Thesameistrueofaloadedgun。Fromthedialecticalstandpoint,thepossibilityofexpressingmotioninitsopposite,inrest,presentsabsolutelynodifficulty。Fromthedialecticalstandpointthewholeantithesis,aswehaveseen,isonlyrelative;thereisnosuchthingasabsoluterest,unconditionalequilibrium。Eachseparatemovementstrivestowardsequilibrium,andthemotionasawholeputsanendagaintotheequilibrium。Whenthereforerestandequilibriumoccurtheyaretheresultoflimitedmotion,anditisself-evidentthatthismotionismeasurablebyitsresult,canbeexpressedinit,andcanberestoredoutofitagaininoneformoranother。ButHerrDühringcannotallowhimselftobesatisfiedwithsuchasimplepresentationofthematter。Asagoodmetaphysicianhefirsttearsopen,betweenmotionandequilibrium,ayawninggulfwhichdoesnotexistinrealityandisthensurprisedthathecannotfindanybridgeacrossthisself-fabricatedgulf。HemightjustaswellmounthismetaphysicalRosinanteandchasetheKantian“thing-in-itself“;foritisthatandnothingelsewhichinthelastanalysisishidingbehindthisundiscoverablebridge。
  Butwhataboutthemechanicaltheoryofheatandthetied-uporlatentheatwhich“hasremainedastumbling-block“forthistheory?
  If,undernormalatmosphericpressure,apoundoficeatthetemperatureofthefreezingpointistransformedbyheatintoapoundofwaterofthesametemperature,aquantityofheatdisappearswhichwouldbesufficienttowarmthesamepoundofwaterfrom0°to79。4°C,ortoraisethetemperatureof79。4poundsofwaterbyonedegree。Ifthispoundofwaterisheatedtoboilingpoint,thatis,to100°C,andisthentransformedintosteamof100°C,theamountofheatthatdisappears,bythetimethelastofthewaterhaschangedintosteam,isalmostseventimesgreater,sufficienttoraisethetemperatureof537。2poundsofwaterbyonedegree。
  Theheatthatdisappearsiscalledtied-up。If,bycooling,thesteamisagaintransformedintowater,andthewater,initsturn,intoice,thesamequantityofheataswaspreviouslytiedupisnowagainsetfree,i。e。,canbefeltandmeasuredasheat。Thissettingfreeofheatonthecondensationofsteamandthefreezingofwateristhereasonwhysteam,whencooledto100°,isonlygraduallytransformedintowater,andwhyamassofwateroffreezingpointtemperatureisonlyverygraduallytransformedintoice。Thesearethefacts。Thequestionis,whathappenstotheheatwhileitistiedup?
  Themechanicaltheoryofheat,accordingtowhichheatconsistsinagreaterorlesservibration,dependingonthetemperatureandstateofaggregation,ofthesmallestphysicallyactiveparticlesmolecules
  ofabody——avibrationwhichundercertainconditionscanchangeintoanyotherformofmotion——explainsthattheheatthathasdisappearedhasdonework,hasbeentransformedintowork。Whenicemelts,thecloseandfirmconnectionbetweentheindividualmoleculesisbroken,andtransformedintoaloosejuxtaposition;whenwateratboilingpointbecomessteamastateisreachedinwhichtheindividualmoleculesnolongerhaveanynoticeableinfluenceononeanother,andundertheinfluenceofheatevenflyapartinalldirections。Itisclearthatthesinglemoleculesofabodyareendowedwithfargreaterenergyinthegaseousstatethantheyareinthefluidstate,andinthefluidstateagainmorethaninthesolidstate。
  Thetied-upheat,therefore,hasnotdisappeared;ithasmerelybeentransformed,andhasassumedtheformofmoleculartension。Assoonastheconditionunderwhichtheseparatemoleculesareabletomaintaintheirabsoluteorrelativefreedominregardtooneanotherceasestoexist——thatis,assoonasthetemperaturefallsbelowtheminimumof100°or0°,asthecasemaybe,thistensionrelaxes,themoleculesagainpresstowardseachotherwiththesameforcewithwhichtheyhadpreviouslyflownapart;
  andthisforcedisappears,butonlytoreappearasheat,andaspreciselythesamequantityofheatashadpreviouslybeentiedup。Thisexplanationisofcourseahypothesis,asisthewholemechanicaltheoryofheat,inasmuchasnoonehasuptonoweverseenamolecule,nottomentiononeinvibration。
  Justforthisreasonitiscertaintobefullofdefectsasthisstillveryyoungtheoryisasawhole,butitcanatleastexplainwhathappenswithoutinanywaycomingintoconflictwiththeindestructibilityanduncreatabilityofmotion,anditisevenabletoaccountforthewhereaboutsofheatduringitstransformations。Latent,ortied-up,heatisthereforeinnowayastumbling-blockforthemechanicaltheoryofheat。Onthecontrary,thistheoryprovidesthefirstrationalexplanationofwhattakesplace,anditinvolvesnostumbling-blockexceptinsofarasphysicistscontinuetodescribeheatwhichhasbeentransformedintoanotherformofmolecularenergybymeansoftheterm“tied-up“,whichhasbecomeobsoleteandunsuitable。
  Theself-equalstatesandconditionsofrestinthesolid,intheliquidandinthegaseousstateofaggregationthereforerepresent,tobesure,mechanicalwork,insofarasmechanicalworkisthemeasureofheat。Boththesolidcrustoftheearthandthewateroftheocean,intheirpresentaggregatestates,representadefinitequantityofheatsetfree,towhichofcoursecorrespondsanequallydefinitequantityofmechanicalforce。Inthetransitionofthegaseousball,fromwhichtheearthhasdeveloped,intotheliquidandsubsequentlyintothelargelysolidaggregatestate,adefinitequantityofmolecularenergywasradiatedasheatintospace。ThedifficultyaboutwhichHerrDühringmumblesinhismysteriousmannerthereforedoesnotexist,andthougheveninapplyingthetheorycosmicallywemaycomeupagainstdefectsandgaps——whichmustbeattributedtoourimperfectmeansofknowledge——wenowherecomeupagainsttheoreticallyinsuperableobstacles。Thebridgefromthestatictothedynamicishere,too,theexternalimpulse——thecoolingorheatingbroughtaboutbyotherbodiesactingonanobjectwhichisinastateofequilibrium。ThefurtherweexplorethisnaturalphilosophyofDühring’s,themoreimpossibleappearallattemptstoexplainmotionoutofimmobilityortofindthebridgeoverwhichthepurelystatic,theresting,canbyitselfpasstothedynamic,tomotion。
  Withthiswehavefortunatelyridourselvesforatimeoftheself-equalprimordialstate。HerrDühringpassesontochemistry,andtakestheopportunitytorevealtousthreelawsofnature’sinertnesswhichhavesofarbeendiscoveredbyhisphilosophyofreality,viz。:
  1thequantityofallmatteringeneral,2thatofthesimplechemical
  elements,and3thatofmechanicalforceareconstant{D。Ph。97}
  Hence:theuncreatabilityandindestructibilityofmatter,andalsoofitssimplecomponentparts,insofarasitismadeupofsuch,aswellastheuncreatabilityandindestructibilityofmotion——theseoldfactsknowntheworldoverandexpressedmostinadequately——istheonlypositivethingwhichHerrDühringcanprovideuswithasaresultofhisnaturalphilosophyoftheinorganicworld。Weknewallthislongago。Butwhatwedidnotknowwasthattheywere“lawsofinertness“andassuch“schematicpropertiesofthesystemofthings“。WearewitnessingarepetitionofwhathappenedabovetoKant:HerrDühringpicksupsomeoldfamiliarquip,sticksaDühringlabelonit,andcallstheresult:
  “fromthegrounduporiginalconclusionsandviews……system-creatingideas{525}deep-rootedscience“{200,219;D。C。555-56}。
  Buttheneednotbyanymeansdespaironthisaccount。Whateverdefectseventhemostdeep-rootedscienceandthebest-orderedsocietymayhave,HerrDühringcanatanyrateassertonethingwithconfidence:
  “Theamountofgoldexistingintheuniversemustatalltimeshavebeenthesame,anditcanhaveincreasedordiminishedjustaslittleascanmatteringeneral“{D。Ph。96}。
  UnfortunatelyHerrDühringdoesnottelluswhatwecanbuywiththis“existinggold“。
  VII。
  PHILOSOPHYOFNATURE。
  THEORGANICWORLD“Asingleanduniformladderofintermediatestepsleadsfromthemechanicsofpressureandimpacttothelinkingtogetherofsensationsandideas“{D。Ph。104}。
