NowtheSpeenhamlandscaledidnotrepresentsomeeasyandluxuriousstandard
  ofliving;itrepresentedtheminimumonwhichitwassupposedthataman
  employedinagriculturecouldsupportlife。Inthirty-fiveyearsthestandard
  haddropped,accordingtoM’Culloch’sstatement,asmuchasathird,and
  thisnotbecauseofwarorfamine,forin1826Englandhadhadelevenyears
  ofpeace,butintheordinarycourseofthelifeofthenation。Issucha
  declineinthestandardofliferecordedanywhereelseinhistory?
  Howdidthelabourersliveatallundertheseconditions?Theirlifewas,
  ofcourse,wretchedandsqualidintheextreme。Cobbettdescribesagroup
  ofwomenlabourerswhomhemetbytheroadsideinHampshireas’suchanassemblage
  ofragsasIneversawbeforeevenamongstthehoppersatFarnham。’Ofthe
  labourersnearCrickladehesaid:’Theirdwellingsarelittlebetterthan
  pig-beds,andtheirlooksindicatethattheirfoodisnotnearlyequalto
  thatofapig。Thesewretchedhovelsarestuckuponlittlebedsofground
  ontheroadsidewherethespacehasbeenwiderthantheroaddemanded。In
  manyplacestheyhavenottworodstoahovel。Itseemsasiftheyhadbeen
  sweptoffthefieldsbyahurricane,andhaddroppedandfoundshelterunder
  thebanksontheroadside。Yesterdaymorningwasasharpfrost,andthis
  hadsetthepoorcreaturestodigginguptheirlittleplotsofpotatoes。
  InmywholelifeIneversawhumanwretchednessequaltothis;no,noteven
  amongstthefreenegroesinAmericawho,onanaverage,donotworkoneday
  outoffour。’35*Thelabourers’cottagesinLeicestershirehefoundwere
  ’hovelsmadeofmudandstraw,bitsofglassorofoldcast-offwindows,
  withoutframesorhingesfrequently,andmerelystuckinthemudwall。Enter
  themandlookatthebitsofchairsorstools,thewretchedboardstacked
  togethertoserveforatable,thefloorofpebblebrokenorofthebare
  ground;lookatthethingcalledabed,andsurveytheragsonthebacks
  oftheinhabitants。’36*ADorsetshireclergyman,awitnessbeforetheCommittee
  onWagesin1824,saidthatthelabourerslivedalmostentirelyonteaand
  potatoes;aBedfordshirelabourersaidthatheandhisfamilylivedmainly
  onbreadandcheeseandwater,andthatsometimesforamonthtogetherhe
  nevertastedmeat;aSuffolkmagistratedescribedhowalaboureroutofwork,
  convictedofstealingwood,beggedtobesentatoncetoaHouseofCorrection,
  wherehehopedtofindfoodandemployment。ifDavieshadwrittenanaccount
  ofthelabouringclassesin1820or1830,thepicturehedrewin1795would
  haveseemedbrightincomparison。Buteventhiskindoflifecouldnotbe
  supportedonsuchprovisionaswasmadebytheparish。How,then,didthe
  labourersmaintainanykindofexistencewhensocietyceasedtopiecetogether
  aminimumlivelihoodoutofratesandwages?
