerinastateoughtnot，inthestrictestsense，torequireanythingofitsmembersthatanunderstandingsufficientlyenlightenedwouldnotprescribewithoutsuchinterference。1*
　　Theseconsiderationsseemtoleadtothedetectionofamistakewhichhasbeenverygenerallycommittedbypoliticalwritersofourowncountry。
　　TheyhaveforthemostpartconfinedtheirresearchestothequestionofWhatisajustpoliticalauthorityorthemosteligibleformofgovernment，consigningtoothersthedelineationofrightprinciplesofconductandequitableregulations。Butthereappearstobesomethingpreposterousinthismodeofproceeding。Awellconstitutedgovernmentisonlythemeansforenforcingsuitableregulations。Oneformofgovernmentispreferabletoanotherinexactproportiontothesecurityitaffordsthatnothingshallbedoneinthenameofthecommunitywhichisnotconducivetothewelfareofthewhole。Thequestiontherefore，Whatitiswhichisthusconducive，isuponeveryaccountentitledtothefirstplaceinourdisquisitions。
　　Oneoftheillconsequenceswhichhaveresultedfromthisdistortedviewofthescienceofpoliticsisanotionverygenerallyentertained，thatacommunity，orsocietyofmen，hasarighttolaydownwhateverrulesitmaythinkproperforitsownobservance。Thiswillpresentlybeprovedtobeanerroneousposition。2*Itmaybeprudentinanindividualtosubmitinsomecasestotheusurpationofamajority；itmaybeunavoidableinacommunitytoproceedupontheimperfectanderroneousviewstheyshallchancetoentertain：butthisisamisfortuneentaileduponusbythenatureofgovernment，andnotamatterofright。3*
　　Asecondillconsequencethathasarisenfromthisproceedingisthat，politicshavingbeenthusviolentlyseparatedfrommorality，governmentitselfhasnolongerbeencomparedwithitstruecriterion。Insteadofenquiringwhatspeciesofgovernmentwasmostconducivetothepublicwelfare，anunprofitabledisquisitionhasbeeninstitutedrespectingtheprobableoriginofgovernment；anditsdifferentformshavebeenestimated，notbytheconsequenceswithwhichtheywerepregnant，butthesourcefromwhichtheysprung。Hencemenhavebeenpromptedtolookbacktothefollyoftheirancestors，ratherthanforwardtothebenefitsderivablefromtheimprovementsofhumanknowledge。Hence，ininvestigatingtheirrights，theyhaverecurredlesstothegreatprinciplesofmoralitythantotherecordsandchartersofabarbarousage。Asifmenwerenotentitledtoallthebenefitsofthesocialstatetilltheycouldprovetheirinheritingthemfromsomebequestoftheirdistantprogenitors。Asifmenwerenotasjustifiableandmeritoriousinplantinglibertyinasoilinwhichithadneverexistedasinrestoringitwhereitcouldbeprovedonlytohavesufferedatemporarysuspension。
　　Thereasonshereassignedstronglytendtoevincethenecessityofestablishingthegenuineprinciplesofsociety，beforeweenteruponthedirectconsiderationofgovernment。Itmaybeproperinthisplacetostatethefundamentaldistinctionwhichexistsbetweenthesetopicsofenquiry。Manassociatedatfirstforthesakeofmutualassistance。Theydidnotforeseethatanyrestraintwouldbenecessarytoregulatetheconductofindividualmembersofthesocietytowardseachother，ortowardsthewhole。Thenecessityofrestraintgrewoutoftheerrorsandperversenessofafew。Anacutewriterhasexpressedthisideawithpeculiarfelicity“Societyandgovernment。”
　　sayshe，“aredifferentinthemselves，andhavedifferentorigins。Societyisproducedbyourwants，andgovernmentbyourwickedness。Societyisineverystateablessing；governmenteveninitsbeststatebutanecessaryevil。”4*
　　NOTES：
　　1。ChapterV，ofthefollowingBook。
　　2。ChapterV，ofthisBook。
　　3。ChapterV。
　　4。Paine’sCommonSense，p。1。
　　CHAPTERII
　　OFJUSTICE
　　Fromwhathasbeensaiditappears，thatthesubjectofourpresentenquiryisstrictlyspeakingadepartmentofthescienceofmorals。Moralityisthesourcefromwhichitsfundamentalaxiomsmustbedrawn，andtheywillbemadesomewhatclearerinthepresentinstance，ifweassumethetermjusticeasageneralappellationforallmoralduty。
　　Thatthisappellationissufficientlyexpressiveofthesubjectwillappear，ifweexaminemercy，gratitude，temperance，oranyofthosedutieswhich，inlooserspeaking，arecontradistinguishedfromjustice。WhyshouldIpardonthiscriminal，remuneratethisfavour，orabstainfromthisindulgence？
　　Ifitpartakeofthenatureofmorality，itmustbeeitherrightorwrong，justorunjust。Itmusttendtothebenefitoftheindividual，eitherwithouttrenchingupon，orwithactualadvantagetothemassofindividuals。Eitherwayitbenefitsthewhole，becauseindividualsarepartsofthewhole。
