Letusnowturntohisgloriousdeeds。WhatweretheservicesherenderedtoEuropeandChristiancivilization？
　　Itwasnecessarythatatrulygreatmanshouldariseintheeighthcentury，ifthenewforcesofcivilizationweretobeorganized。
　　Toshowwhathedidforthenewraces，andhowhedidit，isthehistorian’sdutyandtaskindescribingthereignofCharlemagne，——
　　sent，Ithink，asMoseswas，foraprovidentialmission，inthefulnessoftime，aftertheslaveriesofthreehundredyears，whichpreparedthepeopleforlaborandindustry。Betterwasitthattheyshouldtillthelandsofallodialproprietorsinmiseryandsorrow，attackedandpillaged，thantowanderlikesavagesinforestsandmorassesinquestofaprecarioussupport，oringreatpredatoryhands，astheydidinthefourthandfifthcenturies，whentheyravagedtheprovincesofthefallingEmpire。Nothingwaswantedbuttheirconsolidationundercentralruleinordertorepelaggressors。AndthatiswhatCharlemagneattemptedtodo。
　　Hesoonperceivedthegreatnessofthestruggletowhichhewasdestined，andhedidnotflinchfromthecontestwhichhasgivenhimimmortality。Hecomprehendedthedifficultieswhichsurroundedhimandthedangerswhichmenacedhim。
　　ThegreatperilswhichthreatenedEuropewerefromunsubduedbarbarians，whosoughttoreplungeitintothemiserieswhichthegreatirruptionshadinflictedthreehundredyearsbefore。Hethereforebentalltheenergiesofhismindandalltheresourcesofhiskingdomtoarrestthesefreshwavesofinundation。AndsolongwashiscontestwithSaxons，Avares，Lombards，andothertribesandracesthatheischieflytobecontemplatedasamanwhostruggledagainstbarbarism。Andhefoughtthem，notforexcitement，notfortheloveoffighting，notforuselessconquests，notformilitaryfame，notforaggrandizement，butbecauseasternnecessitywaslaiduponhimtoprotecthisownterritoriesandtheinstitutionshewishedtoconserve。
　　Ofthesebarbarianstherewasonenationpeculiarlywarlikeandferocious，andwhichcherishedaninextinguishablehatrednotmerelyoftheFranks，butofcivilizationitself。Theywereobstinatelyattachedtotheiroldsuperstitions，andhadagreatrepugnancetoChristianity。Theywerebarbarians，liketheoldNorthAmericanIndians，becausetheydeterminedtobeso;becausetheylovedtheirforestsandthechase，indulgedinamusementswhichwereuncertainanddangerous，andsoughtfornothingbeyondtheirimmediateinclinations。Theyhadnoterritorialdivisions，andabhorredcitiesasprisonsofdespotism。But，likealltheGermanicbarbarians，theyhadinterestingtraits。Theyrespectedwomen;theywerebraveanddaring;theyhadadoggedperseverance，andanoblepassionforpersonalindependence。Buttheywereneverthelesstheenemiesofcivilization，ofaregularandindustriouslife，andsoughtplunderandrevenge。TheFranksandGothswereoncelikethem，beforethetimeofClovis;buttheyhadmadesettlements，theytilledtheland，andbuiltvillagesandcities:theywerepartiallycivilized，andwereconvertedtoChristianity。Butthesenewbarbarianscouldnotbewonbyartsortheministersofreligion。ThesepeopleweretheSaxons，andinhabitedthosepartsofGermanywhichwereboundedbytheRhine，theOder，theNorthSea，andtheThuringianforests。Theywerefondofthesea，andofdaringexpeditionsforplunder。TheywereakindredracetothoseSaxonswhohadconqueredEngland，andhadthesameelementsofcharacter。Theywerepoor，andsoughttolivebypiracyandrobbery。Theywereverydangerousenemies，butifbroughtundersubjectiontolaw，andconvertedtoChristianity，mightbeturnedintousefulallies，fortheyhadthematerialsofanoblerace。
　　Withsuchapeopleonhisborders，andeverydaybecomingmoreformidable，whatwasCharlemagne’spolicy？Whatwashetodo？Theonlythingtotheeyeofthatenlightenedstatesmanwastoconquerthem，ifpossible，andaddtheirterritoriestotheFrankishEmpire。Iflefttothemselves，theymighthaveconqueredtheFranks。Itwaseitheranvilorhammer。TherecouldbenolastingpeaceinEuropewhilethesebarbarianswerelefttopursuetheirdepredations。Avigorouswarfarewasimperative，for，unlesssubdued，adisadvantageouswarwouldbecarriedonnearthefrontiers，untilsomewarriorwouldariseamongthem，unitethevariouschieftains，andleadhisfollowerstosuccessfulinvasion。
　　Charlemagneknewthatthedifficultandunpleasantworkofsubjugationmustbedonebysomebody，andhewasunwillingtoleavetheworktoenervatedsuccessors。Theworkwasnotchild’splay。
　　Ittookhimthebestpartofhislifetoaccomplishit，andamidgreatdiscouragements。Ofhisfifty-threeexpeditions，eighteenwereagainsttheSaxons。Assoonashehadcutoffoneheadofthemonster，anotherheadappeared。HowallegoricalofhumanlaboristhatoldfableoftheHydra！Wheredoman’slaborscease？
　　Charlemagnefoughtnotonlyamidgreatdifficulties，butperpetualirritations。TheSaxonscheatedhim;theybroketheirpromisesandtheiroaths。Whenbeaten，theysuedforpeace;butthemomenthisbackwasturned，theybrokeoutinnewinsurrections。ThefameofCaesarchieflyrestsonhiseightcampaignsinGaul。ButCaesarhadthedisciplinedLegionsofRometofightwith。Charlemagnehadnosuchdisciplinedtroops。YethehadasmanydifficultiestosurmountasCaesar，——ruggedforeststopenetrate，rapidriverstocross，morassestoavoid，andmountainstoclimb。Itisaverydifficultthingtosubdueevensavageswhoaredesperate，determined，andunited。
　　CharlemagnefoughttheSaxonsforthirty-threeyears。Thoughheneverlostabattle，theystillheldout。Atfirsthewasgenerousandforgiving，forhewasmoremagnanimousthanCaesar;buttheycouldnotbewonbykindness。Hewasobligedtochangehiscourse，andatlastwasassummaryasOliverCromwellinIreland。Heisevenaccusedofcruelties。Butwarinthehandsofmastershasnoquartertogive，andnotearstoshed。ItwasnecessarytoconquertheSaxons，andCharlemagneusedtherequisitemeans。Sometimestheharshestmeasureswillmostspeedilyeffecttheend。DidourfatherseverdreamofcompromisewithtreacherousandhostileIndians？Warhasahorridmaxim，——that“nothingissosuccessfulassuccess。”Charlemagne，atlast，wassuccessful。TheSaxonsweresocompletelysubduedattheendofthirty-threeyears，thattheynevermolestedcivilizedEuropeagain。Theybecamecivilized，liketheonceinvadingCeltsandGoths;andtheyevenembracedthereligionoftheconquerors。TheybecameultimatelythebestpeopleinEurope，——earnest，honest，andbrave。Theyformedgreatkingdomsandstates，andbecamenewbarriersagainstfreshinundationsfromtheNorthandEast。TheSaxonsformedthenucleusofthegreatGermanEmpireorwereincorporatedwithitwhicharoseintheMiddleAges，andwhichto-dayisthemostpowerfulinEurope，andtheleastcorruptedbythevicesofaluxuriouslife。ThedescendantsofthoseSaxonsareamongthemostindustriousandusefulsettlersintheNewWorld。
　　TherewasonemistakewhichCharlemagnemadeinreferencetothem。
　　HeforcedtheirconversiontoanominalChristianity。HeimmersedthemintheriversofSaxony，whethertheywouldorno。HewouldmakethemChristiansinhisway。Butthen，whodoesnotseektomakeconvertsinhisway，whetherenlightenedornot？Whenhavetheprinciplesofreligioustolerationbeenunderstood？DidthePuritansunderstandthem，withalltheirprofessions？Dowetolerate，inourhearts，thosewhodifferfromus？Donotmenlookdaggers，thoughtheydarenotusethem？Ifwehadthepower，wouldwenotseektoproduceconformitywithournotions，likeQueenElizabeth，orOliverCromwell，orArchbishopLaud？ThereisnotperhapsavillageinAmericawhereatruecatholicismreigns。