  Fortheanswertothisquestionwemustturntothehistoryofcrimeand
  punishment;totheReportsoftheParliamentaryCommitteesonLabourers’
  WagesontheGameLaws,onEmigration1826and1827,
  onCriminalCommitmentsandConvictionsandSecondaryPunishments1827,
  1828,1831,and1832,andtheevidenceofthosewhowereintouchwiththis
  sideofvillagelife。Fromthesesourceswelearnthat,rateaidnotbeing
  sufficienttobringwagestothemaintenancelevel,poaching,smuggling,
  andultimatelythievingwerecalledintorehabilitatethelabourer’seconomic
  position。37*Hewasdriventothewagesofcrime。Thehistoryoftheagricultural
  labourerinthisgenerationiswritteninthecodeoftheGameLaws,the
  growingbrutalityoftheCriminalLaw,andthepreoccupationoftherich
  withtheefficacyofpunishment。
  WeknowfromFieldingwithwhatsortofjusticethemagistratestreated
  personsaccusedofpoachinginthereignofGeorgeIII’sgrandfather,but
  whenhewrotehisaccountofSquireWestern,andwhenBlackstonewrotethat
  theGameLawshadraisedupalittleNimrodineverymanor,thebloodof
  menandboyshadnotyetbeenspiltforthepleasuresoftherich。itis
  onlyafterFieldingandBlackstonewerebothintheirgravesthatthispage
  ofhistorybecamecrimson,andthatthegentlemenofEnglandtooktoguarding
  theirspecialamusementsbymethodsofwhichaMemberofParliamentdeclared
  thatthenoblesofFrancehadnotventuredontheirlikeinthedaysoftheir
  mostsplendidarrogance。ThelittleNimrodswhomadeandapplied。theircode
  wereasmallandselectclass。Theywerethepersonsqualifiedunderthe
  lawofCharlesIItoshootgame,i。e。,personswhopossessedafreeholdestate
  ofatleast£;100ayear,oraleaseholdestateofatleast£;150
  ayear,orthesonorheir-apparentofanesquireorpersonofhigherdegree。
  ThelegislationthatoccupiessomuchofEnglishhistoryduringaperiod
  ofmiseryandfamineisdevotedtotheprotectionofthemonopolyofthis
  class,comprisinglessthanoneintenthousandofthepeopleofEngland。
  AMemberofParliamentnamedWarburtonsaidintheHouseofCommonsthat
  theonlyparalleltothismonopolywastobefoundinMariner’saccountof
  theTongaIslands,whereratswerepreservedasgame。Anybodymighteatrats
  there,butnobodywasallowedtokillthemexceptpersonsdescendedfrom
  godsorkings。
  Withthegeneralgrowthofupper-classrichesandluxurytherecameover
  shootingachangecorrespondingwiththechangethatturnedhuntinginto
  amagnificentandextravagantspectacle。Thehabitsetinofpreservinggame
  ingreatmasses,oforganisingthebattue,ofmaintainingarmiesofkeepers。
  Inmanypartsofthecountry,pheasantswerenowintroduCedforthefirst
  time。Whereasgamehadhithertokeptsomethingofthewildness,andvagrancy,
  andcarelessfreedomofNature,thewoodswerenowpackedwithtameanddocile
  birds,whosegayfeatherssparkledamongthetrees,beforetheeyesofthe
  half-starvedlabourersbreakingstonesontheroadathalfacrownaweek。
  ThechangeisdescribedbywitnessessuchasSirJamesGrahamandSirThomas
  Baring,magistratesrespectivelyinCumberlandandHampshire,beforethe
  SelectCommitteeonCriminalCommitmentsandConvictionsin1827。England
  was,infact,passingthroughaprocesspreciselyoppositetothatwhich
  hadtakenplaceinFrance:thesportoftherichwasbecomingmoreandmore
  ofanelaboratesystem,andmoreofavestedinterest。Thisdevelopmentwas
  markedbythegrowthofanoffensivecombinationamonggamepreservers;in
  somepartsofthecountrygameassociationswereformed,fortheexpress
  purposeofpayingthecostsofprosecutions,sothatthepoacherhadagainst
  himnotmerelyabenchofgamepreservers,butaringofsquires,asort
  ofHolyAllianceforthepunishmentofsocialrebels,whichdrewitsmeshes
  notroundaparishbutroundacounty。Simultaneously,aswehaveseen,a
  generalchangewascomingoverthecircumstancesandpositionofthepoor。
  Themassofthepeoplewerelosingtheirrightsandindependence;theywere
  beingforcedintoanabsolutedependenceonwages,andwerelivingonthe
  brinkoffamine。Thesetwodevelopmentsmustbekeptinmindinwatching