　　Thereforetodoitisjust，andtoforbearitisunjust——ByjusticeIunderstandthatimpartialtreatmentofeverymaninmattersthatrelatetohishappiness，whichismeasuredsolelybyaconsiderationofthepropertiesofthereceiver，andthecapacityofhimthatbestows。Itsprinciplethereforeis，accordingtoawellknownphrase，tobe“norespecterofpersons。”
　　Considerablelightwillprobablybethrownuponourinvestigation，if，quittingforthepresentthepoliticalview，weexaminejusticemerelyasitexistsamongindividuals。Justiceisaruleofconductoriginatingintheconnectionofonepercipientbeingwithanother。Acomprehensivemaximwhichhasbeenlaiddownuponthesubjectis“thatweshouldloveourneighbourasourselves。”Butthismaxim，thoughpossessingconsiderablemeritasapopularprinciple，isnotmodeledwiththestrictnessofphilosophicalaccuracy。
　　InalooseandgeneralviewIandmyneighbourarebothofusmen；andofconsequenceentitledtoequalattention。But，inreality，itisprobablethatoneofusisabeingofmoreworthandimportancethantheother。
　　Amanisofmoreworththanabeast；because，beingpossessedofhigherfaculties，heiscapableofamorerefinedandgenuinehappiness。InthesamemannertheillustriousarchbishopofCambraywasofmoreworththanhisvalet，andtherearefewofusthatwouldhesitatetopronounce，ifhispalacewereinflames，andthelifeofonlyoneofthemcouldbepreserved，whichofthetwooughttobepreferred。
　　Butthereisanothergroundofpreference，besidetheprivateconsiderationofoneofthembeingfurtherremovedfromthestateofamereanimal。Wearenotconnectedwithoneortwopercipientbeings，butwithasociety，anation，andinsomesensewiththewholefamilyofmankind。Ofconsequencethatlifeoughttobepreferredwhichwillbemostconducivetothegeneralgood。InsavingthelifeofFenelon，supposeatthemomentheconceivedtheprojectofhisimmortalTelemachus，shouldhavebeenpromotingthebenefitofthousands，whohavebeencuredbytheperusalofthatworkofsomeerror，viceandconsequentunhappiness。Nay，mybenefitwouldextendfurtherthanthis；foreveryindividual，thuscured，hasbecomeabettermemberofsociety，andhascontributedinhisturntothehappiness，information，andimprovementofothers。
　　SupposeIhadbeenmyselfthevalet；Ioughttohavechosentodie，ratherthanFenelonshouldhavedied。ThelifeofFenelonwasreallypreferabletothatofthevalet。Butunderstandingisthefacultythatperceivesthetruthofthisandsimilarpropositions；andjusticeistheprinciplethatregulatesmyconductaccordingly。Itwouldhavebeenjustinthevalettohavepreferredthearchbishoptohimself。Tohavedoneotherwisewouldhavebeenabreachofjustice。1*
　　Supposethevalethadbeenmybrother，myfather，ormybenefactor。
　　Thiswouldnotalterthetruthoftheproposition。ThelifeofFenelonwouldstillbemorevaluablethanthatofthevalet；andjustice，pure，unadulteratedjustice，wouldstillhavepreferredthatwhichwasmostvaluable。
　　JusticewouldhavetaughtmetosavethelifeofFenelonattheexpenseoftheother。Whatmagicisthereinthepronoun“my。”thatshouldjustifyusinoverturningthedecisionsofimpartialtruth？Mybrotherormyfathermaybeafooloraprofligate，malicious，lyingordishonest。Iftheybe，ofwhatconsequenceisitthattheyaremine？
　　“ButtomyfatherIamindebtedforexistence；hesupportedmeinthehelplessnessofinfancy。”Whenhefirstsubjectedhimselftothenecessityofthesecares，hewasprobablyinfluencedbynoparticularmotivesofbenevolencetohisfutureoffspring。Everyvoluntarybenefithoweverentitlesthebestowertosomekindnessandretribution。Why？Becauseavoluntarybenefitisanevidenceofbenevolentintention，thatis，inacertaindegree，ofvirtue。Itisthedispositionofthemind，nottheexternalactionseparatelytaken，thatentitlestorespect。Butthemeritofthisdispositionisequal，whetherthebenefitwereconferreduponmeoruponanother。Iandanothermancannotbothberightinpreferringourrespectivebenefactors，formybenefactorcannotbeatthesametimebothbetterandworsethanhisneighbour。Mybenefactoroughttobeesteemed，notbecausehebestowedabenefituponme，butbecausehebestowedituponahumanbeing。Hisdesertwillbeinexactproportiontothedegreeinwhichthathumanbeingwasworthyofthedistinctionconferred。
　　Thuseveryviewofthesubjectbringsusbacktotheconsiderationofmyneighbour’smoralworth，andhisimportancetothegeneralweal，astheonlystandardtodeterminethetreatmenttowhichheisentitled。Gratitudetherefore，ifbygratitudeweunderstandasentimentofpreferencewhichIentertaintowardsanother，uponthegroundofmyhavingbeenthesubjectofhisbenefits，isnoparteitherofjusticeorvirtue。2*