  WiththisassuranceHerrDühringsaveshimselfthetroubleofsayinganythingfurtherabouttheoriginoflife,althoughitmightreasonablyhavebeenexpectedthatathinkerwhohadtracedtheevolutionoftheworldbacktoitsself-equalstate,andissomuchathomeonothercelestialbodies,wouldhaveknownexactlywhat’swhatalsoonthispoint。Fortherest,however,theassurancehegivesusisonlyhalfrightunlessitiscompletedbytheHegeliannodallineofmeasurerelationswhichhasalreadybeenmentioned。Inspiteofallgradualness,thetransitionfromoneformofmotiontoanotheralwaysremainsaleap,adecisivechange。Thisistrueofthetransitionfromthemechanicsofcelestialbodiestothatofsmallermassesonaparticularcelestialbody;itisequallytrueofthetransitionfromthemechanicsofmassestothemechanicsofmolecules——
  includingtheformsofmotioninvestigatedinphysicsproper:heat,light,electricity,magnetism。Inthesameway,thetransitionfromthephysicsofmoleculestothephysicsofatoms——chemistry——inturninvolvesadecidedleap;andthisisevenmoreclearlythecaseinthetransitionfromordinarychemicalactiontothechemismofalbumenwhichwecalllife。[39]Thenwithinthesphereoflifetheleapsbecomeevermoreinfrequentandimperceptible——Onceagain,therefore,itisHegelwhohastocorrectHerrDühring。
  TheconceptofpurposeprovidesHerrDühringwithaconceptualtransitiontotheorganicworld。Onceagain,thisisborrowedfromHegel,whoinhisLogic——theDoctrineoftheNotion——makesthetransitionfromchemismtolifebymeansofteleology,orthescienceofpurpose。
  WhereverwelookinHerrDühringwerunintoaHegelian“crudity“,whichhequiteunblushinglydishesouttousashisowndeep-rootedscience。
  Itwouldtakeustoofarafieldtoinvestigateheretheextenttowhichitislegitimateandappropriatetoapplytheideasofmeansandendtotheorganicworld。Inanycase,eventheapplicationoftheHegelian“innerpurpose“——i。e。,apurposewhichisnotimportedintonaturebysomethirdpartyactingpurposively,suchasthewisdomofprovidence,butliesinthenecessityofthethingitself——constantlyleadspeoplewhoarenotwellversedinphilosophytothoughtlesslyascribingtonatureconsciousandpurposiveactivity。ThatsameHerrDühringwhoisfilledwithboundlessmoralindignationattheslightest“spiritistic“tendencyinotherpeopleassuresus“withcertaintythattheinstinctivesensationswereprimarilycreatedforthesakeofthesatisfactioninvolvedintheiractivity“{D。Ph。158}。
  Hetellsusthatpoornature“isobligedincessantlytomaintainorderintheworldofobjects“
  {159}andindoingsoshehastosettlemorethanonebusiness“whichrequiresmoresubtletyonthepartofnaturethanisusuallycreditedtoher“{165}。
  Butnaturenotonlyknowswhyshedoesonethingoranother;shehasnotonlytoperformthedutiesofahousemaid,shenotonlypossessessubtlety,initselfaprettygoodaccomplishmentinsubjectiveconsciousthought;shehasalsoawill。Forwhattheinstinctsdoinaddition,incidentallyfulfillingrealnaturalfunctionssuchasnutritionpropagation,etc。,“weshouldnotregardasdirectlybutonlyindirectlywilled{169}。
  Sowehavearrivedataconsciouslythinkingandactingnature,andarethusalreadystandingonthe“bridge“——notindeedfromthestatictothedynamic,butfrompantheismtodeism。OrisHerrDühringperhapsjustforonceindulgingalittlein“natural-philosophicalsemi-poetry“?
  Impossible!Allthatourphilosopherofrealitycantellusoforganicnatureisrestrictedtothefightagainstthisnatural-philosophicalsemi-poetry,against“charlatanismwithitsfrivoloussuperficialitiesandpseudo-scientificmystifications“,againstthe“poetisingfeatures“
  {109}ofDarwinism。
  ThemainreproachlevelledagainstDarwinisthathetransferredtheMalthusianpopulationtheoryfrompoliticaleconomytonaturalscience,thathewasheldcaptivebytheideasofananimalbreeder,thatinhistheoryofthestruggleforexistencehepursuedunscientificsemi-poetry,andthatthewholeofDarwinism,afterdeductingwhathadbeenborrowedfromLamarck,isapieceofbrutalitydirectedagainsthumanity。
  Darwinbroughtbackfromhisscientifictravelstheviewthatplantandanimalspeciesarenotconstantbutsubjecttovariation。Inordertofollowupthisideaafterhisreturnhometherewasnobetterfieldavailablethanthatofthebreedingofanimalsandplants。ItispreciselyinthisfieldthatEnglandistheclassicalcountry;theachievementsofothercountries,forexampleGermany,fallfarshortofwhatEnglandhasachievedinthisconnection。Moreover,mostofthesesuccesseshavebeenwonduringthelasthundredyears,sothatthereisverylittledifficultyinestablishingthefacts。Darwinfoundthatthisbreedingproducedartificially,amonganimalsandplantsofthesamespecies,differencesgreaterthanthosefoundinwhataregenerallyrecognisedasdifferentspecies。Thuswasestablishedontheonehandthevariabilityofspeciesuptoacertainpoint,andontheotherthepossibilityofacommonancestryfororganismswithdifferentspecificcharacteristics。Darwintheninvestigatedwhethertherewerenotpossiblycausesinnaturewhich——withouttheconsciousintentionofthebreeder——wouldneverthelessinthelongrunproduceinlivingorganismschangessimilartothoseproducedbyartificialselection。
  Hediscoveredthesecausesinthedisproportionbetweentheimmensenumberofgermscreatedbynatureandtheinsignificantnumberoforganismswhichactuallyattainmaturity。Butaseachgermstrivestodevelop,therenecessarilyarisesastruggleforexistencewhichmanifestsitselfnotmerelyasdirectbodilycombatordevouring,butalsoasastruggleforspaceandlight,eveninthecaseofplants。Anditisevidentthatinthisstrugglethoseindividualswhichhavesomeindividualpeculiarity,howeverinsignificant,thatgivesthemanadvantageinthestruggleforexistencewillhavethebestprospectofreachingmaturityandpropagatingthemselves。Theseindividualpeculiaritieshavethusthetendencytodescendbyheredity,andwhentheyoccuramongmanyindividualsofthesamespecies,tobecomemorepronouncedthroughaccumulatedheredityinthedirectiononcetaken;whilethoseindividualswhichdonotpossessthesepeculiaritiessuccumbmoreeasilyinthestruggleforexistenceandgraduallydisappear。Inthiswayaspeciesisalteredthroughnaturalselection,throughthesurvivalofthefittest。
  AgainstthisDarwiniantheoryHerrDühringnowsaysthattheoriginoftheideaofthestruggleforexistence,as,heclaims,Darwinhimselfadmitted,hastobesoughtinageneralisationoftheviewsoftheeconomistandtheoreticianofpopulation,Malthus,andthattheideathereforesuffersfromallthedefectsinherentinthepriestlyMalthusianideasofover-population{D。Ph。101}——NowDarwinwouldnotdreamofsayingthattheoriginoftheideaofthestruggleforexistenceistobefoundinMalthus。HeonlysaysthathistheoryofthestruggleforexistenceisthetheoryofMalthusappliedtotheanimalandplantworldasawhole。HowevergreattheblundermadebyDarwininacceptingtheMalthusiantheorysonaivelyanduncritically,neverthelessanyonecanseeatthefirstglancethatnoMalthusianspectaclesarerequiredtoperceivethestruggleforexistenceinnature——thecontradictionbetweenthecountlesshostofgermswhichnaturesolavishlyproducesandthesmallnumberofthosewhicheverreachmaturity,acontradictionwhichinfactforthemostpartfindsitssolutioninastruggleforexistence——oftenofextremecruelty。AndjustasthelawofwageshasmaintaineditsvalidityevenaftertheMalthusianargumentsonwhichRicardobasedithavelongbeenconsignedtooblivion,solikewisethestruggleforexistencecantakeplaceinnature,evenwithoutanyMalthusianinterpretation。Forthatmatter,theorganismsofnaturealsohavetheirlawsofpopulation,whichhavebeenleftpracticallyuninvestigated,althoughtheirestablishmentwouldbeofdecisiveimportanceforthetheoryoftheevolutionofspecies。
  Butwhowasitthatlentdecisiveimpetustoworkinthisdirectiontoo?