　　Thereisnotaspotupontheglobewherethereisnotsomeformofreligiouspersecution。Noristhereanythingmoresincerethanreligiousbigotry。Andwherepeoplehavenotfundamentalprinciplestofightabout，theywillfightabouttechnicalitiesandmattersofnoaccount，andallthemorebitterlysometimeswhentheobjectsofcontentionarenotworthfightingaboutatall，——asinformsofworship，orbaptism。Suchistheweaknessofhumannature。Charlemagnewasnoexceptiontotherace。ButifhewishedtomakeChristiansinhisway，hewas，onthewhole，enlightened。HecausedtheyoungSaxons，whomhebaptizedandmarkedwiththesignoftheCross，tobeeducated。Hebuiltmonasteriesandchurchesintheconqueredterritories。Herecognizedthis，——thatChristianity，whateveritbe，isthemightiestpoweroftheworld;andheborehistestimonyinbehalfoftheintellectualdignityoftheclergyincomparisonwithotherclasses。Heencouragedmissionsaswellasschools。
　　TherewasanotherGermanictribeatthattimewhichheheldingreatalarm，butwhichhedidnotattack，sincetheywerenotimmediatelydangerous。ThistribeorracewastheNorman，justthenbeginningtheirravages，——piratesinopenboats。TheyhaddaredtoenteraportinNarbonensisGaulforpurposesofplunder。
　　SometookthemforAfricans，andothersforBritishmerchants。
　　Nay，saidCharlemagne，theyarenotmerchants，butcruelenemies;
　　andhecoveredhisfacewithhisironhandsandweptlikeachild。
　　Hedidnotfearthesebarbarians，butheweptwhenheforesawtheeviltheywoulddowhenhewasdead。“Iweep。”saidhe，“thattheyshoulddarealmosttolandonmyshores，inmylifetime。”TheseNormansescapedhim。Theyconqueredandtheyfoundedkingdoms。
　　ButtheydidnotreplungeEuropeindarkness。Abarrierhadbeenmadeagainsttheirinundation。TheSaxonconquestwasthatbarrier。Moreover，theNormanswerethenoblestraceofbarbarianswhichthenroamedthroughtheforestsofGermany，orskirtedtheshoresofScandinavia。Theyhadgrandnaturaltraitsofcharacter。
　　Theywerepoetic，brave，andadventurous。TheyweresuperiortotheSaxonsandtheFranks。Whenconverted，theywerethegreatalliesofthePope，andearlybecamecivilized。TothemwetracethenoblestdevelopmentofGothicarchitecture。Theybecamegreatscholarsandstatesmen。TheyweremorerefinedbynaturethantheSaxons，andavoidedtheirgluttonoushabits。InaftertimestheycomposedtheflowerofEuropeanchivalry。Itwasprovidentialthattheywerenotsubdued，——thattheybecametheleadingraceinNorthernEurope。TothemwetracethemercantilegreatnessofEngland，fortheywerebornsailors。Theyneverlosttheirnaturalheroism，orloveofpower。
　　ThenextimportantconquestofCharlemagnewasthatoftheAvares，——
　　atribeoftheHuns，ofSlavonicorigin。Theyarerepresentedasveryhideousbarbarians，andonlythoughtofplunder。Theyneversoughttoreconstruct。ThereseemedtobenoendoftheirinvasionsfromthetimeofAttila。Theyweremoreformidablefortheirnumbersanddestructiveravagesthanfortheirmilitaryskill。Therewasatime，however，whentheythreatenedthecombinedforcesofGermanyandRome;butEuropewasdeliveredbythebattleofPoictiers，——thebloodiestbattleonrecord，——whentheyseemedtobeannihilated。Buttheysprangupagain，innewinvasions，intheninthcentury。Hadtheyconquered，civilizationwouldhavebeencrushedout。ButCharlemagnewassuccessfulagainstthem，andfromthattimetothistheywereshutoutfromwesternEurope。Theywouldbeformidablenow，fortheRussiansarethedescendantsofthesepeople，wereitnotforthebarrierraisedagainstthembytheGermans。ThenecessitiesofEuropestillrequirethevastmilitarystrengthandorganizationofGermany，nottofightFrance，buttoaweRussia。NapoleonpredictedthatEuropewouldbecomeeitherFrenchorCossack;butthereislittleprobabilityofRussianaggressionsinEurope，solongasRussiaisheldincheckbyGermany。
　　CharlemagnehadnowdeliveredFranceandGermanyfromexternalenemies。HethenturnedhisarmsagainsttheSaracensofSpain。
　　Thiswasthegreatmistakeofhislife。Yeteveryonemakesmistakes，howevergreathisgenius。AlexandermadethemistakeofpushinghisarmsintoIndia;andNapoleonmadeagreatblunderininvadingRussia。EvenCaesardiedattherighttimeforhismilitaryfame，forhewasonthepointofattemptingtheconquestofParthia，where，likeCrassus，hewouldprobablyhaveperished，orhavelosthisarmy。NeedlessconquestsseemtobeimpossibleinthemoralgovernmentofGod，whorulesthefateofwar。Conquestsareonlypossiblewhencivilizationseemstorequirethem。InseekingtoinvadeSpain，CharlemagnewarredagainstaracefromwhomEuropehadnothingmoretofear。Hisgrandfather，CharlesMartel，hadarrestedtheconquestsoftheSaracens;andtheywerequietintheirsettlementsinSpain，andhadmadeconsiderableattainmentsinscienceandliterature。TheirschoolsofmedicineandtheirartswereinadvanceoftherestofEurope。TheywerethetranslatorsofAristotle，whoreignedintherisinguniversitiesduringtheMiddleAges。Asthiswarwasunnecessary，ProvidenceseemedtorebukeCharlemagne。HisdefeatatRoncesvalleswasoneofthemostmemorableeventsinhismilitaryhistory。ProdigiesofvalorwerewroughtbyhimandhisgallantPaladins。TheearlyheroicpoetryoftheMiddleAgeshascommemoratedhisexploits，aswellasthoseofhisnephewRoland，towhomsomewritershaveascribedtheoriginofChivalry。ButtheFrankishforcesweresignallydefeatedamidthepassesofthePyrenees;anditwasnotuntilafterseveralcenturiesthattheGothicprincesofSpainshookofftheyokeoftheirSaracenicconquerors，anddrovethemfromEurope。
　　TheLombardwarsofCharlemagnearethelasttowhichIallude。
　　ThesewereundertakenindefenceoftheChurch，torescuehisallythePope。TheLombardsbelongedtothegreatGermanicfamily，buttheywereunfriendlytothePopeandtotheChurch。TheystoodoutagainsttheEmpire，whichwasthenthechiefhopeofEuropeandofcivilization。TheywouldhavereducedthePopetoinsignificanceandseizedhisterritories，withoutunitingItaly。SoCharlemagne，likehisfatherPepin，lenthispowerfulaidtotheRomanbishop，andtheLombardswereeasilysubdued。Thisconquest，althoughtheeasiestwhichheevermade，mostflatteredhispride。LombardywasnotonlyjoinedtohisEmpire，buthereceivedunparalleledhonorsfromthePope，beingcrownedbyhimEmperoroftheWest。
　　Itwasaprouddaywhen，intheancientmetropolisoftheworld，andinthefulnessofhisfame，PopeLeoIII。placedthecrownofAugustusuponCharlemagne’sbrow，andgavetohim，amidthefestivitiesofChristmas，hisapostolicbenediction。HisdominionsnowextendedfromCataloniatotheBohemianforests，embracingGermany，France，theNetherlands，Italy，andtheSpanishmain，——thelargestempirewhichanyonemanhaspossessedsincethefalloftheRomanEmpire。WhatmorenaturalthanforCharlemagnetofeelthathehadrestoredtheWesternEmpire？Whatmorenaturalthanthatheshouldhavetakenthetitle，stillclaimedbytheAustrianemperor，inonesensehislegitimatesuccessor，——Kaiser，orCaesar？
　　Inthepossessionofsuchenormouspower，henaturallydreamedofestablishinganewuniversalmilitarymonarchylikethatoftheRomans，——asCharlesV。dreamed，andNapoleonafterhim。ButthisisadreamthatProvidencehasrebukedamongallsuccessiveconquerors。TheremayhavebeenneedoftheuniversalmonarchyoftheCaesars，thatChristianitymightspreadinpeace，andbeprotectedbyareignoflawandorder。Thisatleastisoneoftheplatitudesofhistorians。FroudehimselfharpsonitinhislifeofCaesar。Historiansarefondofexaltingthegloriesofimperialism，andeverybodyisdazzledbythesplendorandpowerofancientRomanemperors。Theydonot，Ithink，sufficientlyconsidertheblastinginfluenceofimperialismonthelifeofnations，howitdriesupthesourcesofrenovation，howitnecessarilywithersliteratureandphilosophy，hownothingcanthriveunderitbutpompandmaterialglories，howitparalyzesallvirtuousimpulses，howitkillsallenthusiasm，howitcrushesoutallhopeandloftyaspirations，howitmakesslavesofitsbestsubjects，howitfillstheearthwithfear，howitdrainsnationalresourcestosupportstandingarmies，howitmocksallenterpriseswhichdonotreceiveimperialapprobation，howeverythingisconcentratedtoreflectthegloryofonemanorfamily;howimpossible，underitswitheringshade，ismanlyindependence，orthefreeexpressionofopinionsorhealthygrowth;howitburiesup，underitsarmies，discontentsandaspirationsalike，andcreatesnothingbutmachinerywhichmustultimatelywearoutandleaveaworldinruins，withnothingstabletotakeitsplace。Lawandorderaregoodthings，thepreservationofpropertyisdesirable，thepunishmentofcrimeisnecessary;butthereareotherthingswhicharevaluablealso。Nothingissovaluableasthepreservationofnationallife;nothingissohealthyasscopeforenergies;nothingissocontemptibleanddegradingasuniversalsycophancytoofficialrule。Therearenotyrantsmoreoppressivethanthetoolsofabsolutepower。SeeinwhatastateimperialismlefttheRomanEmpirewhenitfell。Therewerenorallyingforces;
