EVOLUTIONANDETHICS
SCIENCEANDMORALS
CAPITAL——THEMOTHEROFLABOUR
SOCIALDISEASESANDWORSEREMEDIES
TheStruggleforExistenceinHumanSocietyLetterstotheTimesLegalOpinionsTheArticlesofWaroftheSalvationArmyPREFACE
THEdiscourseon“EvolutionandEthics。”reprintedinthefirsthalfofthepresentvolume，wasdeliveredbeforetheUniversityofOxford，asthesecondoftheannuallecturesfoundedbyMr。Romanes：whosenameI
maynotwritewithoutdeploringtheuntimelydeath，intheflowerofhisage，ofafriendendearedtome，astosomanyothers，byhiskindlynature；andjustlyvaluedbyallhiscolleaguesforhispowersofinvestigationandhiszealfortheadvancementofknowledge。Iwellremember，whenMr。Romanes’earlyworkcameintomyhands，asoneofthesecretariesoftheRoyalSociety，howmuchIrejoicedintheaccessiontotheranksofthelittlearmyofworkersinscienceofarecruitsowellqualifiedtotakeahighplaceamongus。
Itwasatmyfriend’surgentrequestthatIagreedtoundertakethelecture，shouldIbehonouredwithanofficialproposaltogiveit，thoughIconfessnotwithoutmisgivings，ifonlyonaccountoftheseriousfatigueandhoarsenesswhichpublicspeakinghasforsomeyearscausedme；whileIknewthatitwouldbemyfatetofollowthemostaccomplishedandfacileoratorofourtime，whoseindomitableyouthisinnomattermoremanifestthaninhispenetratingandmusicalvoice。Acertainsayingaboutcomparisonsintrudeditselfsomewhatimportunately。
AndevenifIdisregardedtheweaknessofmybodyinthematterofvoice，andthatofmymindinthematterofvanity，thereremainedathirddifficulty。Forseveralreasons，myattention，duringanumberofyears，hasbeenmuchdirectedtothebearingofmodernscientificthoughtontheproblemsofmoralsandofpolitics，andIdidnotcaretobedivertedfromthattopic。Moreover，Ithoughtitthemostimportantandtheworthiestwhich，atthepresenttime，couldengagetheattentionevenofanancientandrenownedUniversity。
ButitisaconditionoftheRomanesfoundationthatthelecturershallabstainfromtreatingofeitherReligionorPolitics；anditappearedtomethat，morethanmost，perhaps，Iwasboundtoact，notmerelyuptotheletter，butinthespirit，ofthatprohibition。YetEthicalScienceis，onallsides，soentangledwithReligionandPoliticsthatthelecturerwhoessaystotouchtheformerwithoutcomingintocontactwitheitherofthelatter，needsallthedexterityofanegg-dancer；andmayevendiscoverthathissenseofclearnessandhissenseofproprietycomeintoconflict，bynomeanstotheadvantageoftheformer。
IhavelittlenotionoftherealmagnitudeofthesedifficultieswhenI
setaboutmytask；butIamconsoledformypainsandanxietybyobservingthatnoneofthemultitudinouscriticismswithwhichIhavebeenfavouredand，often，instructed，findfaultwithmeonthescoreofhavingstrayedoutofbounds。
AmongmycriticstherearenotafewtowhomIfeeldeeplyindebtedforthecarefulattentionwhichtheyhavegiventotheexpositionthushampered；andfurtherweakened，Iamafraid，bymyforgetfulnessofamaximtouchinglecturesofapopularcharacter，whichhasdescendedtomefromthatprinceoflecturers，Mr。Faraday。Hewasonceaskedbyabeginner，calledupontoaddressahighlyselectandcultivatedaudience，whathemightsupposehishearerstoknowalready。Whereuponthepastmasteroftheartofexpositionemphaticallyreplied“Nothing！“
Tomyshameasaretiredveteran，whohasallhislifeprofitedbythisgreatpreceptoflecturingstrategy，Iforgotallaboutitjustwhenitwouldhavebeenmostuseful。Iwasfatuousenoughtoimaginethatanumberofpropositions，whichIthoughtestablished，andwhich，infact，Ihadadvancedwithoutchallengeonformeroccasions，needednorepetition。
Ihaveendeavouredtorepairmyerrorbyprefacingthelecturewithsomematter——chieflyelementaryorrecapitulatory——towhichIhavegiventhetitleof“Prolegomena“IwishIcouldhavehituponaheadingoflesspedanticaspectwhichwouldhaveservedmypurpose；
andifitbeurgedthatthenewbuildinglooksoverlargefortheedificetowhichitisadded，Icanonlypleadtheprecedentoftheancientarchitects，whoalwaysmadetheadytumthesmallestpartofthetemple。
IfIhadattemptedtoreplyinfulltothecriticismstowhichIhavereferred，Iknownotwhatextentofgroundwouldhavebeencoveredbymypronaos。AllIhaveendeavouredtodo，atpresent，istoremovethatwhichseemstohaveprovedastumbling-blocktomany——namely，theapparentparadoxthatethicalnature，whilebornofcosmicnature，isnecessarilyatenmitywithitsparent。UnlesstheargumentssetforthintheProlegomena，inthesimplestlanguageatmycommand，havesomeflawwhichIamunabletodiscern，thisseemingparadoxisatruth，asgreatasitisplain，therecognitionofwhichisfundamentalfortheethicalphilosopher。
Wecannotdowithoutourinheritancefromtheforefatherswhowerethepuppetsofthecosmicprocess；thesocietywhichrenouncesitmustbedestroyedfromwithout。Stilllesscanwedewithtoomuchofit；thesocietyinwhichitdominatesmustbedestroyedfromwithin。
Themotiveofthedramaofhumanlifeisthenecessity，laiduponeverymanwhocomesintotheworld，ofdiscoveringthemeanbetweenself-assertionandself-restraintsuitedtohischaracterandhiscircumstances。Andtheeternallytragicaspectofthedramaliesinthis：thattheproblemsetbeforeusisonetheelementsofwhichcanbebutimperfectlyknown，andofwhichevenanapproximatelyrightsolutionrarelypresentsitself，untilthatsterncritic，agedexperience，hasbeenfurnishedwithamplejustificationforventinghissarcastichumourupontheirreparableblunderswehavealreadymade。
Ihavereprintedthelettersonthe“DarkestEngland“scheme，publishedinthe“Times“ofDecember，1890，andJanuary，1891；andsubsequentlyissued，withadditions，asapamphlet，underthetitleof“SocialDiseasesandWorseRemedies。”because，althoughthecleverattempttorushthecountryonbehalfofthatschemehasbeenbalked，Booth’sstandingarmyremainsafoot，retainingallthecapacitiesformischiefwhichareinherentinitsconstitution。Iamdesirousthatthisfactshouldbekeptsteadilyinview；andthatthemoderationoftheclamourofthedrumsandtrumpetsshouldnotleadustoforgettheexistenceofaforce，which，inbadhands，may，atanytime，beusedforbadpurposes。
In1892，aCommitteewas“formedforthepurposeofinvestigatingthemannerinwhichthemoneys，subscribedinresponsetotheappealmadeinthebookentitled’InDarkestEnglandandtheWayout，’havebeenexpended。”Themembersofthisbodyweregentlemeninwhosecompetencyandequityeveryonemusthavecompleteconfidence；andinDecember，1892，theypublishedareportinwhichtheydeclarethat，“withtheexceptionofthesumsexpendedonthe’barracks’atHadleigh。”themoneysinquestionhavebeen“devotedonlytotheobjectsandexpendedinthemethodssetoutinthatappeal，andtoandinnoothers。”
Nevertheless，theirfinalconclusionrunsasfollows：“4Thatwhilsttheinvestedproperty，realandpersonal，resultingfromsuchAppealissovestedandcontrolledbytheTrustoftheDeedofJanuary30th，1891，thatanyapplicationofittopurposesotherthanthosedeclaredinthedeedbyany’General’oftheSalvationArmywouldamounttoabreachoftrust，andwouldsubjecthimtotheproceedingsofacivilandcriminalcharacter，beforementionedintheReport，ADEQUATELEGAL
SAFEGUARDSDONOTATPRESENTEXISTTOPREVENTTHEMISAPPLICATIONOF
SUCHPROPERTY。”
ThepassageIhaveitalicisedformspartofadocumentdatedDecember19th，1892。Itfollows，that，evenaftertheDeedofJanuary30th，1891，wasexecuted，“adequatelegalsafeguards““topreventthemisapplicationoftheproperty“didnotexist。Whatthenwasthestateofthings，uptoaweekearlier，thatisonJanuary22nd，1891，whenmytwelfthandlastletterappearedinthe“Times“？AbetterjustificationforwhatIhavesaidabout-thewantofadequatesecurityfortheproperadministrationofthefundsintrustedtoMr。Boothcouldnotbedesired，unlessitbethatwhichistobefoundinthefollowingpassagesoftheReportpp。36and37：——