　　Itmaybeobjected，“thatmyrelation，mycompanion，ormybenefactor，willofcourseinmanyinstancesobtainanuncommonportionofmyregard：
　　for，notbeinguniversallycapableofdiscriminatingthecomparativeworthofdifferentmen，IshallinevitablyjudgemostfavourablyofhimofwhosevirtuesIhavereceivedthemostunquestionableproofs；andthusshallbecompelledtopreferthemanofmoralworthwhomIknow，toanotherwhomaypossess，unknowntome，anessentialsuperiority。”
　　Thiscompulsionhoweverisfoundedonlyintheimperfectionofhumannature。Itmayserveasanapologyformyerror，butcanneverchangeerrorintotruth。Itwillalwaysremaincontrarytothestrictanduniversaldecisionsofjustice。Thedifficultyofconceivingthis，isowingmerelytoourconfoundingthedispositionfromwhichanactionischosen，withtheactionitself。Thedispositionthatwouldprefervirtuetovice，andagreaterdegreeofvirtuetoaless，isundoubtedlyasubjectofapprobation；
　　theerroneousexerciseofthisdisposition，bywhichawrongobjectisselected，ifunavoidable，istobedeplored，butcanbynocolouringandundernodenominationbeconvertedintoright。3*
　　Itmayinthesecondplacebeobjected，“thatamutualcommerceofbenefitstendstoincreasethemassofbenevolentaction，andthattoincreasethemassofbenevolentactionistocontributetothegeneralgood。”Indeed！
　　Isthegeneralgoodpromotedbyfalsehood，bytreatingamanofonedegreeofworthasifhehadtentimesthatworth？orasifhewereinanydegreedifferentfromwhathereallyis？Wouldnotthemostbeneficialconsequencesresultfromadifferentplan；frommyconstantlyandcarefullyenquiringintothedesertsofallthosewithwhomIamconnected，andfromtheirbeingsure，afteracertainallowanceforthefallibilityofhumanjudgement，ofbeingtreatedbymeexactlyastheydeserved？Whocandescribethebenefitsthatwouldresultfromsuchaplanofconduct，ifuniversallyadopted？
　　Itwouldperhapstendtomakethetruthinthisrespectmoreaccuratelyunderstoodtoconsiderthat，whereasthereceivedmoralityteachesmetobegrateful，whetherinaffectionorinact，forbenefitsconferredonmyself，thereasoningsheredelivered，withoutremovingthetieuponmefrompersonalbenefitsexceptwherebenefitisconferredfromanunworthymotive，multiplytheobligation，andenjoinmetobealsogratefulforbenefitsconferreduponothers。Myobligationtowardsmybenefactor，supposinghisbenefittobejustlyconferred，isinnosortdissolved；norcananythingauthorizemetosupersedeitbuttherequisitionofasuperiorduty。Thatwhichtiesmetomybenefactor，upontheseprinciples，isthemoralworthhehasdisplayed；anditwillfrequentlyhappenthatIshallbeobligedtoyieldhimthepreference，because，whileothercompetitorsmaybeofgreaterworth，theevidenceIhaveoftheworthofmybenefactorismorecomplete。
　　Thereseemstobemoretruthintheargument，derivedchieflyfromtheprevailingmodesofsocialexistence，infavourofmyproviding，inordinarycases，formywifeandchildren，mybrothersandrelations，beforeIprovideforstrangers，thaninthosewhichhavejustbeenexamined。Aslongastheprovidingforindividualsisconductedwithitspresentirregularityandcaprice，itseemsasiftheremustbeacertaindistributionoftheclassneedingsuperintendenceandsupply，amongtheclassaffordingit；
　　thateachmanmayhavehisclaimandresource。Butthisargumentistobeadmittedwithgreatcaution。Itbelongsonlytoordinarycases；andcasesofahigherorder，oramoreurgentnecessity，willperpetuallyoccurincompetitionwithwhichthesewillbealtogetherimpotent。Wemustbeseverelyscrupulousinmeasuringthequantityofsupply；and，withrespecttomoneyinparticular，shouldrememberhowlittleisyetunderstoodofthetruemodeofemployingitforthepublicbenefit。
　　Nothingcanbelessexposedtoreasonableexceptionthantheseprinciples。
　　Iftherebesuchathingasvirtue，itmustbeplacedinaconformitytotruth，andnottoerror。ItcannotbevirtuousthatIshouldesteemaman，thatis，considerhimaspossessedofestimablequalities，wheninrealityheisdestituteofthem。ItsurelycannotconducetothebenefitofmankindthateachmanshouldhaveadifferentstandardofmoralJudgement，andpreference，andthatthestandardofallshouldvaryfromthatofreality。