　　therewasnoresurrectionofheroes。Vitalityhadfled。WherewouldTurkeybeto-daywithouttheEuropeanpowers，iftheSultan’sauthorityweretofall？ItwouldbeinthestateofancientBabylonorPersiawhenthoseempiresfell。
　　Thereisanothersidetoimperialismbesidesdreadedanarchies。
　　Moreover，thewholeprogressofcivilizationhasbeencountertoit。Thefiatsofeternaljusticehavepronouncedagainstit，becauseitisantagonistictothedignityofmanandthetriumphsofreason。Iwouldnotfallinwiththecantofthedignityofman，becausethereisnodignitytomanwithoutaidfromGodAlmightythroughHisspiritandthemessagehehassentinChristianity。Butthereisdignityinmanwiththeaidofaregeneratinggospel。SomepeopletalkofthetriumphsofChristianityundertheRomanemperors;butseehowrapidlyitwascorruptedbythemwhentheysoughttheaidofitsinstitutionstobolsteruptheirpower。ThepowerofChristianityisinitstruths;initsreligion，andnotinitsformsandinstitutions，initsinventionstoupholdthearmsofdespotismandthetoolsofdespotism。Itis，anditwas，anditwillbethroughalltheagesthegreatpoweroftheworld，againstwhichitisvaintorebel。
　　Andthatgovernmentisreallythebestwhichunfettersitsspiritualinfluence，andencouragesit;andnotthatgovernmentwhichseekstoperpetuateitscorruptandworldlyinstitutions。
　　TheRomanemperorsmadeChristianityaninstitution，andobscureditstruths。AndperhapsthatisonereasonwhyProvidencepermittedtheirdespotismtopassaway，——preferringtherudeanarchyoftheGermanicnationstothedeadmechanismofalifelessChurchandimperialrottenness。Imperialismmusteverendinrottenness。AndthatisonereasonwhytheheartofChristendom——I
　　meanthepeopleofEurope，initsenlightenedandvirtuoussectionshaseveropposedimperialism。Theprogresshasbeenslow，butmarked，towardsrepresentativegovernments，——notthereignofthepeopledirectly，butofthosewhomtheyselecttorepresentthem。
　　ThevictoryhasbeennearlygainedinEngland。InFrancetheprogresshasbeenuniformsincetheRevolution。Napoleonrevived，orsoughttorevive，theimperialismofRome。Hefailed。ThereisnothingwhichtheFrenchnowsocordiallydetest，sincetheireyeshavebeenopenedtothecharacterandendsofthatusurper，ashisimperialism。ItcannotberevivedanymoreeasilythantheoraclesofDodona。EveninGermanytherearedreadfuldiscontentsinviewoftheimperialismwhichBismarck，bytheforceofsuccessfulwars，hasseeminglyrevived。Theawfulstandingarmiesareamenacetoalllibertyandprogressandnationaldevelopment。InItalyitselfthereisthecommencementofconstitutionalauthority，althoughitisunitedunderaking。Thegreatstandingwarfareofmoderntimesisconstitutionalauthorityagainsttheabsolutepowerofkingsandemperors。Andtheprogresshasbeenonthesideoflibertyeverywhere，withoccasionaldrawbacks，suchaswhenLouisNapoleonrevivedtheaccurseddespotismofhisuncle，andbythesamemeans，——astandingarmyandpromisesofmilitaryglory。
　　Hence，intheorderofProvidence，thedreamofCharlemagneastounboundedmilitaryaggrandizementcouldnotberealized。HecouldnotrevivetheimperialismofRomeorPersia。NomanwilleverariseinEuropewhocanre-establishit，exceptforabriefperiod。
　　ItwillberebukedbythesuperintendingPower，becauseitisfataltothehighestdevelopmentofnations，becauseallitsgloriesaredelusory，becauseitsowstheseedsofruin。Itproducesthatveryegotism，materialism，andsensuality，thatingloriousrestandpleasure，which，aseverybodyconcedes，preparedthewayforviolence。
　　AndhenceCharlemagne’sempirewenttopiecesassoonashewasdead。Therewasnothingpermanentinhisconquests，exceptthosemadeagainstbarbarism。Hewasraiseduptoerectbarriersagainstfreshinroadsofbarbarians。Hiswholeempirewasfinallysplitupintopettysovereignties。InonesensehefoundedStates，“sincehefoundedtheStateswhichsprangupfromthedismembermentofhisempire。ThekingdomsofGermany，Italy，France，Burgundy，Lorraine，Navarre，alldatetohismemorablereign。”Butthesemediaevalkingdomswerefeudal;thepowerofthekingswasnominal。
　　Governmentpassedfromimperialismintothehandsofnobles。ThegovernmentofEuropeintheMiddleAgeswasamilitaryaristocracy，onlypowerfulastheinterestsofthepeoplewereconsidered。
　　Kingsandprincesdidnotmakemuchshow，exceptinthetrappingsofroyalty，——ingorgeousdressesofpurpleandgold，tosuitabarbarictaste，——intheinsigniaofpowerwithoutitsreality。Thepowerwasamongthearistocracy，who，itmustbeconfessed，grounddownthepeoplebyahardfeudalrule，butwhodidnotgrindthesoulsoutofthem，liketheimperialismofabsolutemonarchies，withtheirstandingarmies。UnderthemthefeudalnoblesofEuropeatlengthrecuperated。Virtueswereborneverywhere，——inEngland，inFrance，inGermany，inHolland，——whichwereasavoroflifeuntolife:loyalty，self-respect，fidelitytocovenants，chivalry，sympathywithhumanmisery，loveofhome，ruralsports，agloriousrurallife，whichgavestaminatocharacter，——amaterialwhichChristianitycouldworkupon，andkindlethelatentfiresoffreedom，andtheimpulsesofagenerousenthusiasm。Itwasunderthefosteringinfluencesofsmall，independentchieftainsthatmanlystrengthandorganizedsocialinstitutionsaroseoncemore，——
　　thereservedpowerofunconquerablenations。Nobodyhatesfeudalism——initscorruptions，initsoppressions——morethanIdo。
　　Butitwasthetransitionstagefromtheanarchywhichthecollapseofimperialismproducedtotheconstitutionalgovernmentsofourtimes，ifwecouldforgettheabsolutemonarchieswhichflourishedonthebreakingupoffeudalism，whenitbecameatyrannyandamockery，butwhichabsolutemonarchiesflourishedonlyoneortwohundredyears，——asortofnecessityinthedevelopmentofnationstochecktheinsolenceandovergrownpowerofnobles，butafterallessentiallydifferentfromtheimperialismofCaesarorNapoleon，sincetheyreliedonthesupportofnoblesandmunicipalitiesmorethanonastandingarmy;yea，onvotesandgrantsfromparliamentstoraisemoneytosupportthearmy，——certainlyinEngland，asinthetimeofElizabeth。TheBourbons，indeed，reignedwithoutgrantsfromthepeopleorthenobility，andwhatwasthelogicalresult？——aFrenchRevolution！WouldaFrenchRevolutionhavebeenpossibleundertheRomanCaesars？
　　ButIwillnotpursuethisgradualdevelopmentofconstitutionalgovernmentfromtheanarchieswhicharoseoutofthefalloftheRomanEmpire，——justthereverseofwhathappenedinthehistoryofRome;IsaynomoreoftheimperialismwhichCharlemagnesoughttorestore，butwasnotpermittedbyProvidence，andwhich，afterall，wasthedreamofhislatterdays，when，likeNapoleon，hewasintoxicatedbypowerandbrilliantconquests;andIturntoconsiderbrieflyhisdirecteffectsincivilization，whichshowedhisgreatandenlightenedmind，andonwhichhisfameinnosmalldegreerests。