  NootherthanDarwin。
  HerrDühringcarefullyavoidsanexaminationofthispositivesideofthequestion。Instead,thestruggleforexistenceisarraignedagainandagain。Itisobvious,accordingtohim,thattherecanbenotalkofastruggleforexistenceamongunconsciousplantsandgood-naturedplant-eaters:
  “inthepreciseanddefinitesensethestruggleforexistenceisfoundintherealmofbrutalitytotheextentthatanimalsliveonpreyanditsdevourment“{118}。
  Andafterhehasreducedtheideaofthestruggleforexistencetothesenarrowlimitshecangivefullventtohisindignationatthebrutalityofthisidea,whichhehimselfhasrestrictedtobrutality。ButthismoralindignationonlyreboundsuponHerrDühringhimself,whoisindeedtheonlyauthorofthestruggleforexistenceinthislimitedconceptionandisthereforesolelyresponsibleforit。ItisconsequentlynotDarwinwho“soughtthelawsandunderstandingofallnature’sactionsinthekingdomofthebrutes“{117},——Darwinhadinfactexpresslyincludedthewholeoforganicnatureinthestruggle——butanimaginarybugbeardressedupbyHerrDühringhimself。
  Thename:thestruggleforexistence,canforthatmatterbewillinglysacrificedtoHerrDühring’shighlymoralindignation。Thatthefactexistsalsoamongplantscanbedemonstratedtohimbyeverymeadow,everycornfield,everywood;andthequestionatissueisnotwhatitistobecalled,whether“struggleforexistence“or“lackofconditionsoflifeandmechanicaleffects“{118},buthowthisfactinfluencesthepreservationorvariationofspecies。OnthispointHerrDühringmaintainsanobstinateandself-equalsilence。Thereforeforthetimebeingeverythingmayremainasitwasinnaturalselection。
  ButDarwinism“producesitstransformationsanddifferencesoutofnothing“{114}。
  ItistruethatDarwin,whenconsideringnaturalselection,leavesoutofaccountthecauseswhichhaveproducedthealterationsinseparateindividuals,anddealsinthefirstplacewiththewayinwhichsuchindividualdeviationsgraduallybecomethecharacteristicsofarace,varietyorspecies。
  ToDarwinitwasoflessimmediateimportancetodiscoverthesecauses——whichuptothepresentareinpartabsolutelyunknown,andinpartcanonlybestatedinquitegeneralterms——thantofindarationalforminwhichtheireffectsbecomefixed,acquirepermanentsignificance。ItistruethatindoingthisDarwinattributedtohisdiscoverytoowideafieldofaction,madeitthesoleagentinthealterationofspeciesandneglectedthecausesoftherepeatedindividualvariations,concentratingratherontheforminwhichthesevariationsbecomegeneral;butthisisamistakewhichheshareswithmostotherpeoplewhomakeanyrealadvance。
  Moreover,ifDarwinproduceshisindividualtransformationsoutofnothing,andinsodoingappliesexclusively“thewisdomofthebreeder“{125},thebreeder,too,mustproduceoutofnothinghistransformationsinanimalandplantformswhicharenotmerelyimaginarybutreal。Butonceagain,themanwhogavetheimpetustoinvestigatehowexactlythesetransformationsanddifferencesariseisnootherthanDarwin。
  Inrecenttimestheideaofnaturalselectionwasextended,particularlybyHaeckel,andthevariationofspeciesconceivedasaresultofthemutualinteractionofadaptationandheredity,inwhichprocessadaptationistakenasthefactorwhichproducesvariations,andheredityasthepreservingfactor。ThisisalsonotregardedassatisfactorybyHerrDühring。
  “Realadaptationtoconditionsoflifewhichareofferedorwithheldbynaturepresupposesimpulsesandactionsdeterminedbyideas。Otherwisetheadaptationisonlyapparent,andthecausalityoperativethereupondoesnotriseabovethelowgradesofthephysical,chemicalandplant-physiological“
  {D。Ph。115}。
  OnceagainitisthenamewhichmakesHerrDühringangry。Butwhatevernamehemaygivetotheprocess,thequestionhereiswhethervariationsinthespeciesoforganismsareproducedthroughsuchprocessesornot。
  AndagainHerrDühringgivesnoanswer。
  “If,ingrowing,aplanttakesthepathalongwhichitwillreceivemostlight,thiseffectofthestimulusisnothingbutacombinationofphysicalforcesandchemicalagents,andanyattempttodescribeitasadaptation——notmetaphorically,butinthestrictsenseoftheword——
  mustintroduceaspiritisticconfusionintotheconcepts“{115}。
  Suchistheseveritymetedouttoothersbytheverymanwhoknowsexactlybywhosewillnaturedoesonethingoranother,whospeaksofnature’ssubtletyandevenofherwill!Spiritisticconfusion,yes——butwhere,inHaeckelorinHerrDühring?
  Andnotonlyspiritistic,butalsologicalconfusion。WesawthatHerrDühringinsistswithmightandmainonestablishingthevalidityinnatureoftheconceptofpurpose:
  “Therelationbetweenmeansandenddoesnotintheleastpresupposeaconsciousintention“{102}。
  What,then,isadaptationwithoutconsciousintention,withoutthemediationofideas,whichhesozealouslyopposes,ifnotsuchunconsciouspurposiveactivity?
  Ifthereforetree-frogsandleaf-eatinginsectsaregreen,desertanimalssandy-yellow,andanimalsofthepolarregionsmainlysnow-whiteincolour,theyhavecertainlynotadoptedthesecoloursonpurposeorinconformitywithanyideas;onthecontrary,thecolourscanonlybeexplainedonthebasisofphysicalforcesandchemicalagents。Andyetitcannotbedeniedthattheseanimals,becauseofthosecolours,arepurposivelyadaptedtotheenvironmentinwhichtheylive,inthattheyhavebecomefarlessvisibletotheirenemies。Injustthesamewaytheorganswithwhichcertainplantsseizeanddevourinsectsalightingonthemareadaptedtothisaction,andevenpurposivelyadapted。Consequently,ifHerrDühringinsiststhatthisadaptationmustbeeffectedthroughideas,heasmuchassays,onlyinotherwords,thatpurposiveactivitymustalsobebroughtaboutthroughideas,mustbeconsciousandintentional。
  Andthisbringsus,asisusuallythecaseinhisphilosophyofreality,toapurposivecreator,toGod。
  “Anexplanationofthiskindusedtobecalleddeism,andwasnotthoughtmuchof“——HerrDühringtellsus——“butonthismatter,too,viewsnowseemtohavebeenreversed“{111}。
  Fromadaptationwenowpassontoheredity。Herelikewise,accordingtoHerrDühring,Darwinismiscompletelyonthewrongtrack。Thewholeorganicworld,Darwinissaidtohaveasserted,descendedfromoneprimordialbeing,issotospeaktheprogenyofonesinglebeing。Dühringstatesthat,inDarwin’sview,thereisnosuchthingastheindependentparallellinesofhomogeneousproductsofnatureunlessmediatedbycommondescent;
  andthatthereforeDarwinandhisretrospectivelydirectedviewshadperforcetocometoanendatthepointwherethethreadofbegetting,orotherformofpropagation,breaksoff{111}。
  TheassertionthatDarwintracedallexistingorganismsbacktooneprimordialbeingis,toputitpolitely,aproductofHerrDühring’s“ownfreecreationandimagination“{43}。DarwinexpresslysaysonthelastpagebutoneofhisOriginofspecies,sixthedition,thatheregards“allbeingsnotasspecialcreations,butasthelinealdescendantsofsomefewbeings“。
  AndHaeckelevengoesconsiderablyfurther,assuming“aquiteindependentstockforthevegetablekingdom,andasecondfortheanimalkingdom“,andbetweenthetwo“anumberofindependentstocksofProtista,eachofwhich,quiteindependentlyoftheformer,hasdevelopedoutofonespecialarchegoneofthemonerontype“[40]Schöpfungsgeschichte,p。397
  ThisprimordialbeingwasonlyinventedbyDühringinordertobringitintoasgreatdisreputeaspossiblebydrawingaparallelwiththeprimordialJew{D。Ph。110}Adam,andinthishe——thatistosay,HerrDühring——suffersthemisfortuneofnothavingthefaintestideathatthisprimordialJewhadbeenshownbySmith’sAssyriandiscoveries[41]tohavebeenaprimordialSemite,andthatthewholebiblicalhistoryofcreationandthefloodturnsouttobeapartoftheoldheathenreligiousmythswhichtheJewhaveincommonwiththeBabylonians,ChaldeansandAssyrians。
  ItiscertainlyabitterreproachagainstDarwin,andoneforwhichhehasnodefence,thathecomestoanendatonceatthepointwherethethreadofdescentbreaksoff。Unfortunatelyitisareproachwhichhasbeenearnedbythewholeofournaturalscience。Wherethethreadofdescentbreaksoffforit,it“ends“。Ithasnotyetsucceededinproducingorganicbeingswithoutdescentfromothers;indeed,ithasnotyetsucceededeveninproducingsimpleprotoplasmorotheralbuminousbodiesoutofchemicalelements。Withregardtotheoriginoflife,therefore,uptothepresent,naturalscienceisonlyabletosaywithcertaintythatitmusthavebeentheresultofchemicalaction。However,perhapsthephilosophyofrealityisinapositiontogivesomehelponthispointasithasatitsdisposalindependentparallellinesofproductsofnaturenotmediatedbycommondescent。Howcanthesehavecomeintoexistence?Byspontaneousgeneration?