　　Thosewhoteachthisimposethedeepestdisgraceuponvirtue。Theyassertinotherwordsthat，whenmenceasetobedeceived，whenthefilmisremovedfromtheireyes，andtheyseethingsastheyare，theywillceasetobeeithergoodorhappy。Uponthesystemoppositetotheirs，thesoundestcriterionofvirtueistoputourselvesintheplaceofanimpartialspectator，ofanangelicnature，suppose，beholdingusfromanelevatedstation，anduninfluencedbyourprejudices，conceivingwhatwouldbehisestimateoftheintrinsiccircumstancesofourneighbour，andactingaccordingly。
　　Havingconsideredthepersonswithwhomjusticeisconversant，letusnextenquireintothedegreeinwhichweareobligedtoconsultthegoodofothers。Andhere，upontheverysamereasons，itwillfollowthatitisjustIshoulddoallthegoodinmypower。Doesapersonindistressapplytomeforrelief？Itismydutytograntit，andIcommitabreachofdutyinrefusing。Ifthisprinciplebenotofuniversalapplication，itisbecause，inconferringabenefituponanindividual，Imayinsomeinstancesinflictaninjuryofsuperiormagnitudeuponmyselforsociety。
　　Nowthesamejusticethatbindsmetoanyindividualofmyfellowmenbindsmetothewhole。If，whileIconferabenefitupononeman，itappear，instrikinganequitablebalance，thatIaminjuringthewhole，myactionceasestoberight，andbecomesabsolutelywrong。ButhowmuchamIboundtodoforthegeneralweal，thatis，forthebenefitoftheindividualsofwhomthewholeiscomposed？Everythinginmypower。Totheneglectofthemeansofmyownexistence？No；forIammyselfapartofthewhole。
　　Beside，itwillrarelyhappenthattheprojectofdoingforotherseverythinginmypowerwillnotdemandforitsexecutionthepreservationofmyownexistence；orinotherwords，itwillrarelyhappenthatIcannotdomoregoodintwentyyearsthaninone。IftheextraordinarycaseshouldoccurinwhichIcanpromotethegeneralgoodbymydeathmorethanbymylife，justicerequiresthatIshouldbecontenttodie。Inothercases，itwillusuallybeincumbentonmetomaintainmybodyandmindintheutmostvigour，andinthebestconditionforservice。4*
　　Suppose，forexample，thatitisrightforonemantopossessagreaterportionofpropertythananother，whetherasthefruitofhisindustry，ortheinheritanceofhisancestors。Justiceobligeshimtoregardthispropertyasatrust，andcallsuponhimmaturelytoconsiderinwhatmanneritmaybeemployedfortheincreaseofliberty，knowledgeandvirtue。Hehasnorighttodisposeofashillingofitatthesuggestionofhiscaprice。
　　Sofarfrombeingentitledtowellearnedapplause，forhavingemployedsomescantypittanceintheserviceofphilanthropy，heisintheeyeofjusticeadelinquentifhewithholdanyportionfromthatservice。Couldthatportionhavebeenbetterormoreworthilyemployed？Thatitcouldisimpliedintheverytermsoftheproposition。Thenitwasjustitshouldhavebeensoemployed——Inthesamemannerasmyproperty，Iholdmypersonasatrustinbehalfofmankind。Iamboundtoemploymytalents，myunderstanding，mystrengthandmytime，fortheproductionofthegreatestquantityofgeneralgood。Sucharethedeclarationsofjustice，sogreatistheextentofmyduty。
　　Butjusticeisreciprocal。IfitbejustthatIshouldconferabenefit，itisjustthatanothermanshouldreceiveit，and，ifIwithholdfromhimthattowhichheisentitled，hemayjustlycomplain。MyneighbourisinwantoftenpoundsthatIcanspareThereisnolawofpoliticalinstitutiontoreachthiscase，andtransferthepropertyfrommetohim。
　　Butinapassivesense，unlessitcanbeshownthatthemoneycanbemorebeneficentlyemployed，hisrightisascompletethoughactivelyhehavenotthesameright，orratherduty，topossesshimselfofitasifhehadmybondinhispossession，orhadsuppliedmewithgoodstotheamount。5*
　　Tothisithassometimesbeenanswered“thatthereismorethanonepersonwhostandsinneedofthemoneyIhavetospare，andofconsequenceImustbeatlibertytobestowitasIplease。”Bynomeans。Ifonlyonepersonofferhimselftomyknowledgeorsearch，tomethereisbutone。
　　ThoseothersthatIcannotfindbelongtootherrichmentoassisteverymanisinrealityrichwhohasmorethanhisjustoccasionsdemand，andnottome。Ifmorethanonepersonoffer，Iamobligedtobalancetheirclaims，andconductmyselfaccordingly。Itisscarcelypossiblethattwomenshouldhaveanexactlyequalclaim，orthatIshouldbeequallycertainrespectingtheclaimoftheoneasoftheother。
　　Itisthereforeimpossibleformetoconferuponanymanafavour；I
　　canonlydohimright。Whateverdeviatesfromthelawofjustice，thoughitshouldbedoneinthefavourofsomeindividualorsomepartofthegeneralwhole，issomuchsubtractedfromthegeneralstock，somuchofabsoluteinjustice。