　　Charlemagnewasnoinsignificantlegislator。HisCapitulariesmaynotbeequaltothelawsofJustinianinnaturaljustice，butwereadaptedtohistimesandcircumstances。Hecollectedthescatteredcodes，sofaraslawswerecodified，ofthevariousGermanicnations，andmodifiedthem。HeintroducedagreatChristianelementintohisjurisprudence。HemadeuseofthecanonsoftheChurch。HiscodeismoreecclesiasticalthanthatofTheodosiuseven，thelastgreatChristianemperor。Butinhisdaytheclergywieldedgreatpower，andtheirordinancesanddecisionsweredirectedtosocietyasitwas。Theclergywerethegreatjuristsoftheirday。Thespiritualcourtsdecidedmattersofgreatimportance，andtookcognizanceofcaseswhichwereoutofthejurisdictionoftemporalcourts。Charlemagnerecognizedthevalueofthesespiritualcourts，andaidedthem。Hehadnoquarrelswithecclesiastics，norwashejealousoftheirpower。Healliedhimselfwithit。Hewasafriendoftheclergy。OneofthepeculiaritiesofalltheGermaniclaws，seenespeciallyinthoseofInaandAlfred，waspecuniarycompensationforcrime:fiftyshillings，inEngland，wouldpayforthelossofafoot，andtwentyforanoseandfourforatooth;thusrecognizingaprincipleseeninourtimesinrailroadaccidents，thoughnotrecognizedinourcivillawsinreferencetocrimes。ThissystemofcompensationCharlemagneretained，whichperhapsansweredforhisday。
　　Hewasalsoagreatadministrator。Nothingescapedhisvigilance。
　　Idonotreadthathemademanyroads，oreffectedimportantinternalimprovements。Theagewastoobarbarousforthedevelopmentofnationalindustries，——oneofthemainthingswhichoccupymodernstatesmenandgovernments。Butwhateverhedidwaswiseandenlightened。Herewardedmerit;hemadeanalliancewithlearnedmen;hesoughtouttherightmenforimportantposts;hemadethelearnedAlcuinhisteacherandcounsellor;heestablishedlibrariesandschools;hebuiltconventsandmonasteries;hegaveencouragementtomenofgreatattainments;helovedtosurroundhimselfwithlearnedmen;thescholarsofallcountriessoughthisprotectionandpatronage，andfoundhimafriend。Alcuinbecameoneoftherichestmeninhisdominions，andEnglebertreceivedoneofhisdaughtersinmarriage。NapoleonprofessedagreatadmirationforCharlemagne，althoughFredericII。washismodelsovereign。ButhowdifferentlyNapoleonactedinthisrespect！
　　Napoleonwasjealousofliterarygenius。Hehatedliterarymen。
　　Herarelyinvitedthemtohistable，andwasconstrainedintheirpresence。Hedrovethemoutofthekingdomeven。Hewantednothingbuthomage，——andliterarygeniushasnosympathywithbruteforce，ormachinery，ormilitaryexploits。ButCharlemagne，likePetertheGreat，delightedinthesocietyofallwhocouldteachhimanything。Hewasatolerablylearnedmanhimself，consideringhislifeofactivity。HespokeLatinasfluentlyashisnativeGerman，anditissaidthatheunderstoodGreek。Helikedtovisitschools，andwitnesstheperformancesoftheboys;and，providedtheymadeproficiencyintheirstudies，hecaredlittlefortheirnoblebirth。Hewasnorespecterofpersons。Withwrathhereprovedtheidle。Hepromisedrewardstomeritandindustry。
　　Themostmarkedfeatureofhisreign，outsidehiswars，washissympathywiththeclergy。Here，too，hedifferedfromNapoleonandFredericII。Mr。HallamconsidershisalliancewiththeChurchthegreaterrorofhisreign;butIbelieveitbuiltuphisthrone。InhistimetheclergywerethemostinfluentialpeopleoftheEmpireandthemostenlightened;butatthattimethegreatcontestoftheMiddleAgesbetweenspiritualandtemporalauthorityhadnotbegun。
　　Ambrose，indeed，hadrebukedTheodosius，andsetindefiancetheempresswhensheinterferedwithhisspiritualfunctions;andLeohadfirmlyestablishedthePapacybyemphasizingadivinerighttohisdecrees。ButaHildebrandandaBeckethadnotarisentousurptheprerogativesoftheirmonarchs。Leastofalldidpopesthendreamofsubjectingthetemporalpowersandraisingthespiritualoverthem，soastoleadtoissueswithkings。Thatwasalaterdevelopmentinthehistoryofthepapacy。Thepopesoftheeighthandninthcenturiessoughttohealdisorder，topunishturbulentchieftains，tosustainlawandorder，toestablishatribunalofjusticetowhichthediscontentedmightappeal。Theysoughttoconservethepeaceoftheworld。TheysoughttoruletheChurch，ratherthantheworld。Theyaimedatatheocraticministry，——tobetheambassadorsofGodAlmighty，——toallaystrifeanddivision。
　　Theclergywerethefriendsoforderandlaw，andtheywerethenaturalguardiansoflearning。Theywerekindnessitselftotheslaves，——forslaverystillprevailed。Thatwasanevilwithwhichtheclergydidnotgrapple;theywouldameliorateit，butdidnotseektoremoveit。Yettheyshieldedtheunfortunateandthepersecutedandthepoor;theygavetheonlyconsolationwhichanironageafforded。TheChurchwasgloomy，ascetic，austere，likethecathedralsofthattime。Monksburiedthemselvesincrypts;
　　theysangmournfulsongs;theysawnothingbutpovertyandmisery，andtheycametothereliefinafunerealway。Buttheywerenotcoldandhardandcruel，likebaroniallords。Secularlordswererapacious，andgrounddownthepeople，andmockedandtrampleduponthem;buttheclergywerehospitable，gentle，andaffectionate。
　　Theysympathizedwiththepeople，fromwhomtheychieflysprang。
　　Theyhadtheirvices，butthoseviceswerenothalfsorevoltingasthoseofbaronsandknights。Intellectually，theclergywereatalltimesthesuperiorsofthesesecularlords。Theylovedthepeacefulvirtueswhichweregeneratedintheconsecratedconvent。
　　Thepassionsofnoblesurgedthemontoperpetualpillage，injustice，andcruelty。Theclergyquarrelledonlyamongthemselves。Theywerehuman，andnotwhollyfreefromhumanfrailties;buttheywerenotpublicrobbers。Theywerethebestfarmersoftheirtimes;theycultivatedlands，andmadethemattractivebyfruitsandflowers。Theyweregenerallyindustrious;
　　everyconventwasabeehive，inwhichvariouskindsofmanufactureswereproduced。Themonksaspiredeventobeartists。Theyilluminatedmanuscripts，aswellascopiedthem;theymadetapestriesandbeautifulvestments。Theywereapeacefulandusefulsetofmen，atthisperiod，outsidetheirspiritualfunctions;theybuiltgrandchurches;theyhadfruitfulgardens;
　　theywereexceedinglyhospitable。Everymonasterywasaninn，aswellasabeehive，towhichalltravellersresorted，andwherenopaywasexacted。Itwasaretreatfortheunfortunate，whichnoonedaredassail。Anditwasvocalwithsongsandanthems。
　　Theclergywerenotonlythusgeneralbenefactorsinanageofturbulenceandcrime，inspiteofalltheirnarrownessandspiritualprideandtheirnaturalambitionforpower，buttheylentahelpinghandtothepeasantry。TheChurchwasdemocratic，andenabledthepoortoriseaccordingtotheirmerits，whilenoblescombinedtocrushthemorkeeptheminanignoblesphere。IntheChurch，thesonofamurderedpeasantcouldriseaccordingtohisdeserts;butifhefollowedawarriortothebattle-field，novirtues，notalents，nobraverycouldelevatehim，——hewasstillapeasant，alow-bornmenial。Ifheenteredamonastery，hemightpassfromofficetoofficeuntilasamitredabbothewouldbecomethemasteroftenthousandacres，thecounsellorofkings，theequalofthatproudbaroninwhoseservicehisfatherspenthisabjectlife。ThegreatHildebrandwasthesonofacarpenter。TheChurcheverrecognized，whatfeudalitydidnot，——theclaimsofmanasman;andenabledpeasants’sons，iftheyhadabilitiesandvirtues，torisetoproudpositions，——tobethepatronsofthelearned，thecompanionsofprinces，theministersofkings。
　　AndthatisthereasonwhyCharlemagnebefriendedtheChurchandelevatedit，becauseitsinfluencewascivilizing。Hesoughttoestablishamongtheclergyacounterbalancingpowertothatofnobles。WhocandoubtthattheinfluenceoftheChurchwasbetterthanthatofnoblesintheMiddleAges？Ifitgrounddownsocietybyaspiritualyoke，thatyokewasnecessary，fortherudeMiddleAgescouldberuledonlybyfear。Whatfearmorepotentthanthedestructionofthesoulinafuturelife！Itwasbythisweapon——