“Itispossiblethata’General’maybeforgetfulofhisduty，andsellpropertyandappropriatetheproceedstohisownuse，ortomeetingthegeneralliabilitiesoftheSalvationArmy。Asmattersnowstand，he，andhealone，wouldhavecontroloversuchasale。AgainstsuchpossibilitiesitappearstotheCommitteetobereasonablethatsomecheckshouldbeimposed。”
OncemoreletitberememberedthatthisopiniongivenunderthehandofSirHenryJames，wasexpressedbytheCommittee，withtheTrustDeedof1891，whichhasbeensosedulouslyflauntedbeforethepublic，infullview。
TheCommitteemadeasuggestionfortheimprovementofthisveryunsatisfactorystateofthings；buttheexactvaluesetuponitbythesuggestorsshouldbecarefullyconsideredp。37。
“TheCommitteearefullyawarethatiftheviewsthusexpressedarecarriedout，thesafeguardsandcheckscreatedwillnotbesufficientforallpurposesabsolutelytopreventpossibledealingwiththepropertyandmoneysinconsistentwiththepurposestowhichtheyareintendedtobedevoted。”
Infact，theyarecontenttoexpresstheverymodesthopethat“ifthesuggestionmadebeactedupon，somehindrancewilltherebybeplacedinthewayofanyoneactingdishonestlyinrespectofthedisposalofthepropertyandmoneysreferredto。”
Idonotknow，and，underthecircumstances，IcannotsayImuchcare，whetherthesuggestionsoftheCommitteehave，orhavenot，beenactedupon。Whetherornot，thefactremainsthatanunscrupulous“General“
willhaveaprettyfreehand，notwithstanding“some“hindrance。
Thus，thejudgmentofthehighlyauthoritative，andcertainlynothostile，Committeeof1892，upontheissueswithwhichtheyconcernedthemselvesishardlysuchastoinspireenthusiasticconfidence。Anditisfurthertobeborneinmindthattheycarefullyexcludedfromtheirduties“anyexaminationoftheprinciples，government，teaching，ormethodsoftheSalvationArmyasareligiousorganization，orofitsaffairs“exceptsofarastheyrelatedtotheadministrationofthemoneyscollectedbythe“DarkestEngland“appeal。
Consequently，themostimportantquestionsdiscussedinmyletterswerenotinanywaytouchedbytheCommittee。Eveniftheirreporthadbeenfarmorefavourabletothe“DarkestEngland“schemethanitis；ifithadreallyassuredthecontributorsthatthefundsraisedwerefullysecuredagainstmalversation；theobjections，onsocialandpoliticalgrounds，toMr。Booth’sdespoticorganization，withitsthousandsofdocilesatellitespledgedtoblindobedience，setforthintheletters，wouldbeinnodegreeweakened。The“sixpennyworthofgood“
wouldstillbeout-weighedbythe“shillingsworthofharm“；ifindeedtherelativeworth，orunworth，ofthelattershouldnotberatedinpoundsratherthaninshillings。
WhatwouldonenotgivefortheopinionofthefinancialmembersoftheCommitteeaboutthefamousBank；andthatofthelegalexpertsabouttheproposed“tribunesofthepeople“？
HODESLEA，EASTBOURNE，July，1894。
CONTENTS
I
PAGE
EVOLUTIONANDETHICS。PROLEGOMENA[1894]……1
II
EVOLUTIONANDETHICS[1893]……46
III
SCIENCEANDMORALS[1886]……117
IV
CAPITAL——THEMOTHEROFLABOUR[1890]……147
V
SOCIALDISEASESANDWORSEREMEDIES[1891]……188
Preface……188
TheStruggleforExistenceinHumanSociety。195
LetterstotheTimes……237
LegalOpinions……312
TheArticlesofWaroftheSalvationArmy……321
[1]
I。
EVOLUTIONANDETHICS。
PROLEGOMENA。
[1894。]
I。
ITmaybesafelyassumedthat，twothousandyearsago，beforeCaesarsetfootinsouthernBritain，thewholecountry-sidevisiblefromthewindowsoftheroominwhichIwrite，wasinwhatiscalled“thestateofnature。”Except，itmaybe，byraisingafewsepulchralmounds，suchasthosewhichstill，hereandthere，breaktheflowingcontoursofthedowns，man’shandshadmadenomarkuponit；andthethinveilofvegetationwhichoverspreadthebroad-backedheightsandtheshelvingsidesofthecoombswasunaffectedbyhisindustry。Thenativegrassesandweeds，thescatteredpatchesofgorse，contendedwithoneanotherforthepossessionofthescantysurfacesoil；theyfoughtagainstthedroughtsofsummer，thefrostsofwinter，andthefuriousgaleswhichswept，withunbrokenforce，nowfromthe[2]
Atlantic，andnowfromtheNorthSea，atalltimesoftheyear；theyfilledup，astheybestmight，thegapsmadeintheirranksbyallsortsofundergroundandovergroundanimalravagers。Oneyearwithanother，anaveragepopulation，thefloatingbalanceoftheunceasingstruggleforexistenceamongtheindigenousplants，maintaineditself。
Itisaslittletobedoubted，thatanessentiallysimilarstateofnatureprevailed，inthisregion，formanythousandyearsbeforethecomingofCaesar；andthereisnoassignablereasonfordenyingthatitmightcontinuetoexistthroughanequallyprolongedfuturity，exceptfortheinterventionofman。
Reckonedbyourcustomarystandardsofduration，thenativevegetation，likethe“everlastinghills“whichitclothes，seemsatypeofpermanence。ThelittleAmarellaGentians，whichaboundinsomeplacesto-day，arethedescendantsofthosethatweretroddenunderfoot，bytheprehistoricsavageswhohavelefttheirflinttools，about，hereandthere；andtheyfollowedancestorswhich，intheclimateoftheglacialepoch，probablyflourishedbetterthantheydonow。Comparedwiththelongpastofthishumbleplant，allthehistoryofcivilizedmenisbutanepisode。
Yetnothingismorecertainthanthat，measuredbytheliberalscaleoftime-keepingoftheuniverse，thispresentstateofnature，howeveritmayseemtohavegoneandtogoonforever，is[3]butafleetingphaseofherinfinitevariety；merelythelastoftheseriesofchangeswhichtheearth’ssurfacehasundergoneinthecourseofthemillionsofyearsofitsexistence。Turnbackasquarefootofthethinturf，andthesolidfoundationoftheland，exposedincliffsofchalkfivehundredfeethighontheadjacentshore，yieldsfullassuranceofatimewhentheseacoveredthesiteofthe“everlastinghills“；andwhenthevegetationofwhatlandlaynearest，wasasdifferentfromthepresentFloraoftheSussexdowns，asthatofCentralAfricanowis。*Nolesscertainisitthat，betweenthetimeduringwhichthechalkwasformedandthatatwhichtheoriginalturfcameintoexistence，thousandsofcenturieselapsed，inthecourseofwhich，thestateofnatureoftheagesduringwhichthechalkwasdeposited，passedintothatwhichnowis，bychangessoslowthat，inthecomingandgoingofthegenerationsofmen，hadsuchwitnessedthem，thecontemporary，conditionswouldhaveseemedtobeunchangingandunchangeable。
*See“OnapieceofChalk“intheprecedingvolumeoftheseEssaysvol。viii。p。1。
Butitisalsocertainthat，beforethedepositionofthechalk，avastlylongerperiodhadelapsed；throughoutwhichitiseasytofollowthetracesofthesameprocessofceaselessmodificationandoftheinternecinestruggleforexistenceoflivingthings；andthatevenwhenwecangetnofurther[4]back，itisnotbecausethereisanyreasontothinkwehavereachedthebeginning，butbecausethetrailofthemostancientliferemainshidden，orhasbecomeobliterated。
Thusthatstateofnatureoftheworldofplantswhichwebeganbyconsidering，isfarfrompossessingtheattributeofpermanence。Ratheritsveryessenceisimpermanence。Itmayhavelastedtwentyorthirtythousandyears，itmaylastfortwentyorthirtythousandyearsmore，withoutobviouschange；but，assurelyasithasfolloweduponaverydifferentstate，soitwillbefollowedbyanequallydifferentcondition。Thatwhichenduresisnotoneoranotherassociationoflivingforms，buttheprocessofwhichthecosmosistheproduct，andofwhichtheseareamongthetransitoryexpressions。Andinthelivingworld，oneofthemostcharacteristicfeaturesofthiscosmicprocessisthestruggleforexistence，thecompetitionofeachwithall，theresultofwhichistheselection，thatistosay，thesurvivalofthoseformswhich，onthewhole，arebestadapted，totheconditionswhichatanyperiodobtain；andwhichare，therefore，inthatrespect，andonlyinthatrespect，thefittest。*Theacmereachedbythecosmic[5]processinthevegetationofthedownsisseenintheturf，withitsweedsandgorse。Undertheconditions，theyhavecomeoutofthestrugglevictorious；and，bysurviving，haveprovedthattheyarethefittesttosurvive。