　　Thereasoningsherealleged，aresufficientclearlytoestablishthecompetenceofjusticeasaprincipleofdeductioninallcasesofmoralenquiry。Theyarethemselvesratherofthenatureofillustrationandexample，and，iferrorbeimputabletotheminparticulars，thiswillnotinvalidatethegeneralconclusion，theproprietyofapplyingmoraljusticeasacriterionintheinvestigationofpoliticaltruth。
　　Societyisnothingmorethananaggregationofindividuals。Itsclaimsanddutiesmustbetheaggregateoftheirclaimsandduties，theonenomoreprecariousandarbitrarythantheother。Whathasthesocietyarighttorequirefromme？Thequestionisalreadyanswered：everythingthatitismydutytodo。Anythingmore？Certainlynot。Canitchangeeternaltruth，orsubvertthenatureofmenandtheiractions？Canitmakemydutyconsistincommittingintemperance，inmaltreatingorassassinatingmyneighbour？——
　　Again，whatisitthatthesocietyisboundtodoforitsmembers？Everythingthatisrequisitefortheirwelfare。Butthenatureoftheirwelfareisdefinedbythenatureofmind。Thatwillmostcontributetoitwhichexpandstheunderstanding，suppliesincitementstovirtue，fillsuswithagenerousconsciousnessofourindependence，andcarefullyremoveswhatevercanimpedeourexertions。
　　Shoulditbeaffirmed，“thatitisnotinthepowerofpoliticalsystemtosecuretoustheseadvantages。”theconclusionwillnotbelessincontrovertible。
　　Itisboundtocontributeeverythingitisabletothesepurposes。Supposeitsinfluenceintheutmostdegreelimited；theremustbeonemethodapproachingnearerthananyothertothedesiredobject，andthatmethodoughttobeuniversallyadopted。Thereisonethingthatpoliticalinstitutionscanassuredlydo，theycanavoidpositivelycounteractingthetrueinterestsoftheirsubjects。Butallcapriciousrulesandarbitrarydistinctionsdopositivelycounteractthem。Thereisscarcelyanymodificationofsocietybuthasinitsomedegreeofmoraltendency。Sofarasitproducesneithermischiefnorbenefit，itisgoodfornothing。Sofarasittendstotheimprovementofthecommunity，itoughttobeuniversallyadopted。
　　NOTES
　　1。Thequestionhowfarimpartialjusticeisamotivecapableofoperatinguponthemindwillbefoundexaminedatlength，BookIV，ChapterX。
　　2。ThisargumentisstatedwithgreatclearnessinanEssayontheNatureofTrueVirtue，byJonathanEdwards，authorofacelebratedworkontheFreedomoftheWill。
　　3。ChapterIV。
　　4。Appendix。No。1。OfSuicide。
　　5。ChapterV。
　　AppendixI。
　　OFSUICIDE
　　Thisreasoningwillthrowsomelightuponthelongdisputedcaseofsuicide。“HaveIarighttodestroymyselfinordertoescapefrompainordistress？“Circumstancesthatshouldjustifysuchanaction，canrarelyoccur。Therearefewsituationsthatcanexcludethepossibilityoffuturelife，vigour，andusefulness。Itwillfrequentlyhappenthattheman，whooncesawnothingbeforehimbutdespair，shallafterwardsenjoyalongperiodofhappinessandhonour。Inthemeantimethepowerofterminatingourownlives，isoneofthefacultieswithwhichweareendowed；andtherefore，likeeveryotherfaculty，isasubjectofmoraldiscipline。Incommonwitheverybranchofmorality，itisatopicofcalculation，astothebalanceofgoodandeviltoresultfromitsemploymentinanyindividualinstance。
　　Weshouldhoweverbescrupulouslyuponourguardagainstthedeceptionsthatmelancholyandimpatiencearesowellcalculatedtoimpose。Weshouldconsiderthat，thoughthepaintobesufferedbyourselvesisbynomeanstobeoverlooked，wearebutone，andthepersonsnearlyorremotelyinterestedinourpossibleusefulnessinnumerable。Eachmanisbutthepartofagreatsystem，andallthathehasissomuchwealthtobeputtotheaccountofthegeneralstock。
　　Thereisanothercaseofsuicideofmoredifficultestimation。WhatshallwethinkofthereasoningofLycurgus，who，whenhedetermineduponavoluntarydeath，remarked“thatallthefacultiesarationalbeingpossessedwerecapableofbeingbenevolentlyemployed，andthat，afterhavingspenthislifeintheserviceofhiscountry，amanought，ifpossible，torenderhisdeathasourceofadditionalbenefit？“ThiswasthemotiveofthesuicideofCodrus，LeonidasandDecius。IfthesamemotiveprevailedinthemuchadmiredsuicideofCato，andhewereinstigatedbyreasonspurelybenevolent，itisimpossiblenottoapplaudhisintention，evenifheweremistakenintheapplication。Thedifficultyistodecidewhetherinanyinstancetherecoursetoavoluntarydeathcanoverbalancetheusefulnesstobedisplayed，intwentyyearsofadditionallife。
　　Additionalimportancewillbereflecteduponthisdisquisitionifwerememberthatmartyrsmarturesaresuicidesbytheverysignificationoftheterm。Theydieforatestimonymartution。Butthatwouldbeimpossibleiftheirdeathwerenottoacertaindegreeavoluntaryaction。Wemustassumethatitwaspossibleforthemtoavoidthisfate，beforewecandrawanyconclusionfromitinfavourofthecausetheyespoused。Theyweredeterminedtodie，ratherthanreflectdishonouronthatcause。