　　excommunication——thatEuropewasgoverned。Wemayabhorit，butitwasthegreatideaofMediaevalEurope，whichnoonecouldresist，andwhichkeptsocietyfromdissolution。Charlemagnemayhaveerredinthusgivingpowerandconsiderationtotheclergy，inviewofthesubsequentencroachmentsofthepopes。Butheneveranticipatedthefuturequarrelsbetweenhissuccessorsandthepopes，forthepopeswerenotthenformidableastheantagonistsofkings。IbelievehispolicywasthebestforEurope，onthewhole。
　　TheinfancyoftheGothicraceswaslong，dark，dreary，andunfortunate，butitpreparedthemforthecivilizationwhichtheyscorned。
　　SuchweretheserviceswhichthisgreatsovereignrenderedtohistimesandtoEurope。Heprobablysaveditfromrenewedbarbarism。
　　HewasthegreatlegislatoroftheMiddleAges，andthegreatestfriend——afterConstantineandTheodosius——ofwhichtheChurchcanboast。Withhimdawnedthenewcivilization。HebroughtbacksouvenirsofRomeandtheEmpire。Notforhimselfdidhelive，butforthewelfareofthenationshegoverned。ItwashisexamplewhichAlfredsoughttoimitate。Thoughawarrior，hesawsomethinggreaterthanthewarrior’sexcellence。Itissaidhewaseloquent，likeJuliusCaesar。Helovedmusicandallthearts。InhispalaceatAix-la-ChapelleweresungthesongsoftheearliestpoetsofGermany。HetookgreatpainstointroducetheGregorianchant。
　　Hewassimpleindress，andonlyonrareoccasionsdidheindulgeinparade。Hewastemperateineatinganddrinking，asallthefamouswarriorshavebeen。Heabsolutelyabhorreddrunkenness，thegreatviceoftheNorthernnations。Duringmealshelistenedtothelaysofminstrelsorthereadingsofhissecretaries。Hetookunweariedpainswiththeeducationofhisdaughters，andhewassofondofthemthattheyevenaccompaniedhiminhismilitaryexpeditions。HewasnotoneofthosementhatGibbonappreciated;
　　buthisfameissteadilygrowing，afteralapseofathousandyears。Hiswholeappearancewasmanly，cheerful，anddignified。
　　Hiscountenancereflectedachild-likeserenity。Hewasoneofthefewmen，likeDavid，whowasnotspoiledbywarandflatteries。
　　Thoughgentle，hewassubjecttofitsofanger，likeTheodosius;
　　buthedidnotaffectanger，likeNapoleon，fortheatricaleffect。
　　Hisgreatnessandhissimplicity，hishumanityandhisreligiousfaith，aretypicaloftheGermanicrace。HediedA。D。814，afterareignofhalfacentury，lamentedbyhisownsubjectsandtobeadmiredbysucceedinggenerations。Hallam，thoughnoteloquentgenerally，haspronouncedhismostbeautifuleulogy，“writteninthedisgracesandmiseriesofsucceedingtimes。Hestandsalonelikearockintheocean，likeabeacononawaste。HissceptrewasthebowofUlysses，nottobebentbyaweakerhand。InthedarkagesofEuropeanhistory，hisreignaffordsasolitaryresting-placebetweentwodarkperiodsofturbulenceandignominy，derivingtheadvantageofcontrastbothfromthatoftheprecedingdynastyandofaposterityforwhomhehadfoundedanempirewhichtheywereunworthyandunequaltomaintain。”
　　TosuchatributeIcanaddnothing。Hisgreatnessconsistsinthis，that，bornamidstbarbarism，hewasyetthefriendofcivilization，andunderstooditselementalprinciples，andstruggledforty-sevenyearstoestablishthem，——failingonlybecausehissuccessorsandsubjectswerenotpreparedforthem，andcouldnotlearnthemuntilthesevereexperienceoftencenturies，amidstdisastersandstorms，shouldprovethevalueofthe“oldbasalwallsandpillars“whichremainedunburiedamidthedespisedruinsofantiquity，andshowthatnostructurecouldadequatelysheltertheEuropeannationswhichwasnotestablishedbythebeautifulunionofGermanvigorwithChristianart，——bythecombinedrichnessofnativegeniuswiththoseimmortaltreasureswhichhadescapedthewreckoftheclassicworld。
　　AUTHORITIES。
　　Eginhard’sVitaCaroliMagni;LeClerc’sDelaBruyere，HistoireduRegnedeCharlemagne;Haureau’sCharlemagneetsonCour;Gaillard’sHistoiredeCharlemagne;Lorenz’sKarlsdesGrossen。ThereisatolerablypopularhistoryofCharlemagnebyJamesBulfinch，entitled“LegendsofCharlemagne;“alsoaLifebyJamesthenovelist。HenriMartin，Sismondi，andMicheletmaybeconsulted;
　　alsoHallam’sMiddleAges，Milman’sLatinChristianity，Gibbon’sDeclineandFalloftheRomanEmpire，BiographieUniverselle，andtheEncyclopaedias。
　　HILDEBRAND。
　　A。D。1020-1085。
　　THEPAPALEMPIRE。
　　WeassociatewithHildebrandthegreatcontestoftheMiddleAgesbetweenspiritualandtemporalauthority，thetriumphoftheformer，anditssupremacyinEuropeuntiltheReformation。Whatgreatideasandeventsareinterwovenwiththatmajesticdomination，——notinoneage，butforfifteencenturies;notreligiousmerely，butpolitical，embracingasitwerethewholeprogressofEuropeansociety，fromthefalloftheRomanEmpiretotheProtestantReformation;yea，intimatelyconnectedwiththeconditionofEuropetothepresentday，andnotofEuropeonly，butAmericaitself！WhatanaugustpoweristhisCatholicempire，equallygreatasaninstitutionandasareligion！Whatlessonsofhumanexperience，whatgreattruthsofgovernment，whatsubtileinfluences，reachingalikethepalacesofkingsandthehovelsofpeasants，areindissolublylinkedwithitsmarvellousdomination，sothatwhetherinitsgrowthordecayitismoresuggestivethantheriseandfallofanytemporalempire。Ithasproduced，probably，moreillustriousmenthananypoliticalStateinEurope。
　　Ithasaimedtoaccomplishfargranderends。Itisinvestedwithmorepoeticinterest。Itspolicy，itsheroes，itssaints，itsdoctors，itsdignitaries，itsmissions，itspersecutions，allriseupbeforeuswithvariedbutnever-endinginterest，whenseriouslycontemplated。Ithasprovedtobethemostwonderfulfabricofwhatwecallworldlywisdomthatourworldhasseen，——controllingkings，dictatinglawstoancientmonarchies，andbindingthesoulsofmillionswithamoreperfectdespotismthanOrientalemperorseversoughtordreamed。Andwhatamarvellousvitalityitseemstohave！Ithassurvivedtheattacksofitscountlessenemies;ithasrecoveredfromtheshockoftheReformation;itstillremainsmajesticandpowerful，extendingitsarmsofpaternalloveorBriareanterroroverhalfofChristendom。Asatemporalgovernment，rivallingkingsinthepompsofwarandtheprideofarmies，itmaybepassingaway;butasanorganizationtodiffuseandconservereligioustruths，——yea，eventobringamoralpressureonthemindsofprincesandgovernors，andreinforceitsrankswiththemightyandthenoble，——itseemstobeaspotentasever。Itisstillsendingitsmissionaries，itsprelates，anditscardinalsintotheheartofProtestantcountries，whoanticipateandboastofnewvictories。ItderidesthedissensionsandtherationalisticspeculationsoftheProtestants，andpredictsthattheywilleitherbecomeopenPagansorre-enterthefoldofSaintPeter。Nolongerdoangrypartisanscallitthe“Beast“orthe“ScarletMother“orthe“predictedAntichrist。”sinceitsreligiouscreedsintheirvitalpointsaremoreinharmonywiththetheologyofveneratedFathersthanthoseofsomeoftheprogressiveandproudestpartieswhichcallthemselvesProtestant。InGermany，inFrance，——shallI
　　add，inEnglandandAmerica？——itismoreinearnest，andmorelaboriousandself-denyingthanmanysectsamongtheProtestants。
　　InGermany——inthoseveryseatsoflearningandpowerandfashionwhichoncewerekindledintoloftyenthusiasmbythevoiceofLuther——whoisitthatdesertthechurchesanddisregardthesacraments，theCatholicsortheProtestants？
　　Surelysuchapower，whetherweviewitasaninstitutionorasareligion，cannotbedespised，evenbythenarrowestandmostfanaticalProtestant。Itistoograndandvenerableforsarcasm，ridicule，ormockery。Itistoopotentandrespectabletobesneeredatorliedabout。Nocausecanbeadvancedpermanentlyexceptbyadherencetothetruth，whetheritbeagreeableornot。