  Butuptonoweventhemostaudaciousadvocatesofspontaneousgenerationhavenotclaimedthatthisproducedanythingbutbacteria,embryonicfungiandotherveryprimitiveorganisms——noinsects,fishes,birdsormammals。
  Butifthesehomogeneousproductsofnature——organic,ofcourse,ashereweareonlydealingwiththese——arenotconnectedbydescent,theyoreachoftheirancestorsmust,atthepoint“wherethethreadofdescentbreaksoff“,havebeenputintotheworldbyaseparateactofcreation。
  Sowearriveonceagainatacreatorandatwhatiscalleddeism。
  HerrDühringfurtherdeclaresthatitwasverysuperficialonDarwin’spart“tomakethemereactofthesexualcompositionofpropertiesthefundamentalprincipleoftheoriginoftheseproperties“{116}。
  Thisisanotherfreecreationandimaginationofourdeep-rootedphilosopher。
  Darwindefinitelystatestheopposite:theexpressionnaturalselectiononlyimpliesthepreservationofvariations,nottheiroriginp。
  63。ThisnewimputationtoDarwinofthingsheneversaidneverthelesshelpsustograspthefollowingdepthofDühringianmentality:
  “Ifsomeprincipleofindependentvariationhadbeenfoundintheinnerschematismofgeneration,thisideawouldhavebeenquiterational;foritisanaturalideatocombinetheprincipleofuniversalgenesiswiththatofsexualpropagationintoaunity,andtoregardso-calledspontaneousgeneration,fromahigherstandpoint,notastheabsoluteantithesisofreproductionbutjustasaproduction“{116}。
  AndthemanwhocanwritesuchrubbishisnotashamedtoreproachHegelforhis“jargon“{D。K。G。491}!
  Butenoughofthepeevish,contradictorygrumblingandnaggingthroughwhichHerrDühringgivesventtohisangeratthecolossalimpetuswhichnaturalscienceowestothedrivingforceoftheDarwiniantheory。NeitherDarwinnorhisfollowersamongnaturalistseverthinkofbelittlinginanywaythegreatservicesrenderedbyLamarck;infact,theyaretheverypeoplewhofirstputhimupagainonhispedestal。ButwemustnotoverlookthefactthatinLamarck’stimesciencewasasyetfarfrombeinginpossessionofsufficientmaterialtohaveenabledittoanswerthequestionoftheoriginofspeciesexceptinananticipatoryway,prophetically,asitwere。Inadditiontotheenormousmassofmaterial,bothofdescriptiveandanatomicalbotanyandzoology,whichhasaccumulatedintheinterveningperiod,twocompletelynewscienceshavearisensinceLamarck’stime,andtheseareofdecisiveimportanceonthisquestion:
  researchintothedevelopmentofplantandanimalgermsembryologyandresearchintotheorganicremainspreservedinthevariousstrataoftheearth’ssurfacepalaeontology。Thereisinfactapeculiarcorrespondencebetweenthegradualdevelopmentoforganicgermsintomatureorganismsandthesuccessionofplantsandanimalsfollowingeachotherinthehistoryoftheearth。Anditispreciselythiscorrespondencewhichhasgiventhetheoryofevolutionitsmostsecurebasis。Thetheoryofevolutionitselfishoweverstillinaveryearlystage,anditthereforecannotbedoubtedthatfurtherresearchwillgreatlymodifyourpresentconceptions,includingstrictlyDarwinianones,oftheprocessoftheevolutionofspecies。
  What,ofapositivecharacter,hasthephilosophyofrealitytotellusconcerningtheevolutionoforganiclife?
  “The……variabilityofspeciesisapresuppositionwhichcanbeaccepted“
  {D。Ph。115}。Butalongsideitthereholdalso“theindependentparallellinesofhomogeneousproductsofnature,notmediatedbycommondescent“
  {111}。
  Fromthisweareapparentlytoinferthattheheterogeneousproductsofnature,i。e。,thespecieswhichshowvariations,descend。fromeachotherbutnotsothehomogeneousproducts。Butthisisnotaltogethercorrecteither;forevenwithspecieswhichshowvariations,“mediationbycommondescentisonthecontraryquiteasecondaryactofnature“{114}。
  Sowegetcommondescentafterall,butonly“secondclass“。WemustrejoicethatafterHerrDühringhasattributedsomuchtoitthatisevilandobscure,weneverthelessfinditintheendreadmittedbythebackdoor。
  Itisthesamewithnaturalselection,forafterallhismoralindignationoverthestruggleforexistencethroughwhichnaturalselectionoperateswesuddenlyread:
  “Thedeeperbasisoftheconstitutionoforganismsisthustobesoughtintheconditionsoflifeandcosmicrelations,whilethenaturalselectionemphasisedbyDarwincanonlycomeinasasecondaryfactor“{115}。
  Sowegetnaturalselectionafterall,thoughonlysecondclass;andalongwithnaturalselectionalsothestruggleforexistence,andwiththatalsothepriestlyMalthusianoverpopulation!Thatisall,andfortherestHerrDühringrefersustoLamarck。
  Inconclusionhewarnsusagainstthemisuseoftheterms:metamorphosisanddevelopment。Metamorphosis,hemaintains,is!anunclearconcept{112},andtheconceptofdevelopmentispermissibleonlyinsofaraslawsofdevelopmentcanbereallyestablished{126}。Inplaceofboththesetermsweshouldusetheterm“composition“{114},andtheneverythingwouldbeallright。Itisthesameoldstoryoveragain:thingsremainastheywere,andHerrDühringisquitesatisfiedassoonaswejustalterthenames。
  Whenwespeakofthedevelopmentofthechickenintheeggwearecreatingconfusion,forweareabletoprovethelawsof;developmentonlyinanincompleteway。Butifwespeakofits’“composition“everythingbecomesclear。Weshallthereforenolongersay:Thischildisdevelopingfinelybut:Itiscomposingitselfmagnificently。WecancongratulateHerrDühringonbeingaworthypeeroftheauthoroftheNibelungenringnotonlyinhisnobleself-esteembutalsoinhiscapacityofcomposerofthefuture。[42]
  VIII。
  PHILOSOPHYOFNATURE。
  THEORGANICWORLD
  Conclusion“Ponder……whatpositiveknowledgeisrequiredtoequipoursectiononnaturalphilosophywithallitsscientificpremises。
  Itsbasisisprovidedfirstlybyallthefundamentalachievementsofmathematics,andthentheprincipalpropositionsestablishedbyexactscienceinmechanics,physicsandchemistry,aswellasthegeneralconclusionsofnaturalscienceinphysiology,zoologyandsimilarbranchesofinquiry“{D。Ph。517}。
  SuchistheconfidenceandassurancewithwhichHerrDühringspeaksofthemathematicalandnaturalisticeruditionofHerrDühring。Itisimpossibletodetectfromthemeagresectionconcerned,andstilllessfromitsevenmorepaltryconclusions,whatdeep-rootedpositiveknowledgeliesbehindthem。Inanycase,inordertocreatetheDühringoracleonphysicsandchemistry,itisnotnecessarytoknowanymoreofphysicsthantheequationwhichexpressesthemechanicalequivalentofheat,oranymoreofchemistrythanthatallbodiescanbedividedintoelementsandcombinationsofelements。Moreover,apersonwhocantalkof“gravitatingatoms“{81},asHerrDühringdoesp。131{D。Ph。},onlyprovesthatheiscompletely“inthedark“astothedifferencebetweenatomsandmolecules。
  Asiswellknown,itisonlychemicalaction,andnotgravitationorothermechanicalorphysicalformsofmotion,thatisexplainedbyatoms。Andifanyoneshouldreadasfarasthechapteronorganicnature,withitsvacuous,self-contradictoryand,atthedecisivepoint,oracularlysenselessmeanderingverbiage,anditsabsolutelyfutilefinalconclusion,hewillnotbeabletoavoidformingtheopinion,fromtheverystart,thatHerrDühringisherespeakingofthingsofwhichheknowsremarkablylittle。
  Thisopinionbecomesabsolutecertaintywhenthereaderreacheshissuggestionthatinthescienceoforganicbeingsbiologythetermcompositionshouldbeusedinsteadofdevelopment{114}。Thepersonwhocanputforwardsuchasuggestionshowsthathehasnotthefaintestsuspicionoftheformationoforganicbodies。
  Allorganicbodies,excepttheverylowest,consistofcells,smallgranulesofalbumenwhichareonlyvisiblewhenconsiderablymagnified,withanucleusinside。Asarulethecellsalsodevelopanoutermembraneandthecontentsarethenmoreorlessfluid。Thelowestcellularbodiesconsistofasinglecell;theimmensemajorityoforganicbeingsaremulti-cellular,congruouscomplexesofmanycellswhichinlowerorganismsremainofahomogeneoustype,butinhigherorganismsdevelopmoreandmorevariedforms,groupingsandfunctions。Inthehumanbody,forexample,bones,muscles,nerves,tendons,ligaments,cartilages,skin,inaword,alltissuesareeithercomposedofcellsororiginatedfromthem。Butinallorganiccellularstructure,fromtheamoeba,whichisasimpleandmostofthetimeskinlessalbuminousparticlewithanucleusinside,uptoman,andfromthetiniestunicellulardesmidsuptothemosthighlydevelopedplant,themannerinwhichthecellsmultiplyisthesame:byfission。Thecellnucleusfirstbecomesconstrictedinthemiddle,theconstrictionseparatingthetwohalvesofthenucleusgetsmoreandmorepronounced,andatlasttheyseparatefromeachotherandformtwocellnuclei。Thesameprocesstakesplaceinthecellitself;eachofthetwonucleibecomesthecentreofanaccumulationofcellularsubstance,linkedtotheotherbyastripwhichissteadilygrowingnarrower,untilatlastthetwoseparatefromeachotherandcontinuetoexistasindependentcells。Throughsuchrepeatedcellfissionthewholeanimalisgraduallydevelopedinfulloutoftheembryonalvesicleoftheanimalegg,afterithasbeenfertilised,andthereplacementofused-uptissuesiseffectedinthesamewayintheadultanimal。Tocallsuchaprocesscomposition,andtosaythattodescribeitasdevelopmentis“pureimagination“{D。Ph。126},certainlyindicatesapersonwho——howeverdifficultthismaybetobelieveatthepresentday——knowsabsolutelynothingofthisprocess;hereitispreciselyandexclusivelydevelopmentthatisgoingon,andindeeddevelopmentinthemostliteralsense,andcompositionhasabsolutelynothingtodowithit!