　　AppendixII
　　OFDUELLING
　　Itmaybeproperinthisplacetobestowamoment’sconsiderationuponthetritebutveryimportantcaseofduelling。Ashortreflectionwillsufficetosetitinitstruelight。
　　Thisdespicablepracticewasoriginallyinventedbybarbariansforthegratificationofrevenge。Itwasprobablyatthattimethoughtaveryhappyproject，forreconcilingtheodiousnessofmalignitywiththegallantryofcourage。
　　Butinthislightitisnowgenerallygivenup。Menofthebestunderstandingwholendittheirsanctionareunwillinglyinducedtodoso，andengageinsinglecombatmerelythattheirreputationmaysustainnoslander。
　　Inexaminingthissubjectwemustproceedupononeoftwosuppositions。
　　Eitherthelivesofboththepersonstobehazardedareworthless，ortheyarenot。Inthelattercase，thequestionanswersitself，andcannotstandinneedofdiscussion。Usefullivesarenottobehazarded，fromaviewtothepartialandcontemptibleobloquythatmaybeannexedtotherefusalofsuchaduel，thatis，toanactofvirtue。
　　Whentheduellisttellsmethatheandthepersonthathasoffendedhimareofnopossibleworthtothecommunity，Imayreasonablyconcludethathetalksthelanguageofspleen。But，ifItakehimathisword，isittobeadmitted，thoughhecannotbenefitthecommunity，thatheshouldinjureit？Whatwouldbetheconsequenceifweallowedourselvestoassaileveryonethatwethoughtworthlessintheworld？Inreality，whenhetalksthislanguage，hedesertsthegroundofvindicatinghisinjuredhonour，andshowsthathisconductisthatofavindictiveandbrutalizedsavage。
　　“Buttherefusingaduelisanambiguousaction。Cowardsmaypretendprincipletoshelterthemselvesfromadangertheydarenotmeet。”
　　Thisispartlytrueandpartlyfalse。Therearefewactionsindeedthatarenotambiguous，orthatwiththesamegeneraloutlinemaynotproceedfromdifferentmotives。Butthemannerofdoingthemwillsufficientlyshowtheprinciplefromwhichtheyspring。
　　He，thatwouldbreakthroughareceivedcustombecausehebelievesittobewrong，mustnodoubtarmhimselfwithfortitude。Thepointinwhichweprincipallyfail，isinnotaccuratelyunderstandingourownintentions，andtakingcarebeforehandtopurifyourselvesfromeveryalloyofweaknessanderror。He，whocomesforwardwithnootherideabutthatofrectitude，andwhoexpresses，withthesimplicityandfirmnesswhichconvictionneverfailstoinspire，theviewswithwhichheispenetrated，isinnodangerofbeingmistakenforacoward。Ifhehesitate，itisbecausehehasnotanideaperfectlyclearofthesentimentheintendstoconvey。Ifhebeinanydegreeembarrassed，itisbecausehehasnotafeelingsufficientlygenerousandintrepidofthedemeritoftheactioninwhichheisurgedtoengage。
　　Ifcouragehaveanyintelligiblenature，oneofitsprincipalfruitsmustbethedaringtospeaktruthatalltimes，toallpersons，andineverypossiblesituationinwhichawellinformedsenseofdutymayprescribeit。Whatisitbutthewantofcouragethatshouldpreventmefromsaying，“Sir，Iwillnotacceptyourchallenge。HaveIinjuredyou？Iwillreadilyandwithoutcompulsionrepairmyinjusticetotheuttermostmite。Haveyoumisconstruedme？Statetometheparticulars，anddoubtnotthatwhatistrueIwillmakeappeartobetrue。IshouldbeanotoriouscriminalwereItoattemptyourlife，orassistyouinanattemptuponmine。Whatcompensationwilltheopinionoftheworldmakefortherecollectionofsovileandbrutalaproceeding？Thereisnotrueapplausebutwheretheheartofhimthatreceivesitbeatsinunison。Thereisnocensureterriblewhiletheheartrepelsitwithconsciousintegrity。IamnotthecowardtodoadeedthatmysouldetestsbecauseIcannotendurethescoffsofthemistaken。Lossofreputationisaseriousevil。ButIwillactsothatnomanshallsuspectmeofirresolutionandpusillanimity。”Hethatshouldfirmlyholdthislanguage，andactaccordingly，wouldsoonbeacquittedofeverydishonourableimputation。
　　CHAPTERIII
　　OFTHEEQUALITYOFMANKIND
　　Theprinciplesofjustice，asexplainedintheprecedingchapter，proceedupontheassumptionoftheequalityofmankind。Thisequalityiseitherphysicalormoral。Physicalequalitymaybeconsideredeitherasitrelatestothestrengthofthebodyorthefacultiesofthemind。
　　Thispartofthesubjecthasbeenexposedtocavilandobjection。Ithasbeensaid“thatthereverseofthisequalityistheresultofourexperience。