　　IfthePapacywereameredespotism，havingnothingelseinviewthantheinthralmentofmankind，——ofwhichithasbeenaccused，——
　　thenmankindlongago，inloftyindignation，wouldhavehurleditfromitsvenerablethrone。ButdespoticasitsyokeisintheeyesofProtestants，andalwayshasbeenandalwaysmaybe，itissomethingmorethanthat，havingatheartthewelfareoftheverymillionswhomitrulesbyworkingontheirfears。Inspiteofdogmaswhicharedeductionsfromquestionablepremises，orwhichareatwarwithreason，andritualismborrowedfromotherreligions，and“piousfrauds。”andJesuiticalmeanstocompassdesirableends，——whichProtestantsindignantlydiscard，andwhichtheymaintainareantagonistictothespiritofprimitiveChristianity，——stillitisalsothedefenderandadvocateofvitalChristiantruths，towhichwetracethehopesandconsolationsofmankind。AstheconservatorofdoctrinescommontoallChristiansectsitcannotbesweptawaybythehandofman;norasagovernment，confiningitsofficersandrulestothespiritualnecessitiesofitsmembers。Itsempireisspiritualratherthantemporal。Temporalmonarchsarehurledfromtheirthrones。ThelonglineoftheBourbonsvanishesbeforethetempestsofrevolution，andtheywhowereborneintopowerbythesetempestsareinturnhurledintoignominiousbanishment;butthePope——hestillsitssecureonthethroneoftheGregoriesandtheClements，readytopronouncebenedictionsorhurlanathemas，towhichhalfofEuropebowsinfearorlove。
　　Whencethisstrangevitality？Whataretheelementsofapowersoenduringandsoirresistible？Whathasgiventoititsgreatnessanditsdignity？IconfessIgazeuponitasapeasantsurveysaking，asaboycontemplatesaqueenofbeauty，——assomethingwhichmaybetalkedabout，yetremovedbeyondourinfluence，andnomoreaffectedbyourpraiseorcensurethanisaprocessionofcardinalsbythegazeofadmiringspectatorsinSaintPeter’sChurch。Whocanmeasureit，oranalyzeit，orcomprehendit？Theweaponsofreasonappeartofallimpotentbeforeitshaughtydogmatism。
　　Geniuscannotreconcileitsinconsistencies。Serenelyitsits，unmovedamidalltheaggressionsofhumanthoughtandallthetriumphsofmodernscience。Itisbothloftyanddegraded;simple，yetworldlywise;humble，yetscornfulandproud;washingbeggars’
　　feet，yetimposingcommandsonthepotentatesofearth;benignant，yetsevereonallwhorebel;hereclothedinrags，andthererevellinginpalaces;supportedbycharities，yetfeastingtheprincesoftheearth;assumingthetitleof“servantoftheservantsofGod。”yetarrogatingthehighestseatamongworldlydignitaries。Wasthereeversuchacontradiction？——“gloryindebasement，anddebasementinglory。”——typeofthemiseryandgreatnessofman？Wasthereeversuchamystery，sooccultareitsarts，sosubtileitspolicy，soplausibleitspretensions，socertainitsshafts？Howimposingthewordsofpaternalbenediction！Howgrandtheliturgybroughtdownfromagesoffaith！Howabsorbedwithbeatificdevotionappearstobetheworshipperatitsconsecratedaltars！Howravishingthemusicandthechantsofgrandceremonials！HowtypicalthechurchesandconsecratedmonumentsofthepassionofChrist！Everywhereyouseethegreatemblemofourredemption，——ontheloftiestpinnacleoftheMediaevalcathedral，onthedressesofthepriests，overthegorgeousaltars，intheceremonyoftheMass，inthebaptismalrite，inthepaintingsofthesidechapels;everywhereareritesandemblemsbetokeningmaceration，grief，sacrifice，penitence，thehumiliationofhumanitybeforetheawfulpowerofdivineOmnipotence，whosepersonalityandmoralgovernmentnoCatholicistemptedtodeny。
　　AndyetwhatcrimesandabominationshavenotbeencommittedinthenameoftheChurch？Ifwegobackandacceptthehistoryofthedarkerages，whatwarshasnotthisChurchencouraged，whatdiscordshasshenotincited，whatsuperstitionshasshenotindorsed，whatpridehasshenotarrogated，whatcrueltieshasshenotinflicted，whatcountrieshasshenotrobbed，whathardshipshasshenotimposed，whatdeceptionshasshenotused，whatavenuesofthoughthasshenotguardedwithaflamingsword，whattruthhasshenotperverted，whatgoodnesshasshenotmockedandpersecuted？
　　Ah，interrogatetheAlbigenses，theWaldenses，theshadesofJeromeofPrague，ofHuss，ofSavonarola，ofCranmer，ofColigny，ofGalileo;interrogatethemartyrsoftheThirtyYears’War，andthosewhowereslainbythedragonnadesofLouisXIV。，thosewhofellbythehandofAlvaandCharlesIX。;gotoSmithfield，andParisonSaintBartholomew;thinkofgunpowderplotsandinquisitions，andintriguesandtortures，allvigorouslycarriedonunderthecloakofReligion——barbaritiesworsethanthoseofsavages，inflictedatthecommandoftheministersofagospeloflove！
　　Iamcompelledtoalludetothesethings;Idonotdwellonthem，sincetheyweretheresultoftheintoleranceofhumannatureasmuchasthebigotryoftheChurch，——faultsofanage，morethanofareligion;although，whetherexaggeratedornot，moredisgracefulthanthepersecutionsofChristiansbyRomanemperors。
　　AsforthesupremerulersofthiscontradictoryChurch，sobenevolentandyetsocruel，soenlightenedandyetsofanatical，sohumbleandyetsoproud，——thisinstitutionofblendedpietyandfraud，equallyrenownedforsaints，theologians，statesmen，drivellers，andfanatics;thejoyandthereproach，thegloryandtheshameofearth，——thereneverweregreatergeniusesorgreaterfools:saintsofalmostpreternaturalsanctity，likethefirstLeoandGregory，orhoundslikeBonifaceVIII。orAlexanderVI。;anarrayofscholarsanddunces，asceticsandgluttons，menwhoadornedandmenwhoscandalizedtheirloftyposition;andyet，onthewhole，weareforcedtoadmit，themostremarkablebodyofrulersanyempirehasknown，sincetheywereelevatedbytheirpeers，andgenerallyfortalentsorservices，ataperiodoflifewhencharacterisformedandexperienceismatured。TheywerenotgreaterthantheirChurchortheirage，liketheCharlemagnesandPetersofsecularhistory，buttheywerethepickedmen，thebestrepresentativesoftheirChurch;ambitious，doubtless，andworldly，asgreatpotentatesgenerallyare，butmadesobythecircumstanceswhichcontrolledthem。Whocanwieldirresponsiblepowerandnotbecomearrogant，andperhapsself-indulgent？ItrequiresthealmostsuperhumanvirtueofaMarcusAureliusoraSaintLouistocrucifytheprideofrankandpower。Ifthepresidentofacollegeorofarailroadorofabankbecomesadifferentmantotheeyeofanearlyfriend，whatcanbeexpectedofthosewhoareraisedabovepublicopinion，andhavenofettersontheirwills，——menwhoareregardedasinfallibleandfeelthemselvessupreme！
　　ButofallthesethreehundredorfourhundredmenwhohaveswayedthedestiniesofEurope，——anuninterruptedlineofpontiffsforfifteenhundredyearsormore，nooneissofamousasGregoryVII。
　　forthegrandeurofhischaracter，theheroismofhisstruggles，andtheposthumousinfluenceofhisdeeds。Hewastoogreatamantobecalledbyhispapaltitle。Heisbestknownbyhisbaptismalname，Hildebrand，thegreatestherooftheRomanChurch。Therearesomemenwhosetitlesaddnothingtotheiraugustnames，——David，Julius，Constantine，Augustine。Whenamanhasbecomeveryeminentwedroptitlesaltogether，exceptinmilitarylife。WesayDanielWebster，EdwardEverett，JonathanEdwards，ThomasJefferson，BenjaminFranklin，WilliamPitt。HildebrandisagreaternamethanGregoryVII。，andwithhimisidentifiedthegreateststruggleofthePapacyagainstthetemporalpowers。IdonotaimtodissecthischaractersomuchastopresenthisservicestotheChurch。I
　　wishtoshowwhyandhowheisidentifiedwithmovementsofsupremehistoricalimportance。Itwouldbeeasytomakehimoutasaintandmartyr，andequallysotopainthimasatyrantandusurper。