  LateronweshallhavesomethingmoretosayaboutwhatHerrDühringunderstandsingeneralbylife。Inparticularhisconceptionoflifeisasfollows:
  “Theinorganicworldtooisasystemofself-executingimpulses;butitisonlyatthepointwheretherebeginsrealdifferentiation,withthecirculationofsubstancesthroughspecialchannelsfromoneinternalpointandaccordingtoagerm-schemetransmissibletoasmallerstructure,thatwemayventuretospeakofreallifeinthenarrowerandstrictersense“
  {141}。
  Thissentenceis,inthenarrowerandstrictersense,asystemofself-executingimpulseswhatevertheymaybeofnonsense,evenapartfromitshopelesslyconfusedgrammar。Iflifefirstbeginswhererealdifferentiationcommences,wemustdeclarethatthewholeHaeckeliankingdomofProtistaandperhapsmuchelsearedead,dependingonthemeaningweattachtotheideaofdifferentiation。
  Iflifefirstbeginswhenthisdifferentiationcanbetransmittedthroughasmallergerm-scheme,thenatleastallorganismsuptoandincludingunicellularonescannotberegardedasliving。Ifthecirculationofsubstancesthroughspecialchannelsisthehallmarkoflife,then,inadditiontotheforegoing,wemustalsostrikefromtheranksofthelivingthewholeofthehigherclassoftheCoelenterataexceptinghowevertheMedusae,thatis,allpolypsandotherzoophytes。[43]Ifthecirculationofsubstancesthroughspecialchannelsfromoneinternalpointistheessentialhallmarkoflife,thenwemustdeclarethatallthoseanimalswhichhavenoheartandthosewhichhavemorethanoneheartaredead。Underthisheadingwouldfall,inadditiontothosealreadyenumerated,allworms,starfishandrotifersAnnuloidaandAnnulosa,Huxley’sclassification[44],asectionoftheCrustacealobsters,andfinallyevenavertebrateanimal,thelancelettheAmphioxus。Andmoreoverallplants。
  Inundertaking,therefore,todefinereallifeinthenarrowerandstrictersense,HerrDühringgivesusfourcharacteristicsoflifewhichtotallycontradictoneanother,oneofwhichcondemnstoeternaldeathnotonlythewholevegetablekingdombutalsoabouthalftheanimalkingdom。Reallynoonecansaythathemisleduswhenhepromisedus“fromthegrounduporiginalconclusionsandviews“{525}!
  Anotherpassageruns:
  “Innature,too,onesimpletypeisthebasisofallorganisms,fromthelowesttothehighest“,andthistypeis“fullyandcompletelypresentinitsgeneralessenceeveninthemostsubordinateimpulseofthemostundevelopedplant“{305}。
  Thisstatementisagain“fullandcomplete“nonsense。Themostsimpletypefoundinthewholeoforganicnatureisthecell,anditcertainlyisthebasisofthehigherorganisms。Ontheotherhand,amongthelowestorganismstherearemanywhicharefarbelowthecell——theprotamoeba,asimplealbuminousparticlewithoutanydifferentiationwhatever,andawholeseriesofothermoneraandallbladderseaweedsSiphoneae。Allofthesearelinkedwiththehigherorganismsonlybythefactthattheiressentialcomponentisalbumenandthattheyconsequentlyperformfunctionsofalbumen,i。e。,liveanddie。
  HerrDühringfurthertellsus:
  “Physiologically,sensationisboundupwiththepresenceofsomekindofnerveapparatus,howeversimple。Itisthereforecharacteristicofallanimalstructuresthattheyarecapableofsensation,i。e。,ofasubjectivelyconsciousawarenessoftheirstates。Thesharpboundarylinebetweenplantandanimalliesatthepointwheretheleaptosensationtakesplace。Farfrombeingobliteratedbytheknowntransitionalstructures,thatlinebecomesalogicalnecessitypreciselythroughtheseexternallyundecidedorundecidableforms“{D。Ph。141-42}。
  Andagain:
  “Ontheotherhand,plantsarecompletelyandforalltimedevoidoftheslightesttraceofsensation,andevenlackanycapacityforit“{140}。
  Inthefirstplace,HegelsaysNaturphilosophie,§351,Addendumthat“sensationisthedifferentiaspecifica[“specificdifference“],theabsolutedistinguishingcharacteristicoftheanimal“。
  SoonceagainwefindaHegelian“crudity“{D。K。G。235},whichthroughthesimpleprocessofappropriationbyHerrDühringisraisedtothehonourablepositionofafinalandultimatetruth。
  Inthesecondplace,wehearforthefirsttimehereoftransitionalstructures,externallyundecidedorundecidableformsfinegibberish!