*Thateverytheoryofevolutionmustbeconsistentnotmerelywithprogressivedevelopment，butwithindefinitepersistenceinthesameconditionandwithretrogressivemodification，isapointwhichIhaveinsisteduponrepeatedlyfromtheyear1862
tillnow。SeeCollectedEssays，vol。ii。pp。461-89；vol。iii。
p。33；vol。viii。p。304。Intheaddresson“GeologicalContemporaneityandPersistentTypes“1862，thepaleontologicalproofsofthispropositionwere，Ibelieve，firstsetforth。
Thatthestateofnature，atanytime，isatemporaryphaseofaprocessofincessantchange，whichhasbeengoingonforinnumerableages，appearstometobeapropositionaswellestablishedasanyinmodernhistory。
Paleontologyassuresus，inaddition，thattheancientphilosopherswho，withlessreason，heldthesamedoctrine，erredinsupposingthatthephasesformedacycle，exactlyrepeatingthepast，exactlyforeshadowingthefuture，intheirrotations。Onthecontrary，itfurnishesuswithconclusivereasonsforthinkingthat，ifeverylinkintheancestryofthesehumbleindigenousplantshadbeenpreservedandwereaccessibletous，thewholewouldpresentaconvergingseriesofformsofgraduallydiminishingcomplexity，until，atsomeperiodinthehistoryoftheearth，farmoreremotethananyofwhichorganicremainshaveyetbeendiscovered，theywouldmergeinthoselowgroupsamongwhichtheBoundariesbetweenanimalandvegetablelifebecomeeffaced。*
*“OntheBorderTerritorybetweentheAnimalandtheVegetableKingdoms。”Essays，vol。viii。p。162
[6]Theword“evolution。”nowgenerallyappliedtothecosmicprocess，hashadasingularhistory，andisusedinvarioussenses。*Takeninitspopularsignificationitmeansprogressivedevelopment，thatis，gradualchangefromaconditionofrelativeuniformitytooneofrelativecomplexity；butitsconnotationhasbeenwidenedtoincludethephenomenaofretrogressivemetamorphosis，thatis，ofprogressfromaconditionofrelativecomplexitytooneofrelativeuniformity。
Asanaturalprocess，ofthesamecharacterasthedevelopmentofatreefromitsseed，orofafowlfromitsegg，evolutionexcludescreationandallotherkindsofsupernaturalintervention。Astheexpressionofafixedorder，everystageofwhichistheeffectofcausesoperatingaccordingtodefiniterules，theconceptionofevolutionnolessexcludesthatofchance。Itisverydesirabletorememberthatevolutionisnotanexplanationofthecosmicprocess，butmerelyageneralizedstatementofthemethodandresultsofthatprocess。And，further，that，ifthereisproofthatthecosmicprocesswassetgoingbyanyagent，thenthatagentwillbe，thecreatorofitandofallitsproducts，althoughsupernaturalinterventionmayremainstrictlyexcludedfromitsfurthercourse。
Sofarasthatlimitedrevelationofthenatureofthings，whichwecallscientificknowledge，has[7]yetgone，ittends，withconstantlyincreasingemphasis，tothebeliefthat，notmerelytheworldofplants，butthatofanimals；notmerelylivingthings，butthewholefabricoftheearth；notmerelyourplanet，butthewholesolarsystem；notmerelyourstaranditssatellites，butthemillionsofsimilarbodieswhichbearwitnesstotheorderwhichpervadesboundlessspace，andhasenduredthroughboundlesstime；areallworkingouttheirpredestinedcoursesofevolution。
*See“EvolutioninBiology。”Essays，vol。ii。p。187
WithnoneofthesehaveIanythingtodo，atpresent，exceptwiththatexhibitedbytheformsoflifewhichtenanttheearth。Allplantsandanimalsexhibitthetendencytovary，thecausesofwhichhaveyettobeascertained；itisthetendencyoftheconditionsoflife，atanygiventime，whilefavouringtheexistenceofthevariationsbestadaptedtothem，toopposethatoftherestandthustoexerciseselection；andalllivingthingstendtomultiplywithoutlimit，whilethemeansofsupportarelimited；theobviouscauseofwhichistheproductionofoffspringmorenumerousthantheirprogenitors，butwithequalexpectationoflifeintheactuarialsense。Withoutthefirsttendencytherecouldbenoevolution。Withoutthesecond，therewouldbenogoodreasonwhyonevariationshoulddisappearandanothertakeitsplace；thatistosaytherewouldbenoselection。Withoutthe[8]
third，thestruggleforexistence，theagentoftheselectiveprocessinthestateofnature，wouldvanish。*
*CollectedEssays，vol。ii。passim。
Grantingtheexistenceofthesetendencies，alltheknownfactsofthehistoryofplantsandofanimalsmaybebroughtintorationalcorrelation。AndthisismorethancanbesaidforanyotherhypothesisthatIknowof。Suchhypotheses，forexample，asthatoftheexistenceofaprimitive，orderlesschaos；ofapassiveandsluggisheternalmattermoulded，withbutpartialsuccess，byarchetypalideas；ofabrand-newworld-stuffsuddenlycreatedandswiftlyshapedbyasupernaturalpower；receivenoencouragement，butthecontrary，fromourpresentknowledge。Thatourearthmayoncehaveformedpartofanebulouscosmicmagmaiscertainlypossible，indeedseemshighlyprobable；butthereisnoreasontodoubtthatorderreignedthere，ascompletelyasamidstwhatweregardasthemostfinishedworksofnatureorofman。**Thefaithwhichisbornofknowledge，findsitsobjectinaneternalorder，bringingforthceaselesschange，throughendlesstime，inendlessspace；themanifestationsofthecosmicenergyalternatingbetweenphasesofpotentialityandphasesofexplication。Itmaybethat，asKantsuggests，***everycosmic[9]magmapredestinedtoevolveintoanewworld，hasbeenthenolesspredestinedendofavanishedpredecessor。
**Ibid。，vol。iv。p。138；vol。v。pp。71-73。
***Ibid。，vol。viii。p。321。
II。
Threeorfouryearshaveelapsedsincethestateofnature，towhichI
havereferred，wasbroughttoanend，sofarasasmallpatchofthesoilisconcerned，bytheinterventionofman。Thepatchwascutofffromtherestbyawall；withintheareathusprotected，thenativevegetationwas，asfaraspossible，extirpated；whileacolonyofstrangeplantswasimportedandsetdowninitsplace。Inshort，itwasmadeintoagarden。Atthepresenttime，thisartificiallytreatedareapresentsanaspectextraordinarilydifferentfromthatofsomuchofthelandasremainsinthestateofnature，outsidethewall。
Trees，shrubs，andherbs，manyofthemappertainingtothestateofnatureofremotepartsoftheglobe，aboundandflourish。Moreover，considerablequantitiesofvegetables，fruits，andflowersareproduced，ofkindswhichneithernowexist，norhaveeverexisted，exceptunderconditionssuchasobtaininthegarden；andwhich，therefore，areasmuchworksoftheartofmanastheframesandglasshousesinwhichsomeofthemareraised。Thatthe“stateofArt。”
thuscreatedinthestateofnaturebyman，issustainedbyanddependentonhim，wouldatoncebecome[10]apparent，ifthewatchfulsupervisionofthegardenerwerewithdrawn，andtheantagonisticinfluencesofthegeneralcosmicprocesswerenolongersedulouslywardedoff，orcounteracted。Thewallsandgateswoulddecay；
quadrupedalandbipedalintruderswoulddevourandtreaddowntheusefulandbeautifulplants；birds，insects，blight，andmildewwouldworktheirwill；theseedsofthenativeplants，carriedbywindsorotheragencies，wouldimmigrate，andinvirtueoftheirlong-earnedspecialadaptationtothelocalconditions，thesedespisednativeweedswouldsoonchoketheirchoiceexoticrivals。Acenturyortwohence，littlebeyondthefoundationsofthewallandofthehousesandframeswouldbeleft，inevidenceofthevictoryofthecosmicpowersatworkinthestateofnature，overthetemporaryobstaclestotheirsupremacy，setupbytheartofthehorticulturist。