　　Amongtheindividualsofourspecies，weactuallyfindthattherearenottwoalike。Onemanisstrong，andanotherweak。Onemaniswise，andanotherfoolish。Allthatexistsintheworldoftheinequalityofconditionsistobetracedtothisastheirsource。Thestrongmanpossessespowertosubdue，andtheweakstandsinneedofanallytoprotect。Theconsequenceisinevitable：theequalityofconditionsisachimericalassumption，neitherpossibletobereducedintopractice，nordesirableifitcouldbesoreduced。”
　　Uponthisstatementtwoobservationsaretobemade。First，thisinequalitywasinitsorigininfinitelylessthanitisatpresent。Intheuncultivatedstateofman，diseases，effeminacyandluxurywerelittleknown；and，ofconsequence，thestrengthofeveryonemuchmorenearlyapproachedtothestrengthofhisneighbour。Intheuncultivatedstateofman，theunderstandingsofallwerelimited，theirwants，theirideasandtheirviewsnearlyuponalevel。Itwastobeexpectedthat，intheirfirstdeparturefromthisstate，greatirregularitieswouldintroducethemselves；anditistheobjectofsubsequentwisdomandimprovementtomitigatetheseirregularities。
　　Secondly，Notwithstandingtheencroachmentsthathavebeenmadeupontheequalityofmankind，agreatandsubstantialequalityremains。Thereisnosuchdisparityamongthehumanraceastoenableonemantoholdseveralothermeninsubjection，exceptsofarastheyarewillingtobesubject。Allgovernmentisfoundedinopinion。Menatpresentliveunderanyparticularformbecausetheyconceiveittheirinteresttodoso。Onepartindeedofacommunityorempiremaybeheldinsubjectionbyforce；
　　butthiscannotbethepersonalforceoftheirdespot；itmustbetheforceofanotherpartofthecommunity，whoareofopinionthatitistheirinteresttosupporthisauthority。Destroythisopinion，andthefabricwhichisbuiltuponitfallstotheground。Itfollowsthereforethatallmenareessentiallyindependent——Somuchforthephysicalequality。
　　Themoralequalityisstilllessopentoreasonableexception。BymoralequalityIunderstand，theproprietyofapplyingoneunalterableruleofjusticetoeverycasethatmayarise。Thiscannotbequestioned，butuponargumentsthatwouldsubverttheverynatureofvirtue。“Equality。”ithasbeenaffirmed，“willalwaysbeanunintelligiblefiction，solongasthecapacitiesofmenshallbeunequal，andtheirpretendedclaimshaveneitherguaranteenorsanctionbywhichtheycanbeenforced。”1*Butsurelyjusticeissufficientlyintelligibleinitsownnature，abstractedlyfromtheconsiderationwhetheritbeorbenotreducedintopractice。Justicehasrelationtobeingsendowedwithperception，andcapableofpleasureandpain。Nowitimmediatelyresultsfromthenatureofsuchbeings，independentlyofanyarbitraryconstitution，thatpleasureisagreeableandpainodious，pleasuretobedesiredandpaintobedisapproved。Itisthereforejustandreasonablethatsuchbeingsshouldcontribute，sofarasitliesintheirpower，tothepleasureandbenefitofeachother。Amongpleasures，somearemoreexquisite，moreunalloyedandlessprecariousthanothers。
　　Itisjustthattheseshouldbepreferred。
　　Fromthesesimpleprincipleswemaydeducethemoralequalityofmankind。
　　Wearepartakersofacommonnature，andthesamecausesthatcontributetothebenefitofonewillcontributetothebenefitofanother。Oursensesandfacultiesareofthesamedenomination。Ourpleasuresandpainswillthereforebealike。Weareallofusendowedwithreason，abletocompare，tojudgeandtoinfer。Theimprovementthereforewhichistobedesiredforoneistobedesiredforanother。Weshallbeprovidentforourselves，andusefultoeachotherinproportionasweriseabovethesphereofprejudice。
　　Thesameindependence，thesamefreedomfromanysuchrestraint，asshouldpreventusfromgivingthereinstoourownunderstanding，orfromuttering，uponalloccasions，whateverwethinktobetrue，willconducetotheimprovementofall。Therearecertainopportunitiesandacertainsituationmostadvantageoustoeveryhumanbeing，anditisjustthattheseshouldbecommunicatedtoall，asnearlyasthegeneraleconomywillpermit。
　　Thereisindeedonespeciesofmoralinequality，paralleltothephysicalinequalitythathasbeenalreadydescribed。Thetreatmenttowhichmenareentitledistobemeasuredbytheirmeritsandtheirvirtues。Thatcountrywouldnotbetheseatofwisdomandreasonwherethebenefactorofhisspecieswasregardedwithnogreaterdegreeofcomplacencethantheirenemy。Butinrealitythisdistinction，sofarfrombeingadversetoequalityinanytenablesense，isfriendlytoit，andisaccordinglyknownbytheappellationofequity，atermderivedfromthesameorigin。