　　Itisoflittleconsequencetouswhetherhewasasceticorambitiousorunscrupulous;butitISofconsequencetoshowthemajesticpowerofthoseideasbywhichheruledtheMiddleAges，andwhichwillneverpassawayassublimeagenciessolongasmenareignorantandsuperstitious。Asamanhenolongerlives，buthisthunderboltsareperpetualpowers，sincetheystillalarmthefearsofmen。
　　Still，hispersonalhistoryisnotuninteresting。BornofhumbleparentsinItalyintheyear1020，thesonofacarpenter，herosebygeniusandvirtuetothehighestofficesanddignities。Buthisgreatnesswasinforceofcharacterratherthanoriginalideas，——
　　likethatofWashington，orWilliamIII。，ortheDukeofWellington。HehadnotthecomprehensiveintellectofCharlemagne，northecreativegeniusofPeterofRussia，buthehadthesagacityofRichelieuandtheironwillofNapoleon。Hewasstatesmanaswellaspriest，——marvellousforhisactivity，insightintohumannature，vastexecutiveabilities，anddauntlessheroism。HecomprehendedtheonlywaywherebyChristendomcouldbegoverned，andunhesitatinglyusedthemeansofsuccess。Hewasnotagreatscholar，ortheologian，orphilosopher，butamanofaction，embracingopportunitiesandstrikingdecisiveblows。Fromfirsttolasthewasdevotedtohiscause，whichwasgreaterthanhimself，——
　　eventhespiritualsupremacyofthePapacy。Idonotreadofgreatintellectualprecocity，likethatofCiceroandWilliamPitt，norofgreatattainments，likethoseofAbelardandThomasAquinas，norevenaninsight，likethatofBacon，intowhatconstitutesthedignityofmanandthetruegloryofcivilization;but，likeAmbroseandthefirstLeo，hewasearlyselectedforimportantmissionsandresponsibletrusts，allofwhichhedischargedwithgreatfidelityandability。HiseducationwasdirectedbythemonksofCluny，——thatprincelyabbeyinBurgundywhere“monksweresovereignsandsovereignsweremonks。”Likeallearnestmonks，hewasascetic，devotional，andself-sacrificing。Likeallmenambitionstorule，“helearnedhowtoobey。”HeponderedontheHolyScripturesaswellasonthecanonsoftheChurch。Somarkedamanwashethathewasearlychosenaspriorofhisconvent;andsogreatwerehispersonalmagnetism，eloquence，andinfluencethat“heinducedBruno，theBishopofToul，whenelectedpopebytheEmperorofGermany，tolayasidethebadgesandvestmentsofthepontificaloffice，andrefusehistitle，untilheshouldbeelectedbytheclergyandpeopleofRome。”——thusshowingthatattheageoftwenty-ninehecomprehendedtheissuesoftheday，andmeditatedonthegiganticchangesitwasnecessarytomakebeforethepopecouldbethesupremerulerofChristendom。
　　TheautocraticideaofLeoI。，andthegreatGregorywhosenthismissionariestoEngland，wasthattowhichHildebrand’sardentsoulclungwithpreternaturalearnestness，astheonlygovernmentfitforturbulentandsuperstitiousages。Hedidnotoriginatethisidea，buthedefendedandenforceditashadneverbeendonebefore，sothattomanymindshewasthegreatarchitectofthepapalstructure。ItwasararespectacletoseeasovereignpontifflayasidetheinsigniaofhisgrandeuratthebiddingofthismonkofCluny;itwasgrandertoseethismonklayingthefoundationofanirresistibledespotism，whichwastolastbeyondthetimeofLuther。NotmerelywasLeoIX。histool，butthreesuccessivepopeswerechosenathisdictation。Andwhenhebecamecardinalandarchdeaconheseemstohavebeentheinspiringgeniusofthepapalgovernment，undertakingthemostimportantmissions，curbingtheturbulentspiritoftheRomanprinces，andassistinginallecclesiasticalcouncils。Itwasbyhissuggestionthatabbotsweredeposed，andbishopspunished，andmonarchsreprimanded。HewastheprimeministeroffourpopesbeforeheacceptedthathighofficetowhichhedoubtlesshadaspiredwhilemeditatingasamonkamidthesunnyslopesofCluny，sinceheknewthattheexigencesoftheChurchrequiredaboldandableruler，——andwhoinChristendomwasbolderandmorefar-reachingthanhe？HemighthavebeenelevatedtothechairofSaintPeteratanearlierperiod，buthewascontentedwithpowerratherthanglory，knowingthathisdaywouldcome，andatatimewhenhisextraordinaryabilitieswouldbemostneeded。Hecouldaffordtowait;andnomanistrulygreatwhocannotbidehistime。
　　AtlastHildebrandreceivedtherewardofhisgreatservices，——“areward。”saysStephen，“whichhehadlongcontemplated，butwhich，withself-controllingpolicy，hehadsolongdeclined。”Intheyear1073HildebrandbecameGregoryVII。，andhismemorablepontificatebeganasareformeroftheabusesofhisage，andtheintrepiddefenderofthatunlimitedandabsolutedespotismwhichinthrallednotmerelytheprincesofEurope，butthemindofChristendomitself。Itwashewhonotonlyproclaimedthelibertiesofthepeopleagainstnobles，andmadetheChurchanasylumformiseryandoppression，butwhorealizedtheideathattheChurchwasthemotherofspiritualprinciples，andthatthespiritualauthorityshouldberaisedoveralltemporalpower。
　　InthegreatcrisesofStatesandEmpiresdeliverersseemtoberaisedupbyDivineProvidencetorestorepeaceandorder，andmaintainthefirstconditionofsociety，orextricatenationsfromoverwhelmingcalamities。ThusCharlemagneappearedattherighttimetopreventtheoverthrowofEuropebynewwavesofbarbaricinvasion。ThusWilliamtheSilentpreservedthenationalityofHolland，andGustavusAdolphusgavereligiouslibertytoGermanywhenpersecutionwasapparentlysuccessful。ThusRichelieuunderminedfeudalisminFrance，andestablishedabsolutismasoneoftheneededforcesofhisturbulentage，evenasNapoleongavelawandordertoFrancewhendistractedbytheanarchismofarevolutionwhichdidnotcomprehendthelibertywhichwasinvoked。
　　SoHildebrandwasraiseduptoestablishtheonlygovernmentwhichcouldrescueEuropefromtherapacitiesoffeudalnobles，andestablishlawandorderinthehandsofthemostenlightenedclass;
　　sothat，likePetertheGreat，heloomsupasareformeraswellasadespot。Heappearsinadoublelight。
　　Nowyouask:“Whatwerehisreforms，andwhatwerehisschemesofaggrandizement，forwhichwehonorhimwhilewedenouncehim？”Wecannotseethereformsheattemptedwithoutglancingattheenormousevilswhichstaredhimintheface。
　　SocietyinEurope，intheeleventhcentury，wasnearlyasdarkanddegradedasitwasonthefalloftheMerovingiandynasty。InsomerespectsithadreachedthelowestdepthofwretchednesswhichtheMiddleAgeseversaw。Neverhadtheclergybeenmoreworldlyordevotedtotemporalthings。Theyhadnotthepietyofthefourthcentury，northeintelligenceofthesixteenthcentury;theywerepowerfulandwealthy，buthadgrowncorrupt。MonasticinstitutionscoveredthefaceofEurope，butthemonkshadsadlydepartedfromthevirtueswhichpartiallyredeemedthemiseriesthatsucceededthefalloftheRomanEmpire。Thelivesoftheclergy，regularandsecular，stillcomparedfavorablywiththelivesofthefeudalnobility，whohad，inadditiontoothervices，thevicesofrobbersandbandits。Butstilltheclergyhadfallenfarfromthehighstandardofearlierages。Monasteriessoughttobeindependentofallforeigncontrolandofepiscopaljurisdiction。Theyhadbeenenormouslyenrichedbyprincesandbarons，andtheyowned，withtheotherclergy，halfthelandsofEurope，andmorethanhalfitssilverandgold。Themonksfattenedonalltheluxurieswhichthenwereknown;theyneglectedtherulesoftheirorderandlivedinidleness，——spendingtheirtimeinthechase，orintavernsandbrothels。HardlyagreatscholarortheologianhadarisenamongthemsincethePatristicage，withtheexceptionofafewschoolmenlikeAnselmandPeterLombard。SaintBernardhadnotyetappearedtoreformtheBenedictines，norDominicandSaintFrancistofoundneworders。Gluttonyandidlenesswereperhapsthecharacteristicvicesofthegreatbodyofthemonks，whonumberedoveronehundredthousand。Huntingandhawkingwerethemostinnocentoftheiramusements。TheyhavebeenaccusedofdrinkingtoastsinhonoroftheDevil，andcelebratingMassinastateofintoxication。“Notoneinathousand。”saysHallam，“couldaddresstooneanotheracommonletterofsalutation。”Theywereawalkinglibeloneverythingsacred。Readtheaccountoftheirbanquetsintheannalswhichhavecomedowntousofthetenthandeleventhcenturies，whenconventsweresonumerousandrich。IfDugdaleistobecredited，theirgluttonyexceededthatofanypreviousorsucceedingage。Theircupidity，theirdrunkenrevels，theirinfamoushaunts，theirdisgustingcoarseness，theirhypocrisy，ignorance，selfishness，andsuperstitionwerenotorious。Yetthemonkswerenotworsethanthesecularclergy，highandlow。