Itwillbeadmittedthatthegardenisasmuchaworkofart，*orartifice，asanythingthatcanbementioned。Theenergylocalisedincertainhumanbodies，directedbysimilarlylocalisedintellects，hasproducedacollocationofothermaterialbodieswhichcouldnotbebroughtaboutinthestateofnature。Thesamepropositionistrueofallthe*Thesenseoftheterm“Art“isbecomingnarrowed；“workofArt“tomostpeoplemeansapicture，astatue，orapieceofbijouterie；bywayofcompensation“artist“hasincludedinitswideembracecooksandballetgirls，nolessthanpaintersandsculptors，[11]worksofman’shands，fromaflintimplementtoacathedralorachronometer；anditisbecauseitistrue，thatwecallthesethingsartificial，termthemworksofart，orartifice，bywayofdistinguishingthemfromtheproductsofthecosmicprocess，workingoutsideman，whichwecallnatural，orworksofnature。Thedistinctionthusdrawnbetweentheworksofnatureandthoseofman，isuniversallyrecognized；anditis，asIconceive，bothusefulandjustifiable。
III。
Nodoubt，itmaybeproperlyurgedthattheoperationofhumanenergyandintelligence，whichhasbroughtintoexistenceandmaintainsthegarden，bywhatIhavecalled“thehorticulturalprocess。”is，strictlyspeaking，partandparcelofthecosmicprocess。AndnoonecouldmorereadilyagreetothatpropositionthanI。Infact，IdonotknowthatanyonehastakenmorepainsthanIhave，duringthelastthirtyyears，toinsistuponthedoctrine，somuchreviledintheearlypartofthatperiod，thatman，physical，intellectual，andmoral，isasmuchapartofnature，aspurelyaproductofthecosmicprocess，asthehumblestweed。*
*See“Man’sPlaceinNature。”CollectedEssays，vol。vii。，and“OntheStruggleforExistenceinHumanSociety“1888，below。
Butif，followingupthisadmission，itisurged[12]that，suchbeingthecase，thecosmicprocesscannotbeinantagonismwiththathorticulturalprocesswhichispartofitself——Icanonlyreply，thatiftheconclusionthatthetwoare，antagonisticislogicallyabsurd，Iamsorryforlogic，because，aswehaveseen，thefactisso。Thegardenisinthesamepositionaseveryotherworkofman’sart；itisaresultofthecosmicprocessworkingthroughandbyhumanenergyandintelligence；and，asisthecasewitheveryotherartificialthingsetupinthestateofnature，theinfluencesofthelatter，areconstantlytendingtobreakitdownanddestroyit。Nodoubt，theForthbridgeandanironcladintheoffing，are，inultimateresort，productsofthecosmicprocess；asmuchsoastheriverwhichflowsundertheone，ortheseawateronwhichtheotherfloats。
Nevertheless，everybreezestrainsthebridgealittle，everytidedoessomethingtoweakenitsfoundations；everychangeoftemperaturealterstheadjustmentofitsparts，producesfrictionandconsequentwearandtear。Fromtimetotime，thebridgemustberepaired，justastheironcladmustgointodock；simplybecausenatureisalwaystendingtoreclaimthatwhichherchild，man，hasborrowedfromherandhasarrangedincombinationswhicharenotthosefavouredbythegeneralcosmicprocess。
Thus，itisnotonlytruethatthecosmicenergy，workingthroughmanuponaportionof[13]theplantworld，opposesthesameenergyasitworksthroughthestateofnature，butasimilarantagonismiseverywheremanifestbetweentheartificialandthenatural。Eveninthestateofnatureitself，whatisthestruggleforexistencebuttheantagonismoftheresultsofthecosmicprocessintheregionoflife，onetoanother？*
*Ortoputthecasestillmoresimply。Whenamanlaysholdofthetwoendsofapieceofstringandpullsthem，withintenttobreakit，therightarmiscertainlyexertedinantagonismtotheleftarm；yetbotharmsderivetheirenergyfromthesameoriginalsource。
IV。
Notonlyisthestateofnaturehostiletothestateofartofthegarden；buttheprincipleofthehorticulturalprocess，bywhichthelatteriscreatedandmaintained，isantithetictothatofthecosmicprocess。Thecharacteristicfeatureofthelatteristheintenseandunceasingcompetitionofthestruggleforexistence。Thecharacteristicoftheformeristheeliminationofthatstruggle，bytheremovaloftheconditionswhichgiverisetoit。Thetendencyofthecosmicprocessistobringabouttheadjustmentoftheformsofplantlifetothecurrentconditions；thetendencyofthehorticulturalprocessistheadjustmentoftheconditionstotheneedsoftheformsofplantlifewhichthegardenerdesirestoraise。
Thecosmicprocessusesunrestrictedmultiplication[14]asthemeanswherebyhundredscompetefortheplaceandnourishmentadequateforone；itemploysfrostanddroughttocutofftheweakandunfortunate；
tosurvive，thereisneednotonlyofstrength，butofflexibilityandofgoodfortune。
Thegardener，ontheotherhand，restrictsmultiplication；providesthateachplantshallhavesufficientspaceandnourishment；protectsfromfrostanddrought；and，ineveryotherway，attemptstomodifytheconditions，insuchamannerastobringaboutthesurvivalofthoseformswhichmostnearlyapproachthestandardoftheusefulorthebeautiful，whichhehasinhismind。
Ifthefruitsandthetubers，thefoliageandtheflowersthusobtained，reach，orsufficientlyapproach，thatideal，thereisnoreasonwhythestatusquoattainedshouldnotbeindefinitelyprolonged。Solongasthestateofnatureremainsapproximatelythesame，solongwilltheenergyandintelligencewhichcreatedthegardensufficetomaintainit。However，thelimitswithinwhichthismasteryofmanovernaturecanbemaintainedarenarrow。Iftheconditionsofthecretaceousepochreturned，Ifearthemostskilfulofgardenerswouldhavetogiveupthecultivationofapplesandgooseberries；while，ifthoseoftheglacialperiodonceagainobtained，openasparagusbedswouldbesuperfluous，andthetrainingoffruit[15]treesagainstthemostfavourableofmouthwalls，awasteoftimeandtrouble。
Butitisextremelyimportanttonotethat，thestateofnatureremainingthesame，iftheproducedoesnotsatisfythegardener，itmaybemadetoapproachhisidealmoreclosely。Althoughthestruggleforexistencemaybeatend，thepossibilityofprogressremains。Indiscussionsonthesetopics，itisoftenstrangelyforgottenthattheessentialconditionsofthemodification，orevolution，oflivingthingsarevariationandhereditarytransmission。Selectionisthemeansbywhichcertainvariationsarefavouredandtheirprogenypreserved。Butthestruggleforexistenceisonlyoneofthemeansbywhichselectionmaybeeffected。Theendlessvarietiesofcultivatedflowers，fruits，roots，tubers，andbulbsarenotproductsofselectionbymeansofthestruggleforexistence，butofdirectselection，inviewofanidealofutilityorbeauty。Amidstamultitudeofplants，occupyingthesamestationandsubjectedtothesameconditions，inthegarden，varietiesarise。Thevarietiestendinginagivendirectionarepreserved，andtherestaredestroyed。Andthesameprocesstakesplaceamongthevarietiesuntil，forexample，thewildkalebecomesacabbage，orthewildViolatricolor，aprizepansy。
[16]
V。