　　Thoughinsomesenseallexception，ittendstothesamepurposetowhichtheprincipleitselfisindebtedforitsvalue。Itiscalculatedloinfuseintoeverybosomanemulationofexcellence。Thethingreallylobedesiredistheremovingasmuchaspossiblearbitrarydistinctions，andleavingtotalentsandvirtuethefieldofexertionunimpaired。Weshouldendeavourtoaffordtoallthesameopportunitiesandthesameencouragement，andtorenderjusticethecommoninterestandchoice。
　　Itshouldbeobservedthattheobjectofthischapterisbarelytopresentageneraloutlineoftheprincipleofequality。Thepracticalinferencesthatflowfromitmustremaintobedetailedundersubsequentheadsofenquiry。
　　NOTES：
　　1。“Onadit-quenousavionstouslesmê；mesdroits。J’ignorecequec’estruelesmê；mesdroits，où；ilyainé；galité；
　　detalensoudeforce，etnullegarantie，nullesanction。”Raynal，Revolutiond’Amé；rique，p。34。
　　CHAPTERIV
　　OFPERSONALVIRTUEANDDUTY
　　Therearetwosubjects，oftheutmostimportancetoajustdelineationoftheprinciplesofsociety，whichare，onthataccount，entitledtoaseparateexamination：thedutiesincumbentonmenlivinginsociety，andtherightsaccruingtothem。Thesearemerelydifferentmodesofexpressingtheprincipleofjustice，asitshallhappentobeconsideredinitsrelationtotheagentorthepatient。DutyisthetreatmentIamboundtobestowuponothers；rightisthetreatmentIamentitledtoexpectfromthem。
　　Thiswillmorefullyappearinthesequel。
　　First，ofpersonalvirtueandduty。
　　Virtue，likeeveryothertermofgeneralscience，maybeunderstoodeitherabsolutely，orasthequalificationandattributeofaparticularbeing：inotherwords，itisonethingtoenquirewhetheranactionisvirtuous，andanothertoenquirewhetheramanisvirtuous。Theformerofthesequestionsisconsiderablysimple；thelatterismorecomplex，andwillrequireanexaminationofseveralcircumstancesbeforeitcanbesatisfactorilydetermined。
　　InthefirstsenseIwoulddefinevirtuetobeanyactionoractionsofanintelligentbeingproceedingfromkindandbenevolentintention，andhavingatendencytocontributetogeneralhappiness。Thusdefined，itdistributesitselfundertwoheads；and，inwhateverinstanceeitherthetendencyortheintentioniswanting，thevirtueisincomplete。Anaction，howeverpuremaybetheintentionoftheagent，thetendencyofwhichismischievous，orwhichshallmerelybenugatoryanduselessinitscharacter，isnotavirtuousaction。Wereitotherwise，weshouldbeobligedtoconcedetheappellationofvirtuetothemostnefariousdeedsofbigots，persecutorsandreligiousassassins，andtotheweakestobservancesofadeludedsuperstition。Stilllessdoesanaction，theconsequencesofwhichshallbesupposedtobeinthehighestdegreebeneficial，butwhichproceedsfromamean，corruptanddegradingmotive，deservetheappellationofvirtue。Avirtuousactionisthat，ofwhichboththemotiveandthetendencyconcurtoexciteourapprobation。
　　Letusproceedfromtheconsiderationoftheactiontothatoftheagent。
　　Beforewecandecideuponthedegreeinwhichanymanisentitledtobedenominatedvirtuous，wemustcomparehisperformancewithhismeans。Itisnotenough，thathisconductisattendedwithanoverbalanceofgoodintentionandbeneficialresults。Ifitappearthathehasscarcelyproducedthetenthpartofthatbenefit，eitherinmagnitudeorextent。whichhewascapableofproducing，itisonlyillaverylimitedsensethathecanbeconsideredasavirtuousman。
　　Whatisittherefore，weareledtoenquire，thatconstitutesthecapacityofanyman？Capacityisanideaproducedinthemindbyacontemplationoftheassemblageofpropertiesinanysubstance，andtheusestowhichasubstancesocircumstancedmaybeapplied。Thusagivenportionofmetal，maybeformed，atthepleasureofthemanufacturer，intovariousimplements，aknife，arazor，asword，adozenofcoat-buttons，etc。Thisisonestageofcapacity。Asecondis，whenithasalreadyreceivedtheformofaknife，and，beingdismissedbythemanufacturer，fallsintothehandsofthepersonwhointendsitforhisprivateuse。Bythispersonitmaybedevotedtopurposes，beneficial，perniciousoridle——Toapplytheseconsiderationstothenatureofahumanbeing。
　　Wearenothereenquiringrespectingthecapacityofmanabsolutelyspeaking，butofanindividual；theperformerofagivenaction，orthepersonwhohasengagedinacertainseriesofconduct。Inthesamemannerthereforeastheknifemaybeappliedtovariouspurposesatthepleasureofitspossessor，soanindividualendowedwithcertainqualifications，mayengageinvariouspursuits，accordingtotheviewsthatarepresentedtohim，andthemotivesthatactuatehismind。