  betweenplantandanimal。Thattheseintermediateformsexist;thatthereareorganismsofwhichwecannotsayflatlywhethertheyareplantsoranimals;thatthereforewearewhollyunabletodrawasharpdividinglinebetweenplantandanimal——preciselythisfactmakesitalogicalnecessityforHerrDühringtoestablishacriterionofdifferentiationwhichinthesamebreathheadmitswillnotholdwater!Butwehaveabsolutelynoneedtogobacktothedoubtfulterritorybetweenplantsandanimals;
  arethesensitiveplantswhichattheslightesttouchfoldtheirleavesorclosetheirflowers,aretheinsect-eatingplantsdevoidoftheslightesttraceofsensationanddotheyevenlackanycapacityforit?ThiscannotbemaintainedevenbyHerrDühringwithout“unscientificsemi-poetry“
  {D。Ph。56,142}。
  Inthethirdplace,itisonceagainafreecreationandimaginationonHerrDühring’spartwhenheassertsthatsensationisphysiologicallyboundupwiththepresenceofsomekindofnerveapparatus,howeversimple。
  Notonlyallprimitiveanimals,butalsothezoophytes,oratanyratethegreatmajorityofthem,shownotraceofanerveapparatus。Itisonlyfromthewormsonthatsuchanapparatusisregularlyfound,andHerrDühringisthefirstpersontomaketheassertionthatthoseanimalshavenosensationbecausetheyhavenonerves。Sensationisnotnecessarilyassociatedwithnerves,butundoubtedlywithcertainalbuminousbodieswhichuptonowhavenotbeenmorepreciselydetermined。
  Atanyrate,HerrDühring’sbiologicalknowledgeissufficientlycharacterisedbythequestionwhichhedoesnothesitatetoputtoDarwin:
  “Isittobesupposedthatanimalshavedevelopedoutofplants?”{110}。
  Suchaquestioncouldonlybeputbyapersonwhohasnottheslightestknowledgeofeitheranimalsorplants。
  OflifeingeneralHerrDühringisonlyabletotellus:
  “Themetabolismwhichiscarriedoutthroughaplasticallycreatingschematisation“whatintheworldcanthatbe?“remainsalwaysadistinguishingcharacteristicofthereallifeprocess“{141}。
  Thatisallwelearnaboutlife,whileinthe“plasticallycreatingschematisation“
  weareleftknee-deepinthemeaninglessgibberishofthepurestDühringjargon。Ifthereforewewanttoknowwhatlifeis,weshallevidentlyhavetolookalittlemorecloselyatitourselves。
  Thatorganicexchangeofmatteristhemostgeneralandmostcharacteristicphenomenonoflifehasbeensaidtimesoutofnumberduringthelastthirtyyearsbyphysiologicalchemistsandchemicalphysiologists,anditisheremerelytranslatedbyHerrDühringintohisownelegantandclearlanguage。
  Buttodefinelifeasorganicmetabolismistodefinelifeas——life;
  fororganicexchangeofmatterormetabolismwithplasticallycreatingschematisationisinfactaphrasewhichitselfneedsexplanationthroughlife,explanationthroughthedistinctionbetweentheorganicandtheinorganic,thatis,thatwhichlivesandthatwhichdoesnotlive。Thisexplanationthereforedoesnotgetusanyfurther。
  Exchangeofmatterassuchtakesplaceevenwithoutlife。Thereisawholeseriesofprocessesinchemistrywhich,givenanadequatesupplyofrawmaterial,constantlyreproducetheirownconditions,anddosoinsuchawaythatadefinitebodyisthecarrieroftheprocess。Thisisthecaseinthemanufactureofsulphuricacidbytheburningofsulphur。
  Inthisprocesssulphurdioxide,SO2,isproduced,andwhensteamandnitricacidareadded,thesulphurdioxideabsorbshydrogenandoxygenandisconvertedintosulphuricacid,H2SO4。Thenitricacidgivesoffoxygenandisreducedtonitricoxide;thisnitricoxideimmediatelyabsorbsnewoxygenfromtheairandistransformedintothehigheroxidesofnitrogen,butonlytotransferthisoxygenimmediatelytosulphurdioxideandtogothroughthesameprocessagain;sothattheoreticallyaninfinitelysmallquantityofnitricacidshouldsufficetochangeanunlimitedquantityofsulphurdioxide,oxygenandwaterintosulphuricacid——Exchangeofmatteralsotakesplaceinthepassageoffluidsthroughdeadorganicandeveninorganicmembranes,asinTraube’sartificialcells。[45]Heretooitisclearthatwecannotgetanyfurtherbymeansofexchangeofmatter;forthepeculiarexchangeofmatterwhichistoexplainlifeneedsitselftobeexplainedthroughlife。Wemustthereforetrysomeotherway。
  Lifeisthemodeofexistenceofalbuminousbodies,andthismodeofexistenceessentiallyconsistsintheconstantself-renewalofthechemicalconstituentsofthesebodies。
  Thetermalbuminousbodyisusedhereinthesenseinwhichitisemployedinmodernchemistry,whichincludesunderthisnameallbodiesconstitutedsimilarlytoordinarywhiteofegg,otherwisealsoknownasproteinsubstances。Thenameisanunhappyone,becauseordinarywhiteofeggplaysthemostlifelessandpassiveroleofallthesubstancesrelatedtoit,since,togetherwiththeyolk,itismerelyfoodforthedevelopingembryo。Butwhilesolittleisyetknownofthechemicalcompositionofalbuminousbodies,thisnameisbetterthananyotherbecauseitismoregeneral。
  Whereverwefindlifewefinditassociatedwithanalbuminousbody,andwhereverwefindanalbuminousbodynotinprocessofdissolution,therealsowithoutexceptionwefindphenomenaoflife。Undoubtedly,thepresenceofotherchemicalcombinationsisalsonecessaryinalivingbodyinordertoinduceparticulardifferentiationsofthesephenomenaoflife;
  buttheyarenotrequisitefornakedlife,exceptinsofarastheyenterthebodyasfoodandaretransformedintoalbumen。Thelowestlivingbeingsknowntousareinfactnothingbutsimpleparticlesofalbumen,andtheyalreadyexhibitalltheessentialphenomenaoflife。
  Butwhataretheseuniversalphenomenaoflifewhichareequallypresentamongalllivingorganisms?Aboveallthefactthatanalbuminousbodyabsorbsotherappropriatesubstancesfromitsenvironmentandassimilatesthem,whileother,olderpartsofthebodydisintegrateandareexcreted。
  Othernon-living,bodiesalsochange,disintegrateorenterintocombinationsinthenaturalcourseofevents;butindoingthistheyceasetobewhattheywere。Aweather-wornrockisnolongerarock,metalwhichoxidisesturnsintorust。Butwhatwithnon-livingbodiesisthecauseofdestruction,withalbumenisthefundamentalconditionofexistence。Fromthemomentwhenthisuninterruptedmetamorphosisofitsconstituents,thisconstantalternationofnutritionandexcretion,nolongertakesplaceinanalbuminousbody,thealbuminousbodyitselfcomestoanend,itdecomposes,thatis,dies。Life,themodeofexistenceofanalbuminousbody,thereforeconsistsprimarilyinthefactthateverymomentitisitselfandatthesametimesomethingelse;andthisdoesnottakeplaceastheresultofaprocesstowhichitissubjectedfromwithout,asisthewayinwhichthiscanoccuralsointhecaseofinanimatebodies。Onthecontrary,life,themetabolismwhichtakesplacethroughnutritionandexcretion,isaself-implementingprocesswhichisinherentin,nativeto,itsbearer,albumen,withoutwhichthelattercannotexist。Andhenceitfollowsthatifchemistryeversucceedsinproducingalbumenartificially,thisalbumenmustshowthephenomenaoflife,howeverweakthesemaybe。Itiscertainlyopentoquestionwhetherchemistrywillatthesametimealsodiscovertherightfoodforthisalbumen。
  Fromthemetabolismwhichtakesplacethroughnutritionandexcretion,astheessentialfunctionofalbumen,andfromitspeculiarplasticityproceedalsoalltheothermostsimplefactorsoflife:irritability,whichisalreadyincludedinthemutualinteractionbetweenthealbumenanditsfood;contractibility,whichisshown,evenataverylowstage,intheconsumptionoffood;thepossibilityofgrowth,whichinthelowestformsincludespropagationbyfission;internalmovement,withoutwhichneithertheconsumptionnortheassimilationoffoodispossible。
  Ourdefinitionoflifeisnaturallyveryinadequate,inasmuchas,farfromincludingallthephenomenaoflife,ithastobelimitedtothosewhicharethemostcommonandthesimplest。Fromascientificstandpointalldefinitionsareoflittlevalue。Inordertogainanexhaustiveknowledgeofwhatlifeis,weshouldhavetogothroughalltheformsinwhichitappears,fromthelowesttothehighest。Butforordinaryusagesuchdefinitionsareveryconvenientandinplacescannotwellbedispensedwith;moreover,theycandonoharm,providedtheirinevitabledeficienciesarenotforgotten。
  ButbacktoHerrDühring。Whenthingsarefaringbadlywithhiminthesphereofearthlybiology,heknowswheretofindconsolation;
  hetakesrefugeinhisstarryheaven。
  “Itisnotmerelythespecialapparatusofanorganofsensation,butthewholeobjectiveworld,whichisadaptedtotheproductionofpleasureandpain。Forthisreasonwetakeitforgrantedthattheantithesisbetweenpleasureandpain,andmoreoverexactly,intheformwithwhichwearefamiliar,isauniversalantithesis,andmustberepresentedinthevariousworldsoftheuniversebyessentiallyhomogeneousfeelings……