Theprocessofcolonisationpresentsanalogiestotheformationofagardenwhicharehighlyinstructive。SupposeashiploadofEnglishcolonistssenttoformasettlement，insuchacountryasTasmaniawasinthemiddleofthelastcentury。Onlanding，theyfindthemselvesinthemidstofastateofnature，widelydifferentfromthatleftbehindthemineverythingbutthemostgeneralphysicalconditions。Thecommonplants，thecommonbirdsandquadrupeds，areastotallydistinctasthemenfromanythingtobeseenonthesideoftheglobefromwhichtheycome。Thecolonistsproceedtoputanendtothisstateofthingsoveraslargeanareaastheydesiretooccupy。Theyclearawaythenativevegetation，extirpateordriveouttheanimalpopulation，sofarasmaybenecessary，andtakemeasurestodefendthemselvesfromthere-immigrationofeither。Intheirplace，theyintroduceEnglishgrainandfruittrees；Englishdogs，sheep，cattle，horses；andEnglishmen；infact，theysetupanewFloraandFaunaandanewvarietyofmankind，withintheoldstateofnature。Theirfarmsandpasturesrepresentagardenonagreatscale，andthemselvesthegardenerswhohavetokeepitup，inwatchfulantagonismtotheoldregime。Consideredasawhole，thecolonyisacompositeunitintroducedintotheoldstateofnature；and，[17]thenceforward，acompetitorinthestruggleforexistence，toconquerorbevanquished。
Undertheconditionssupposed，thereisnodoubtoftheresult，iftheworkofthecolonistsbecarriedoutenergeticallyandwithintelligentcombinationofalltheirforces。Ontheotherhand，iftheyareslothful，stupid，andcareless；oriftheywastetheirenergiesincontestswithoneanother，thechancesarethattheoldstateofnaturewillhavethebestofit。Thenativesavagewilldestroytheimmigrantcivilizedman；oftheEnglishanimalsandplantssomewillbeextirpatedbytheirindigenousrivals，otherswillpassintotheferalstateandthemselvesbecomecomponentsofthestateofnature。Inafewdecades，allothertracesofthesettlementwillhavevanished。
VI。
Letusnowimaginethatsomeadministrativeauthority，asfarsuperiorinpowerandintelligencetomen，asmenaretotheircattle，issetoverthecolony，chargedtodealwithitshumanelementsinsuchamannerastoassurethevictoryofthesettlementovertheantagonisticinfluencesofthestateofnatureinwhichitissetdown。Hewouldproceedinthesamefashionasthatinwhichthegardenerdealtwithhisgarden。Inthefirstplace，hewould，asfaraspossible，puta[18]stoptotheinfluenceofexternalcompetitionbythoroughlyextirpatingandexcludingthenativerivals，whethermen，beasts，orplants。Andouradministratorwouldselecthishumanagents，withaviewtohisidealofasuccessfulcolony，justasthegardenerselectshisplantswithaviewtohisidealofusefulorbeautifulproducts。
Inthesecondplace，inorderthatnostruggleforthemeansofexistencebetweenthesehumanagentsshouldweakentheefficiencyofthecorporatewholeinthebattlewiththestateofnature，hewouldmakearrangementsbywhicheachwouldbeprovidedwiththosemeans；
andwouldberelievedfromthefearofbeingdeprivedofthembyhisstrongerormorecunningfellows。Laws，sanctionedbythecombinedforceofthecolony，wouldrestraintheself-assertionofeachmanwithinthelimitsrequiredforthemaintenanceofpeace。Inotherwords，thecosmicstruggleforexistence，asbetweenmanandman，wouldberigorouslysuppressed；andselection，byitsmeans，wouldbeascompletelyexcludedasitisfromthegarden。
Atthesametime，theobstaclestothefulldevelopmentofthecapacitiesofthecolonistsbyotherconditionsofthestateofnaturethanthosealreadymentioned，wouldberemovedbythecreationofartificialconditionsofexistenceofamorefavourablecharacter：
Protectionagainstextremesofheatandcoldwould[19]beaffordedbyhousesandclothing；drainageandirrigationworkswouldantagonisetheeffectsofexcessiverainandexcessivedrought；roads，bridges，canals，carriages，andshipswouldovercomethenaturalobstaclestolocomotionandtransport；mechanicalengineswouldsupplementthenaturalstrengthofmenandoftheirdraughtanimals；hygienicprecautionswouldcheck，orremove，thenaturalcausesofdisease。
Witheverystepofthisprogressincivilization，thecolonistswouldbecomemoreandmoreindependentofthestateofnature；moreandmore，theirliveswouldbeconditionedbyastateofart。Inordertoattainhisends，theadministratorwouldhavetoavailhimselfofthecourage，industry，andco-operativeintelligenceofthesettlers；anditisplainthattheinterestofthecommunitywouldbebestservedbyincreasingtheproportionofpersonswhopossesssuchqualities，anddiminishingthatofpersonsdevoidofthem。Inotherwords，byselectiondirectedtowardsanideal。
Thustheadministratormightlooktotheestablishmentofanearthlyparadise，atruegardenofEden，inwhichallthingsshouldworktogethertowardsthewell-beingofthegardeners：withinwhichthecosmicprocess，thecoarsestruggleforexistenceofthestateofnature，shouldbeabolished；inwhichthatstateshouldbereplacedbyastateofart；[20]whereeveryplantandeveryloweranimalshouldbeadaptedtohumanwants，andwouldperishifhumansupervisionandprotectionwerewithdrawn；wherementhemselvesshouldhavebeenselected，withaviewtotheirefficiencyasorgansfortheperformanceofthefunctionsofaperfectedsociety。Andthisidealpolitywouldhavebeenbroughtabout，notbygraduallyadjustingthementotheconditionsaroundthem，butbycreatingartificialconditionsforthem；notbyallowingthefreeplayofthestruggleforexistence，butbyexcludingthatstruggle；andbysubstitutingselectiondirectedtowardstheadministrator’sidealfortheselectionitexercises。
VII。
ButtheEdenwouldhaveitsserpent，andaverysubtlebeasttoo。Manshareswiththerestofthelivingworldthemightyinstinctofreproductionanditsconsequence，thetendencytomultiplywithgreatrapidity。Thebetterthemeasuresoftheadministratorachievedtheirobject，themorecompletelythedestructiveagenciesofthestateofnatureweredefeated，thelesswouldthatmultiplicationbechecked。
Ontheotherhand，withinthecolony，theenforcementofpeace，whichdepriveseverymanofthepowertotakeawaythemeansofexistencefromanother，simplybecauseheisthestronger，[21]wouldhaveputanendtothestruggleforexistencebetweenthecolonists，andthecompetitionforthecommoditiesofexistence，whichwouldaloneremain，isnocheckuponpopulation。
Thus，assoonasthecolonistsbegantomultiply，theadministratorwouldhavetofacethetendencytothereintroductionofthecosmicstruggleintohisartificialfabric，inconsequenceofthecompetition，notmerelyforthecommodities，butforthemeansofexistence。Whenthecolonyreachedthelimitofpossibleexpansion，thesurpluspopulationmustbedisposedofsomehow；orthefiercestruggleforexistencemustrecommenceanddestroythatpeace，whichisthefundamentalconditionofthemaintenanceofthestateofartagainstthestateofnature。
Supposingtheadministratortobeguidedbypurelyscientificconsiderations，hewould，likethegardener，meetthismostseriousdifficultybysystematicextirpation，orexclusion，ofthesuperfluous。
Thehopelesslydiseased，theinfirmaged，theweakordeformedinbodyorinmind，theexcessofinfantsborn，wouldbeputaway，asthegardenerpullsupdefectiveandsuperfluousplants，orthebreederdestroysundesirablecattle。Onlythestrongandthehealthy，carefullymatched，withaviewtotheprogenybestadaptedtothepurposesoftheadministrator，wouldbepermittedtoperpetuatetheirkind。
[22]
VIII。