　　Bishopricsandallbeneficeswereboughtandsold;“canonsweretroddenunderfoot;ancienttraditionswereturnedoutofdoors;
　　oldcustomswerelaidaside;“boysweremadearchbishops;ludicrousstorieswererecitedinthechurches;themostdisgracefulcrimeswerepardonedformoney。Desolation，accordingtoCardinalBaronius，wasseeninthetemplesoftheLord。AsPetrarchsaidofAvignoninabetterage，“Thereisnopity，nocharity，nofaith，nofearofGod。Theair，thestreets，thehouses，themarkets，thebeds，thehotels，thechurches，eventhealtarsconsecratedtoGod，areallpeopledwithknavesandliars;“or，tousethestillstrongerlanguageofagreatreviewer，“Thegatesofhellappearedtorollbackontheirinfernalhinges，thattheremightgoforthmalignantspiritstoemptythevialsofwrathonthepatrimonyevenofthegreatchiefoftheapostles。”
　　Thesevices，itistrue，werenotconfinedtotheclergy。Allclasseswerealikeforlorn，miserable，andcorrupt。Itwasagloomyperiod。TheChurch，wheneverreligious，wassadanddespairing。Thecontemplativehidthemselvesinnoisomeandsepulchralcrypts。TheinspiringchantsofAmbrosegaveplacetogloomyandmonotonousantiphonalsinging，——thatis，whenthemonksconfinedthemselvestotheirownvocation。Whatwasespeciallyneededwasareformamongtheclergythemselves。TheyindeedownedtheirallegiancetothePope，asthesupremeheadoftheChurch，buttheirfealtywasbecomingamockery。Theycouldnotsupportthethroneofabsolutismiftheywerenotrespectedbythelaity。
　　Baronialandfeudalpowerwasrapidlygainingoverspiritual，andthiswasapoorexchangeforthepoweroftheclergy，ifitledtoviolenceandrapine。Itistomaintainlawandorder，justiceandsafety，thatallgovernmentsareestablished。
　　Hildebrandsawandlamentedthecountlessevilsoftheday，especiallythosewhichwerelooseningthebandsofclericalobedience，andunderminingtheabsolutismwhichhadbecomethegreatnecessityofhisage。Hemadeuphismindtoreformtheseevils。Nopopebeforehimhadseriouslyundertakenthisgigantictask。Thepopeswhofortwohundredyearshadprecededhimwereascandalandareproachtotheirexaltedposition。TheseheirsofSaintPeterwastedtheirpatrimonyinpleasuresandpomps。Atnoperiodofthepapalhistorywasthepapalchairfilledwithsuchbadorincompetentmen。Ofthesepopestwoweremurdered，fiveweredrivenintoexile，andfourweredeposed。Somewereraisedtoprominencebyarms，andothersbymoney。JohnX。commandedanarmyinperson;JohnXI。diedinafitofdebauchery;andJohnXII。wasmurderedbyoneoftheinfamouswomenwhomhepatronized。BenedictIX。wasdrivenfromthethronebyrobberyandmurder，whileGregoryVI。purchasedthepapaldignity。Fortwohundredyearsnocommandingcharacterhadwornthetiara。
　　Hildebrand，however，setanewexample，andbecameawatchfulshepherdofhisfold。Hisprivatelifewaswithoutreproach;hewasabsorbedinhisduties;hesympathizedwithlearningandlearnedmen。HewasthefriendofLanfranc，anditwasbyhisinfluencethatthisgreatprelatewasappointedtotheSeeofCanterbury，andacloserunionwasformedwithEngland。HeinfusedbyhisexampleaquietbutnoblecourageintothesoulofAnselm。
　　Hehadgreatfaults，ofcourse，——faultsofhisownandfaultsofhisage。IwonderwhysoSTRONGamanhasescapedtheadmiringeulogiumofCarlyle。GuizotcompareshimwiththeRussianPeter。
　　InsomerespectsheremindsmeofOliverCromwell;sincebothequallydeploredtheevilsoftheday，andbothinvokedtheaidofGodAlmighty。Bothwereambitious，andunhesitatingintheuseoftools。Neitherofthemwasstainedbyvulgarvices，norseducedfromhiscoursebyloveofeaseorpleasure。Botharetobecontemplatedinthedoublelightofreformerandusurper。Bothwerehonest，andbothwereunscrupulous;honestinseekingtopromotepublicmoralityandthewelfareofsociety，andunscrupulousintheartsbywhichtheirpowerwasgained。
　　ThatwhichfilledthesoulofHildebrandwithespecialgriefwasthealienationoftheclergyfromtheirhighestduties，theirworldlylives，andtheirfrailsupportinhiseffortstoelevatethespiritualpower。Thereforehedeterminedtomakeareformoftheclergythemselves，havinginviewallthetimetheirassistanceinestablishingthepapalsupremacy。Heattackedtheclergywheretheywereweakest。They——thesecularones，theparishpriests——
　　weregettingmarried，especiallyinGermanyandFrance。Theyweresettingatdefiancethelawsofcelibacy;theynotonlysoughtwives，buttheylivedinconcubinage。
　　NowcelibacyhadbeenregardedasthesupernalvirtuefromthetimeofSaintJerome。ItwassupposedtobeastatemostfavorabletoChristianperfection;itanimatedtheexistenceofthemostnotedsaints。SaysJerome，“Takeaxeinhandandhewdownthesteriletreeofmarriage。”ThisnotionofthesuperiorvirtueofvirginitywasoneofthefruitsofthoseEasterntheogonieswhichwereengraftedontheearlyChurch，growingoutoftheOrientalideaoftheinalienableevilofmatter。Itwasoneofthefundamentalprinciplesofmonasticism;andmonasticism，whereverborn——whetherinIndiaortheSyriandeserts——wasoneoftheestablishedinstitutionsoftheChurch。ItwasindorsedbyBenedictaswellasbyBasil;ithadtakenpossessionofthemindsoftheGothicnationsmorefirmlyeventhanoftheEastern。TheEastneversawsuchmonasteriesasthosewhichcoveredItaly，France，Germany，andEngland;theyweremoreneededamongthefeudalrobbersofEuropethanintheeffeminatemonarchiesofAsia。Moreoveritwasinmonasteriesthatthepopeshadeverfoundtheirstrongestadherents，theirmostzealoussupporters。Withouttheaidofconventsthepapalempiremighthavecrumbled。Monasticismandthepapacywerestronglyallied;onesupportedtheother。Soefficientweremonasticinstitutionsinadvocatingtheideaofatheocracy，asupheldbythepopes，thattheywereexemptedfromepiscopalauthority。Anabbotwasaspowerfulandindependentasabishop。
　　ButtomakethePapacysupremeitwasnecessarytocallintheaidofthesecularpriestslikewise。Unmarriedpriests，beingmorelikemonks，weremoreefficientsupportersofthepapalthrone。Tomaintaincelibacy，therefore，wasalwaysinaccordancewithpapalpolicy。
　　ButNaturehadgraduallyasserteditsclaimsovertraditionandauthority。Theclergy，especiallyinFranceandGermany，weresettingatdefiancetheedictsofpopesandcouncils。Thegloryofcelibacywasinaneclipse。
　　Noonecomprehendedthenecessityofcelibacy，amongtheclergy，moreclearlythanHildebrand，——himselfamonkbyeducationandsympathy。Helookeduponmarriedlife，withallitshallowedbeauty，asaprofanationforapriest。InhiseyestheclergyweremarriedonlytotheChurch。“Domesticaffectionssuitedillwiththedutiesofatheocraticministry。”AnythingwhichdivertedthelaborsoftheclergyfromtheChurchseemedtohimanoutrageandadegeneracy。Howcouldtheyreachthestateofbeatificexistenceiftheyweretolistentotheprattleofchildren，orbeengrossedwiththejoysofconjugalorparentallove？Soheassembledacouncil，andcausedittopasscanonstotheeffectthatmarriedpriestsshouldnotperformanyclericaloffice;thatthepeopleshouldnotevenbepresentatMasscelebratedbythem;thatallwhohadwives——orconcubines，ashecalledthem——shouldputthemaway;
　　andthatnooneshouldbeordainedwhodidnotpromisetoremainunmarriedduringhiswholelife。