  Thisconformity,however,isofnolittlesignificance,foritisthekeytotheuniverseofsensations……Hencethesubjectivecosmicworldistousnotmuchmoreunfamiliarthantheobjective。Theconstitutionofbothspheresmustbeconceivedaccordingtooneconcordanttype,andinthiswehavethebeginningsofascienceofconsciousnesswhoserangeiswiderthanmerelyterrestrial“{D。Ph。139-40}。
  Whatdoafewgrossblundersinterrestrialnaturalsciencemattertothemanwhocarriesinhispocketthekeytotheuniverseofsensations?Allonsdonc![“Well,really!“]
  IX。
  MORALITYANDLAW。
  ETERNALTRUTHSWerefrainfromgivingsamplesofthemish-mashofplatitudesandoracularsayings,inaword,ofthesimplebalderdashwithwhichHerrDühringregaleshisreadersforfiftyfullpagesasthedeep-rootedscienceoftheelementsofconsciousness。Wewillciteonlythis:
  “Hewhocanthinkonlybymeansoflanguagehasneveryetlearntwhatismeantbyabstractandpurethought“{D。Ph。189}。
  Onthisbasisanimalsarethemostabstractandpurestthinkers,becausetheirthoughtisneverobscuredbytheofficiousintrusionoflanguage。
  InanycaseonecanseefromtheDühringianthoughtsandthelanguageinwhichtheyarecouchedhowlittlesuitedthesethoughtsaretoanylanguage,andhowlittlesuitedtheGermanlanguageistothesethoughts。
  Atlastthefourthsectionbringsusdeliverance;apartfromtheliquefyingpapofrhetoric,itdoesatleastofferus,hereandthere,somethingtangibleonthesubjectofmoralityandlaw。Rightattheoutset,onthisoccasion,weareinvitedtotakeatriptotheothercelestialbodies:
  theelementsofmorals“mustoccurinconcordantfashionamongallextra-humanbeingswhoseactivereasonhastodealwiththeconsciousorderingoflifeimpulsesintheformofinstincts……Andyetourinterestinsuchdeductionswillbesmall……Neverthelessitisanideawhichbeneficentlyextendsourrangeofvision,whenwethinkthatonothercelestialbodiesindividualandcommunallifemustbebasedonaschemewhich……
  isunabletoabrogateorescapefromthegeneralfundamentalconstitutionofarationallyactingbeing“{192-93}。
  Inthiscase,bywayofexception,thevalidityoftheDühringiantruthsalsoforallotherpossibleworldsisputatthebeginninginsteadoftheendofthechapterconcerned;andforasufficientreason。IfthevalidityoftheDühringianconceptionsofmoralityandjusticeisfirstestablishedforallworlds,itisallthemoreeasybeneficentlytoextendtheirvaliditytoalltimes。Butonceagainwhatisinvolvedisnothinglessthanfinalandultimatetruth{2}。
  Theworldofmorals,“justasmuchastheworldofgeneralknowledge“,has“itspermanentprinciplesandsimpleelements“。Themoralprinciplesstand“abovehistoryandalsoabovethepresentdifferencesinnationalcharacteristics……Thespecialtruthsoutofwhich,inthecourseofevolution,amorecompletemoralconsciousnessand,sotospeak,consciencearebuiltup,may,insofarastheirultimatebasisisunderstood,claimavalidityandrangesimilartotheinsightsandapplicationsofmathematics,Genuinetruthsareabsolutelyimmutable……sothatitisaltogetherstupidtothinkthatthecorrectnessofknowledgeissomethingthatcanbeaffectedbytimeandchangesinreality“{196}。Hencethecertitudeofstrictknowledgeandtheadequacyofcommoncognitionleavenoroom,whenweareinpossessionofoursenses,fordoubtingtheabsolutevalidityoftheprinciplesofknowledge。“Evenpersistentdoubtisitselfadiseasedconditionofweaknessandonlytheexpressionofhopelessconfusion,whichsometimesseekstocontrivetheappearanceofsomethingstableinthesystematicconsciousnessofitsnothingness。Inthesphereofethics,thedenialofgeneralprinciplesclutchesatthegeographicalandhistoricalvarietyofcustomsandprinciples,andoncetheinevitablenecessityofmoralwickednessandevilisconceded,itbelievesitselfsomuchthemoretobeabovetherecognitionofthegreatimportanceandactualefficacyofconcordantmoralimpulses。
  Thismordantscepticism,whichisnotdirectedagainstparticularfalsedoctrinesbutagainstmankind’sverycapacitytodevelopconsciousmorality,resolvesitselfultimatelyintoarealNothing,infactintosomethingthatisworsethanpurenihilism{194}……Itflattersitselfthatitcaneasilydominatewithinitsutterchaosofdisintegratedethicalideasandopenthegatestounprincipledarbitrariness。Butitisgreatlymistaken:formerereferencetotheinevitablefateofreasoninerrorandtruthsufficestoshowbythisanalogyalonethatnaturalfallibilitydoesnotnecessarilyexcludetheattainmentofaccuracy“{195}。
  UptonowwehavecalmlyputupwithallthesepompousphrasesofHerrDühring’saboutfinalandultimatetruths,thesovereigntyofthought,absolutecertaintyofknowledge,andsoforth,becauseitisonlyatthepointwhichwehavenowreachedthatthemattercanbesettled。Uptothispointithasbeenenoughtoenquirehowfartheseparateassertionsofthephilosophyofrealityhad“sovereignvalidity“and“anunconditionalclaimtotruth“{2};nowwecometothequestionwhetherany,andifsowhich,productsofhumanknowledgeevercanhavesovereignvalidityandanunconditionalclaimtotruth。WhenIsay“ofhumanknowledge“
  Idonotusethephrasewiththeintentionofinsultingtheinhabitantsofothercelestialbodies,whomIhavenothadthehonourofknowing,butonlyforthereasonthatanimalsalsohaveknowledge,thoughitisinnowaysovereign。AdogacknowledgeshismastertobehisGod,thoughthismastermaybethebiggestscoundrelonearth。
  Ishumanthoughtsovereign?Beforewecanansweryesornowemustfirstenquire:whatishumanthought?Isitthethoughtoftheindividualman?No。Butitexistsonlyastheindividualthoughtofmanymilliardsofpast,presentandfuturemen。If,then,Isaythatthetotalthoughtofallthesehumanbeings,includingthefutureones,whichisembracedinmyidea,issovereign,abletoknowtheworldasitexists,ifonlymankindlastslongenoughandinsofarasnolimitsareimposedonitsknowledgebyitsperceptiveorgansortheobjectstobeknown,thenIamsayingsomethingwhichisprettybanaland,inaddition,prettybarren。
  Forthemostvaluableresultfromitwouldbethatitshouldmakeusextremelydistrustfulofourpresentknowledge,inasmuchasinallprobabilitywearejustaboutatthebeginningofhumanhistory,andthegenerationswhichwillputusrightarelikelytobefarmorenumerousthanthosewhoseknowledgewe——oftenenoughwithaconsiderabledegreeofcontempt——havetheopportunitytocorrect。
  HerrDühringhimselfproclaimsittobeanecessitythatconsciousness,andthereforealsothoughtandknowledge,canbecomemanifestonlyinaseriesofindividualbeings。Wecanonlyascribesovereigntytothethoughtofeachoftheseindividualsinsofaraswearenotawareofanypowerwhichwouldbeabletoimposeanyideaforciblyonhim,whenheisofsoundmindandwideawake。Butasforthesovereignvalidityoftheknowledgeobtainedbyeachindividualthought,weallknowthattherecanbenotalkofsuchathing,andthatallpreviousexperienceshowsthatwithoutexceptionsuchknowledgealwayscontainsmuchmorethatis-capableofbeingimproveduponthanthatwhichcannotbeimprovedupon,oriscorrect。
  Inotherwords,thesovereigntyofthoughtisrealisedinaseriesofextremelyunsovereignly-thinkinghumanbeings;theknowledgewhichhasanunconditionalclaimtotruthisrealisedinaseriesofrelativeerrors;
  neithertheonenortheothercanbefullyrealisedexceptthroughanunendingdurationofhumanexistence。
  Hereonceagainwefindthesamecontradictionaswefoundabove,betweenthecharacterofhumanthought,necessarilyconceivedasabsolute,anditsrealityinindividualhumanbeingsallofwhomthinkonlylimitedly。
  Thisisacontradictionwhichcanberesolvedonlyinthecourseofinfiniteprogress,inwhatis——atleastpracticallyforus——anendlesssuccessionofgenerationsofmankind。Inthissensehumanthoughtisjustasmuchsovereignasnotsovereign,anditscapacityforknowledgejustasmuchunlimitedaslimited。Itissovereignandunlimitedinitsdisposition,itsvocation,itspossibilitiesanditshistoricalultimategoal;itisnotsovereignanditislimitedinitsindividualrealisationandinrealityatanyparticularmoment。
  Itisjustthesamewitheternaltruths。Ifmankindeverreachedthestageatwhichitshouldworkonlywitheternaltruths,withresultsofthoughtwhichpossesssovereignvalidityandanunconditionalclaimtotruth,itwouldthenhavereachedthepointwheretheinfinityoftheintellectualworldbothinitsactualityandinitspotentialityhadbeenexhausted,andthusthefamousmiracleofthecounteduncountablewouldhavebeenperformed。
  Butarethereanytruthswhicharesosecurelybasedthatanydoubtofthemseemstoustobetantamounttoinsanity?Thattwicetwomakesfour,thatthethreeanglesofatriangleareequaltotworightangles,thatParisisinFrance,thatamanwhogetsnofooddiesofhunger,andsoforth?Aretherethenneverthelesseternaltruths,finalandultimatetruths{D。Ph。2}?