Ofthemorethoroughgoingofthemultitudinousattemptstoapplytheprinciplesofcosmicevolution，orwhataresupposedtobesuch，tosocialandpoliticalproblems，whichhaveappearedoflateyears，aconsiderableproportionappeartometobebaseduponthenotionthathumansocietyiscompetenttofurnish，fromitsownresources，anadministratorofthekindIhaveimagined。Thepigeons，inshort，aretobetheirownSirJohnSebright。*Adespoticgovernment，whetherindividualorcollective，istobeendowedwiththepreternaturalintelligence，andwithwhat，Iamafraid，manywillconsiderthepreternaturalruthlessness，requiredforthepurposeofcarryingouttheprincipleofimprovementbyselection，withthesomewhatdrasticthoroughnessuponwhichthesuccessofthemethoddepends。Experiencecertainlydoesnotjustifyusinlimitingtheruthlessnessofindividual“savioursofsociety“；and，onthewell-knowngroundsoftheaphorismwhichdeniesbothbodyandsoultocorporations，itseemsprobableindeedthebeliefisnotwithoutsupportinhistorythatacollectivedespotism，amobgottobelieveinitsowndivinerightbydemagogicmissionaries，wouldbecapableofmorethorough[23]workinthisdirectionthananysingletyrant，puffedupwiththesameillusion，haseverachieved。Butintelligenceisanotheraffair。Thefactthat“savioursofsociety“taketothattradeisevidenceenoughthattheyhavenonetospare。Andsuchastheypossessisgenerallysoldtothecapitalistsofphysicalforceonwhoseresourcestheydepend。However，Idoubtwhethereventhekeenestjudgeofcharacter，ifhehadbeforehimahundredboysandgirlsunderfourteen，couldpickout，withtheleastchanceofsuccess，thosewhoshouldbekept，ascertaintobeserviceablemembersofthepolity，andthosewhoshouldbechloroformed，asequallysuretobestupid，idle，orvicious。The“points“ofagoodorofabadcitizenarereallyfarhardertodiscernthanthoseofapuppyorashort-horncalf；manydonotshowthemselvesbeforethepracticaldifficultiesoflifestimulatemanhoodtofullexertion。Andbythattimethemischiefisdone。Theevilstock，ifitbeone，hashadtimetomultiply，andselectionisnullified。
*Notthattheconceptionofsuchasocietyisnecessarilybasedupontheideaofevolution。ThePlatonicstatetestifiestothecontrary。
IX。
Ihaveotherreasonsforfearingthatthislogicalidealofevolutionaryregimentation——thispigeon-fanciers’polity——isunattainable。Intheabsenceofanysuchaseverelyscientificadministratoraswehavebeendreamingof，humansociety[24]iskepttogetherbybondsofsuchasingularcharacter，thattheattempttoperfectsocietyafterhisfashionwouldrunseriousriskoflooseningthem。Socialorganizationisnotpeculiartomen。Othersocieties，suchasthoseconstitutedbybeesandants，havealsoarisenoutoftheadvantageofco-operationinthestruggleforexistence；andtheirresemblancesto，andtheirdifferencesfrom，humansocietyarealikeinstructive。Thesocietyformedbythehivebeefulfilstheidealofthecommunisticaphorism“toeachaccordingtohisneeds，fromeachaccordingtohiscapacity。”Withinit，thestruggleforexistenceisstrictlylimited。Queen，drones，andworkershaveeachtheirallottedsufficiencyoffood；eachperformsthefunctionassignedtoitintheeconomyofthehive，andallcontributetothesuccessofthewholecooperativesocietyinitscompetitionwithrivalcollectorsofnectarandpollenandwithotherenemies，inthestateofnaturewithout。Inthesamesenseasthegarden，orthecolony，isaworkofhumanart，thebeepolityisaworkofapiarianart，broughtaboutbythecosmicprocess，workingthroughtheorganizationofthehymenopteroustype。
Nowthissocietyisthedirectproductofanorganicnecessity，impellingeverymemberofittoacourseofactionwhichtendstothegoodofthewhole。Eachbeehasitsdutyandnone[25]hasanyrights。
Whetherbeesaresusceptibleoffeelingandcapableofthoughtisaquestionwhichcannotbedogmaticallyanswered。Asapiousopinion，I
amdisposedtodenythemmorethanthemerestrudimentsofconsciousness。*Butitiscurioustoreflectthatathoughtfuldroneworkersandqueenswouldhavenoleisureforspeculationwithaturnforethicalphilosophy，mustneedsprofesshimselfanintuitivemoralistofthepurestwater。Hewouldpointout，withperfectjustice，thatthedevotionoftheworkerstoalifeofceaselesstoilforameresubsistencewage，cannotbeaccountedforeitherbyenlightenedselfishness，orbyanyothersortofutilitarianmotives；
sincethesebeesbegintowork，withoutexperienceorreflection，astheyemergefromthecellinwhichtheyarehatched。Plainly，aneternalandimmutableprinciple，innateineachbee，canaloneaccountforthephenomena。Ontheotherhand，thebiologist，whotracesoutalltheextantstagesofgradationbetweensolitaryandhivebees，asclearlyseesinthelatter，simplytheperfectionofanautomaticmechanism，hammeredoutbytheblowsofthestruggleforexistenceupontheprogenyoftheformer，duringlongagesofconstantvariation。
*CollectedEssays，vol。i。，“AnimalAutomatism“；vol。v。，“Prologue。”pp。45etseq。
[26]
X。
Iseenoreasontodoubtthat，atitsorigin，humansocietywasasmuchaproductoforganicnecessityasthatofthebees。*Thehumanfamily，tobeginwith，resteduponexactlythesameconditionsasthosewhichgaverisetosimilarassociationsamonganimalslowerinthescale。
Further，itiseasytoseethateveryincreaseinthedurationofthefamilyties，withtheresultingco-operationofalargerandlargernumberofdescendantsforprotectionanddefence，wouldgivethefamiliesinwhichsuchmodificationtookplaceadistinctadvantageovertheothers。And，asinthehive，theprogressivelimitationofthestruggleforexistencebetweenthemembersofthefamilywouldinvolveincreasingefficiencyasregardsoutsidecompetition。
Butthereisthisvastandfundamentaldifferencebetweenbeesocietyandhumansociety。Intheformer，themembersofthesocietyareeachorganicallypredestinedtotheperformanceofoneparticularclassoffunctionsonly。Iftheywereendowedwithdesires，eachcoulddesiretoperformnonebutthoseofficesforwhichitsorganizationspeciallyfitsit；andwhich，inviewofthegoodofthewhole，itisproperitshoulddo。Solongasanewqueendoesnotmakeherappearance，rivalries，andcompetitionareabsentfromthebeepolity。
*CollectedEssays，volv。，Prologue，pp。50-54，[27]Amongmankind，onthecontrary，thereisnosuchpredestinationtoasharplydefinedplaceinthesocialorganism。Howevermuchmenmaydifferinthequalityoftheirintellects，theintensityoftheirpassions，andthedelicacyoftheirsensations，itcannotbesaidthatoneisfittedbyhisorganizationtobeanagriculturallabourerandnothingelse，andanothertobealandownerandnothingelse。
Moreover，withalltheirenormousdifferencesinnaturalendowment，menagreeinonething，andthatistheirinnatedesiretoenjoythepleasuresandtoescapethepainsoflife；and，inshort，todonothingbutthatwhichitpleasesthemtodo，withouttheleastreferencetothewelfareofthesocietyintowhichtheyareborn。Thatistheirinheritancetherealityatthebottomofthedoctrineoforiginalsinfromthelongseriesofancestors，humanandsemi-humanandbrutal，inwhomthestrengthofthisinnatetendencytoself-assertionwastheconditionofvictoryinthestruggleforexistence。Thatisthereasonoftheaviditasvitae*——theinsatiablehungerforenjoyment——ofallmankind，whichisoneoftheessentialconditionsofsuccessinthewarwiththestateofnatureoutside；andyetthesureagentofthedestructionofsocietyifallowedfreeplaywithin。
*Seebelow。Romanes’Lecture，note7。
Thecheckuponthisfreeplayofself-assertion，ornaturalliberty，whichisthenecessaryconditionfortheoriginofhumansociety，istheproduct[28]oforganicnecessitiesofadifferentkindfromthoseuponwhichtheconstitutionofthehivedepends。Oneoftheseisthemutualaffectionofparentandoffspring，intensifiedbythelonginfancyofthehumanspecies。Butthemostimportantisthetendency，sostronglydevelopedinman，toreproduceinhimselfactionsandfeelingssimilarto，orcorrelatedwith，thoseofothermen。Manisthemostconsummateofallmimicsintheanimalworld；nonebuthimselfcandrawormodel；nonecomesnearhiminthescope，variety，andexactnessofvocalimitation；noneissuchamasterofgesture；
whileheseemstobeimpelledthustoimitateforthepurepleasureofit。Andthereisnosuchanotheremotionalchameleon。Byapurelyreflexoperationofthemind，wetakethehueofpassionofthosewhoareaboutus，or，itmaybe，thecomplementarycolour。Itisnotbyanyconscious“puttingone’sselfintheplace“ofajoyfulorasufferingpersonthatthestateofmindwecallsympathyusuallyarises；*indeed，itisoftencontrarytoone’ssenseof[29]right，andinspiteofone’swill，that“fellow-feelingmakesuswondrouskind。”orthereverse。Howevercompletemaybetheindifferencetopublicopinion，inacool，intellectualview，ofthetraditionalsage，ithasnotyetbeenmyfortunetomeetwithanyactualsagewhotookitshostilemanifestationswithentireequanimity。Indeed，Idoubtifthephilosopherlives，oreverhaslivedwhocouldknowhimselftobeheartilydespisedby，astreetboywithoutsomeirritation。And，thoughonecannotjustifyHamanforwishingtohangMordecaionsuchaveryhighgibbet，yet，really，theconsciousnessoftheVizierofAhasuerus，ashewentinandoutofthegate，thatthisobscureJewhadnorespectforhim，musthavebeenveryannoying。**
*AdamSmithmakesthepithyobservationthatthemanwhosympathiseswithawomaninchildbed，cannotbesaidtoputhimselfinherplace。“TheTheoryoftheMoralSentiments。”
Partvii。sec。iii。chap。i。Perhapsthereismorehumourthanforceintheexample；and，inspiteofthisandotherobservationsofthesametenor，Ithinkthattheonedefectoftheremarkableworkinwhichitoccursisthatitlaystoomuchstressonconscioussubstitution，toolittleonpurelyreflexsympathy。
**Estherv。9-13。“……butwhenHamansawMordecaiintheking’sgate，thathestoodnotup，normovedforhim，hewasfullofindignationagainstMordecai……AndHamantoldthemofthegloryofhisriches……andallthethingswhereinthekinghadpromotedhim……Yetallthisavailethmenothing，solongasIseeMordecaitheJewsittingattheking’sgate。”
Whatashrewdexposureofhumanweaknessitis！
Itisneedfulonlytolookaroundus，toseethatthegreatestrestraineroftheanti-socialtendenciesofmenisfear，notofthelaw，butoftheopinionoftheirfellows。Theconventionsofhonourbindmenwhobreaklegal，moral，andreligiousbonds；and，whilepeopleenduretheextremityofphysicalpainratherthanpartwithlife，shamedrivestheweakesttosuicide。
Everyforwardstepofsocialprogressbrings[30]menintocloserrelationswiththeirfellows，andincreasestheimportanceofthepleasuresandpainsderivedfromsympathy。Wejudgetheactsofothersbyourownsympathies，andwejudgeourownactsbythesympathiesofothers，everydayandalldaylong，fromchildhoodupwards，untilassociations，asindissolubleasthoseoflanguage，areformedbetweencertainactsandthefeelingsofapprobationordisapprobation。Itbecomesimpossibletoimaginesomeactswithoutdisapprobation，orotherswithoutapprobationoftheactor，whetherhebeone’sself，oranyoneelse。Wecometothinkintheacquireddialectofmorals。Anartificialpersonality，the“manwithin。”asAdamSmith*callsconscience，isbuiltupbesidethenaturalpersonality。Heisthewatchmanofsociety，chargedtorestraintheanti-socialtendenciesofthenaturalmanwithinthelimitsrequiredbysocialwelfare。
*“TheoryoftheMoralSentiments。”Partiii。chap。3。OntheInfluenceandAuthorityofConscience。
XI。
Ihavetermedthisevolutionofthefeelingsoutofwhichtheprimitivebondsofhumansocietyaresolargelyforged，intotheorganizedandpersonifiedsympathywecallconscience，theethicalprocess。*Sofarasittendsto*Workedout，initsessentialfeatures，chieflybyHartleyandAdamSmith，longbeforethemoderndoctrineofevolutionwasthoughtof。SeeNotebelow，p。45。
[31]makeanyhumansocietymoreefficientinthestruggleforexistencewiththestateofnature，orwithothersocieties，itworksinharmoniouscontrastwiththecosmicprocess。Butitisnonethelesstruethat，sincelawandmoralsarerestraintsuponthestruggleforexistencebetweenmeninsociety，theethicalprocessisinoppositiontotheprincipleofthecosmicprocess，andtendstothesuppressionofthequalitiesbestfittedforsuccessinthatstruggle。*
*Seetheessay“OntheStruggleforExistenceinHumanSociety“
below；andCollectedEssays，vol。i。p。276，forKant’srecognitionofthesefacts。
Itisfurthertobeobservedthat，justastheself-assertion，necessarytothemaintenanceofsocietyagainstthestateofnature，willdestroythatsocietyifitisallowedfreeoperationwithin；sotheself-restraint，theessenceoftheethicalprocess，whichisnolessanessentialconditionoftheexistenceofeverypolity，may，byexcess，becomeruinoustoit。
Moralistsofallagesandofallfaiths，attendingonlytotherelationsofmentowardsoneanotherinanidealsociety，haveagreeduponthe“goldenrule。”“Doasyouwouldbedoneby。”Inotherwords，letsympathybeyourguide；putyourselfintheplaceofthemantowardswhomyouractionisdirected；anddotohimwhatyouwouldliketohavedonetoyourselfunderthecircumstances。Howevermuchonemayadmirethegenerosityofsucharuleof[32]conduct；howeverconfidentonemaybethataveragemenmaybethoroughlydependeduponnottocarryitouttoitsfulllogicalconsequences；itisneverthelessdesirabletorecognisethefactthattheseconsequencesareincompatiblewiththeexistenceofacivilstate，underanycircumstancesofthisworldwhichhaveobtained，or，sofarasonecansee，are，likelytocometopass。
ForIimaginetherecanbenodoubtthatthegreatdesireofeverywrongdoeristoescapefromthepainfulconsequencesofhisactions。
IfIputmyselfintheplaceofthemanwhohasrobbedme，IfindthatIampossessedbyanexceedingdesirenottobefinedorimprisoned；
ifinthatofthemanwhohassmittenmeononecheek，Icontemplatewithsatisfactiontheabsenceofanyworseresultthantheturningoftheothercheekforliketreatment。Strictlyobserved，the“goldenrule“involvesthenegationoflawbytherefusaltoputitinmotionagainstlaw-breakers；and，asregardstheexternalrelationsofapolity，itistherefusaltocontinuethestruggleforexistence。Itcanbeobeyed，evenpartially，onlyundertheprotectionofasocietywhichrepudiatesit。Withoutsuchshelter，thefollowersofthe“goldenrule“mayindulgeinhopesofheaven，buttheymustreckonwiththecertaintythatotherpeoplewillbemastersoftheearth。
Whatwouldbecomeofthegardenifthe[33]gardenertreatedalltheweedsandslugs，andbirdsandtrespassersashewouldliketobetreated，ifhewereintheirplace？
XII。
Undertheprecedingheads，Ihaveendeavouredtorepresentinbroad，butIhopefaithful，outlinestheessentialfeaturesofthestateofnatureandofthatcosmicprocessofwhichitistheoutcome，sofaraswasneedfulformyargument；Ihavecontrastedwiththestateofnaturethestateofart，producedbyhumanintelligenceandenergy，asitisexemplifiedbyagarden；andIhaveshownthatthestateofart，hereandelsewhere，canbemaintainedonlybytheconstantcounteractionofthehostileinfluencesofthestateofnature。
Further，Ihavepointedoutthatthe“horticulturalprocess。”whichthussetsitselfagainstthe“cosmicprocess“isopposedtothelatterinprinciple，insofarasittendstoarrestthestruggleforexistence，byrestrainingthemultiplicationwhichisoneofthechiefcausesofthatstruggle，andbycreatingartificialconditionsoflife，betteradaptedtothecultivatedplantsthanaretheconditionsofthestateofnature。AndIhavedweltuponthefactthat，thoughtheprogressivemodification，whichistheconsequenceofthestruggleforexistenceinthestateofnature，isatanend，suchmodificationmaystillbeeffected[34]bythatselection，inviewofanidealofusefulness，orofpleasantness，toman，ofwhichthestateofnatureknowsnothing。
Ihaveproceededtoshowthatacolony，setdowninacountryinthestateofnature，presentscloseanalogieswithagarden；andIhaveindicatedthecourseofactionwhichanadministrator，ableandwillingtocarryouthorticulturalprinciples，wouldadopt，inordertosecurethesuccessofsuchanewlyformedpolity，supposingittobecapableofindefiniteexpansion。Inthecontrarycase，Ihaveshownthatdifficultiesmustarise；thattheunlimitedincreaseofthepopulationoveralimitedareamust，soonerorlater，reintroduceintothecolonythatstruggleforthemeansofexistencebetweenthecolonists，whichitwastheprimaryobjectoftheadministratortoexclude，insomuchasitisfataltothemutualpeacewhichistheprimeconditionoftheunionofmeninsociety。