  Certainlythereare。Wecandividethewholerealmofknowledgeinthetraditionalwayintothreegreatdepartments。Thefirstincludesallsciencesthatdealwithinanimatenatureandaretoagreaterorlesserdegreesusceptibleofmathematicaltreatment:mathematics,astronomy,mechanics,physics,chemistry。Ifitgivesanyoneanypleasuretousemightywordsforverysimplethings,itcanbeassertedthatcertainresultsobtainedbythesesciencesareeternaltruths,finalandultimatetruths;
  forwhichreasonthesesciencesareknownastheexactsciences。
  Butveryfarfromalltheirresultshavethisvalidity。Withtheintroductionofvariablemagnitudesandtheextensionoftheirvariabilitytotheinfinitelysmallandinfinitelylarge,mathematics,usuallysostrictlyethical,fellfromgrace;itateofthetreeofknowledge,whichopeneduptoitacareerofmostcolossalachievements,butatthesametimeapathoferror。Thevirginstateofabsolutevalidityandirrefutableproofofeverythingmathematicalwasgoneforever;therealmofcontroversywasinaugurated,andwehavereachedthepointwheremostpeopledifferentiateandintegratenotbecausetheyunderstandwhattheyaredoingbutfrompurefaith,becauseuptonowithasalwayscomeoutright。Thingsareevenworsewithastronomyandmechanics,andinphysicsandchemistryweareswampedbyhypothesesasifattackedbyaswarmofbees。Anditmustofnecessitybeso。Inphysicswearedealingwiththemotionofmolecules,inchemistrywiththeformationofmoleculesoutofatoms,andiftheinterferenceoflightwavesisnotamyth,wehaveabsolutelynoprospectofeverseeingtheseinterestingobjectswithourowneyes。Astimegoeson,finalandultimatetruthsbecomeremarkablyrareinthisfield。
  Weareevenworseoffingeologywhich,byitsnature,hastodealchieflywithprocesseswhichtookplacenotonlyinourabsencebutintheabsenceofanyhumanbeingwhatever。Thegleaninghereoffinalandultimatetruthsisthereforeaverytroublesomebusiness,andthecropisextremelyscanty。
  Theseconddepartmentofscienceistheonewhichcoverstheinvestigationoflivingorganisms。Inthisfieldthereissuchamultiplicityofinterrelationshipsandcausalitiesthatnotonlydoesthesolutionofeachquestiongiverisetoahostofotherquestions,buteachseparateproblemcaninmostcasesonlybesolvedpiecemeal,throughaseriesofinvestigationswhichoftenrequirecenturies;andbesides,theneedforasystematicpresentationofinterconnectionsmakesitnecessaryagainandagaintosurroundthefinalandultimatetruthswithaluxuriantgrowthofhypotheses。WhatalongseriesofintermediariesfromGalentoMalpighiwasnecessaryforcorrectlyestablishingsuchasimplematterasthecirculationofthebloodinmammals,howslightisourknowledgeoftheoriginofbloodcorpuscles,andhownumerousarethemissinglinkseventoday,forexample,tobeabletobringthesymptomsofadiseaseintosomerationalrelationshipwithitscause!Andoftenenoughdiscoveries,suchasthatofthecell,aremadewhichcompelustorevisecompletelyallformerlyestablishedfinalandultimatetruthsintherealmofbiology,andtoputwholepilesofthemonthescrap-heaponceandforall。Anyonewhowantstoestablishreallygenuineandimmutabletruthsherewillthereforehavetobecontentwithsuchplatitudesas:allmenaremortal,allfemalemammalshavelactealglands,andthelike;hewillnotevenbeabletoassertthatthehigheranimalsdigestwiththeirstomachsandintestinesandnotwiththeirheads,forthenervousactivity,whichiscentralisedinthehead,isindispensabletodigestion。
  Buteternaltruthsareinanevenworseplightinthethird,thehistorical,groupofsciences,whichstudyintheirhistoricalsequenceandintheirpresentresultantstatetheconditionsofhumanlife,socialrelationships,formsoflawandgovernment,withtheiridealsuperstructureintheshapeofphilosophy,religion,art,etc。Inorganicnatureweareatleastdealingwithasuccessionofprocesseswhich,sofarasourimmediateobservationisconcerned,recurwithfairregularitywithinverywidelimits。
  OrganicspecieshaveonthewholeremainedunchangedsincethetimeofAristotle。Insocialhistory,however,therepetitionofconditionsistheexceptionandnottherule,oncewepassbeyondtheprimitivestateofman,theso-calledStoneAge;andwhensuchrepetitionsoccur,theyneverariseunderexactlysimilarcircumstances。Such,forexample,istheexistenceofanoriginalcommonownershipofthelandamongallcivilisedpeoples,orthewayitwasdissolved。Inthesphereofhumanhistoryourknowledgeisthereforeevenmorebackwardthanintherealmofbiology。
  Furthermore,whenbywayofexceptiontheinnerconnectionbetweenthesocialandpoliticalformsofexistenceinanyepochcomestobeknown,thisasaruleoccursonlywhentheseformshavealreadybyhalfoutlivedthemselvesandarenearingextinction。Therefore,knowledgeishereessentiallyrelative,inasmuchasitislimitedtotheinvestigationofinterconnectionsandconsequencesofcertainsocialandstateformswhichexistonlyinaparticularepochandamongparticularpeoplesandarebytheirverynaturetransitory。Anyonethereforewhoheresetsouttohuntdownfinalandultimatetruths,genuine,absolutelyimmutabletruths,willbringhomebutlittle,apartfromplatitudesandcommonplacesofthesorriestkind——forexample,that,generallyspeaking,mencannotliveexceptbylabour;thatuptothepresenttheyforthemostparthavebeendividedintorulersandruled;
  thatNapoleondiedonMay5,1821,andsoon。
  Nowitisaremarkablethingthatitispreciselyinthisspherethatwemostfrequentlyencountertruthswhichclaimtobeeternal,finalandultimateandalltherestofit。Thattwicetwomakesfour,thatbirdshavebeaks,andsimilarstatements,areproclaimedaseternaltruthsonlybythosewhoaimatdeducing,fromtheexistenceofeternaltruthsingeneral,theconclusionthattherearealsoeternaltruthsinthesphereofhumanhistory——eternalmorality,eternaljustice,andsoon——whichclaimavalidityandscopesimilartothoseoftheinsightsandapplicationsofmathematics。Andthenwecanconfidentlyrelyonthissamefriendofhumanitytakingthefirstopportunitytoassureusthatallpreviousfabricatorsofeternaltruthshavebeentoagreaterorlesserextentassesandcharlatans,thattheyallfellintoerrorandmademistakes;butthattheirerrorandtheirfallibilityareinaccordancewithnature’slaws,andprovetheexistenceoftruthandaccuracypreciselyinhiscase;
  andthathe,theprophetwhohasnowarisen,hasinhisbag,allready-made,finalandultimatetruth,eternalmoralityandeternaljustice。Thishasallhappenedsomanyhundredsandthousandsoftimesthatwecanonlyfeelastonishedthatthereshouldstillbepeoplecredulousenoughtobelievethis,notofothers,ohno!butofthemselves。Neverthelesswehaveherebeforeusatleastonemoresuchprophet,whoalso,quiteintheaccustomedway,fliesintohighlymoralindignationwhenotherpeopledenythatanyindividualwhatsoeverisinapositiontodeliverthefinalandultimatetruth。Suchadenial,orindeedmeredoubtofit,isweakness,hopelessconfusion,nothingness,mordantscepticism,worsethanpurenihilism,utterchaosandothersuchpleasantries。Aswithallprophets,insteadofcriticalandscientificexaminationandjudgmentoneencountersmoralcondemnationoutofhand。
  Wemighthavemadementionabovealsoofthescienceswhichinvestigatethelawsofhumanthought,i。e。,logicanddialectics。Inthese,however,eternaltruthsdonotfareanybetter。HerrDühringdeclaresthatdialecticsproperispurenonsense;andthemanybookswhichhavebeenandarestillbeingwrittenonlogicprovideabundantproofthathere,too,finalandultimatetruthsaremuchmoresparselysownthansomepeoplebelieve。