Ihavebrieflydescribedthenatureoftheonlyradicalcure，knowntome，forthediseasewhichwouldthusthreatentheexistenceofthecolony；and，howeverregretfully，Ihavebeenobligedtoadmitthatthisrigorouslyscientificmethodofapplyingtheprinciplesofevolutiontohumansocietyhardlycomeswithintheregionofpracticalpolitics；notforwantofwillonthepartofagreatmanypeople；butbecause，foronereason，thereisnohopethatmerehumanbeingswilleverpossessenoughintelligencetoselectthefittest。AndI[35]
haveadducedothergroundsforarrivingatthesameconclusion。
Ihavepointedoutthathumansocietytookitsriseintheorganicnecessitiesexpressedbyimitationandbythesympatheticemotions；
andthat，inthestruggleforexistencewiththestateofnatureandwithothersocieties，aspartofit，thoseinwhichmenwerethusledtocloseco-operationbadagreatadvantage。*But，sinceeachmanretainedmoreorlessofthefacultiescommontoalltherest，andespeciallyafullshareofthedesireforunlimitedself-gratification，thestruggleforexistencewithinsocietycouldonlybegraduallyeliminated。Solongasanyofitremained，societycontinuedtobeanimperfectinstrumentofthestruggleforexistenceand，consequently，wasimprovablebytheselectiveinfluenceofthatstruggle。Otherthingsbeingalike，thetribeofsavagesinwhichorderwasbestmaintained；inwhichtherewasmostsecuritywithinthetribeandthemostloyalmutualsupportoutsideit，wouldbethesurvivors。
*CollectedEssays，vol。v。，Prologue，p。52。
Ihavetermedthisgradualstrengtheningofthesocialbond，which，thoughitarrestthestruggleforexistenceinsidesociety，uptoacertainpointimprovesthechancesofsociety，asacorporatewhole，inthecosmicstruggle——theethicalprocess。Ihaveendeavouredtoshowthat，whentheethicalprocesshasadvancedsofarastosecure[36]everymemberofthesocietyinthepossessionofthemeansofexistence，thestruggleforexistence，asbetweenmanandman，withinthatsocietyis，ipsofacto，atanend。And，asitisundeniablethatthemosthighlycivilizedsocietieshavesubstantiallyreachedthisposition，itfollowsthat，sofarastheyareconcerned，thestruggleforexistencecanplaynoimportantpartwithinthem。*Inotherwords，thekindofevolutionwhichisbroughtaboutinthestateofnaturecannottakeplace。
*Whetherthestruggleforexistencewiththestateofnatureandwithothersocieties，sofarastheystandintherelationofthestateofnaturewithit，exertsaselectiveinfluenceuponmodernsociety，andinwhatdirection，arequestionsnoteasytoanswer。Theproblemoftheeffectofmilitaryandindustrialwarfareuponthosewhowageitisverycomplicated。
Ihavefurthershowncauseforthebeliefthatdirectselection，afterthefashionofthehorticulturistandthebreeder，neitherhasplayed，norcanplay，anyimportantpartintheevolutionofsociety；apartfromotherreasons，becauseIdonotseehowsuchselectioncouldbepractisedwithoutaseriousweakening，itmaybethedestruction，ofthebondswhichholdsocietytogether。Itstrikesmethatmenwhoareaccustomedtocontemplatetheactiveorpassiveextirpationoftheweak，theunfortunate，andthesuperfluous；whojustifythatconductonthegroundthatithasthesanctionofthecosmicprocess，andistheonlywayofensuringtheprogressoftherace；who，if[37]theyareconsistent，mustrankmedicineamongtheblackartsandcountthephysicianamischievouspreserveroftheunfit；onwhosematrimonialundertakingstheprinciplesofthestudhavethechiefinfluence；
whosewholelives，therefore，areaneducationinthenobleartofsuppressingnaturalaffectionandsympathy，arenotlikelytohaveanylargestockofthesecommoditiesleft。But，withoutthem，thereisnoconscience，noranyrestraintontheconductofmen，exceptthecalculationofself-interest，thebalancingofcertainpresentgratificationsagainstdoubtfulfuturepains；andexperiencetellsushowmuchthatisworth。Everyday，weseefirmbelieversinthehellofthetheologianscommitactsbywhich，astheybelievewhencool，theyrisketernalpunishment；whiletheyholdbackfromthosewhichamopposedtothesympathiesoftheirassociates。
XIII。
Thatprogressivemodificationofcivilizationwhichpassesbythenameofthe“evolutionofsociety。”is，infact，aprocessofanessentiallydifferentcharacter，bothfromthatwhichbringsabouttheevolutionofspecies，inthestateofnature，andfromthatwhichgivesrisetotheevolutionofvarieties，inthestateofart。
TherecanbenodoubtthatvastchangeshavetakenplaceinEnglishcivilizationsincethereign[38]oftheTudors。ButIamnotawareofaparticleofevidenceinfavouroftheconclusionthatthisevolutionaryprocess，hasbeenaccompaniedbyanymodificationofthephysical，orthemental，charactersofthemenwhohavebeenthesubjectsofit。IhavenotmetwithanygroundsforsuspectingthattheaverageEnglishmenofto-dayaresensiblydifferentfromthosethatShakspereknewanddrew。WelookintohismagicmirroroftheElizabethanage，andbehold，nowisedarkly，thepresentmentofourselves。
Duringthesethreecenturies，fromthereignofElizabethtothatofVictoria，thestruggleforexistencebetweenmanandmanhasbeensolargelyrestrainedamongthegreatmassofthepopulationexceptforoneortwoshortintervalsofcivilwar，thatitcanhavehadlittle，orno，selectiveoperation。Astoanythingcomparabletodirectselection，ithasbeenpractisedonsosmallascalethatitmayalsobeneglected。Thecriminallaw，insofarasbyputtingtodeathorbysubjectingtolongperiodsofimprisonment，thosewhoinfringeitsprovisions，preventsthepropagationofhereditarycriminaltendencies；andthepoor-law，insofarasitseparatesmarriedcouples，whosedestitutionarisesfromhereditarydefectsofcharacter，aredoubtlessselectiveagentsoperatinginfavourofthenon-criminalandthemoreeffectivemembersofsociety。Buttheproportionofthepopulationwhichtheyinfluence[39]isverysmall；
and，generally，thehereditarycriminalandthehereditarypauperhavepropagatedtheirkindbeforethelawaffectsthem。Inalargeproportionofcases，crimeandpauperismhavenothingtodowithheredity；butaretheconsequence，partly，ofcircumstancesand，partly，ofthepossessionofqualities，which，underdifferentconditionsoflife，mighthaveexcitedesteemandevenadmiration。Itwasashrewdmanoftheworldwho，indiscussingsewageproblems，remarkedthatdirtisrichesinthewrongplace；andthatsoundaphorismhasmoralapplications。Thebenevolenceandopen-handedgenerositywhichadornarichman，maymakeapauperofapoorone；
theenergyandcouragetowhichthesuccessfulsoldieroweshisrise，thecoolanddaringsubtletytowhichthegreatfinancieroweshisfortune，mayveryeasily，underunfavourableconditions，leadtheirpossessorstothegallows，ortothehulks。Moreover，itisfairlyprobablethatthechildrenofa“failure“willreceivefromtheirotherparentjustthatlittlemodificationofcharacterwhichmakesallthedifference。Isometimeswonderwhetherpeople，whotalksofreelyaboutextirpatingtheunfit，everdispassionatelyconsidertheirownhistory。Surely，onemustbevery“fit。”indeed，nottoknowofanoccasion，orperhapstwo，inone’slife，whenitwouldhavebeenonlytooeasytoqualifyforaplaceamongthe“unfit。”
[40]Inmybelieftheinnatequalities，physical，intellectual，andmoral，ofournationhaveremainedsubstantiallythesameforthelastfourorfivecenturies。IfthestruggleforexistencehasaffectedustoanyseriousextentandIdoubtitithasbeen，indirectly，throughourmilitaryandindustrialwarswithothernations。