  thebuildingupofthegamecodeinthelastphaseoftheancientré;gime。
  TheActsforprotectinggamepassedaftertheaccessionofGeorgeIII
  areinacrescendooffierceness。ThefirstimportantActwaspassedin1770。
  UnderthisActanyonewhokilledgameofanykindbetweensunsettingand
  sunrising,orusedanygun,ordog,snare,net,orotherenginefordestroying
  gameatnight,was,onconvictionbyonewitnessbeforeoneJusticeofthe
  Peace,tobepunishedwithimprisonmentfornotlessthanthreemonthsor
  morethansix。Forasubsequentoffencehewastobeimprisonedfornotmore
  thantwelvemonthsorlessthansix,andtobewhippedpubliclybetweenthe
  hoursoftwelveandoneo’clock。Thiswaslightpunishmentcomparedwith
  themeasuresthatweretofollow。Intheyear1800,theyearofMarengo,
  whenallEnglandwasbracedupforitsgreatduelwiththecommonenemyof
  freedomandorder,andthelabourersweretoldeverydaythattheywould
  bethefirsttosufferifNapoleonlandedinEngland,theEnglishParliament
  foundtimetopassanotherActtopunishpoachers,andtoteachjusticeto
  mendherslowpace。BythisActwhentwoormorepersonswerefoundinany
  forest,chase,park,wood,plantation,paddock,field,meadow,orotheropen
  orenclosedground,havinganygun,net,engine,orotherinstrument,with
  theintenttodestroy,take,orkillgame,theyweretobeseizedbykeepers
  orservants,andonconvictionbeforeaJ。P。,theyweretobetreatedas
  roguesandvagabondsundertheActof1744,i。e。,theyweretobepunished
  byimprisonmentwithhardlabour;anincorrigiblerogue,i。e。,asecondoffender,
  wastobeimprisonedfortwoyearswithwhipping。Further,iftheoffender
  wasovertwelveyearsofage,themagistratesmightsentencehimtoserve
  inthearmyornavy。IfanincorrigiblerogueescapedfromtheHouseofCorrection
  hewastobeliabletotransportationforsevenyears。
  TwoconsequencesfollowedfromthisAct。Nowthatpunishmentwasmade
  sosevere,thepoacherhadastrongreasonforviolence:surrendermeant
  serviceinacondemnedregiment,andhethereforetooktherisksofresistance。
  Thesecondconsequencewasthepracticeofpoachinginlargegroups。The
  organisationofpoachinggangswasnotanaturaldevelopmentoftheindustry;
  itwasadoptedinself-defence。38*ThisActledinevitablytothosebattles
  betweengamekeepersandlabourersthatbecamesoconspicuousafeatureof
  Englishlifeatthistime,andin1803LordEllenboroughpassedanActwhich
  providedthatanypersonswhopresentedagunortried,tostaborcut’with
  intenttoobstruct,resist,orpreventthelawfulapprehensionordetainer
  ofthepersonorpersonssostabbingorcutting,orthelawfulapprehension
  ordetainerofanyofhis,her,ortheiraccomplicesforanyoffencesfor
  whichhe,she,ortheymayrespectivelybeliablebylawtobeapprehended,
  imprisoned,ordetained,’shouldsufferdeathasafelon。In1816,whenpeace
  andthefallofpriceswerebringingnewproblemsintheirtrain,therewent
  throughParliament,withoutasyllableofdebate,aBillofwhichRomilly
  saidthatnoparalleltoitcouldbefoundinthelawsofanycountryin
  theworld。BythatActapersonwhowasfoundatnightunarmed,butwith
  anetforpoaching,inanyforest,chase,orparkwastobepunishedbytransportation
  forsevenyears。ThisActRomillyinducedParliamenttorepealinthefollowing
  year,buttheActthattookitsplaceonlysoftenedthelawtotheextent
  ofwithdrawingthispunishmentfrompersonsfoundwithnets,butwithout
  gunsorbludgeons:itenactedthatanypersonsofound,armedwithgun,crossbow,
  firearms,bludgeon,oranyotheroffensiveweapon,wastobetriedatQuarter
  Sessions,andifconvicted,tobesentencedtotransportationforsevenyears:
  ifsuchoffenderweretoreturntoGreatBritainbeforehistimewasover,
  hewastobetransportedfortherestofhislife。39*
  ThissavageAct,thoughbynomeansadeadletter,asParliamentaryReturns
  show,seemstohavedefeateditsownend,forin1828itwasrepealed,because,
  asLordWharncliffetoldtheHouseofLords,therewasacertainreluctance
  onthepartofjuriestoconvictaprisoner,whentheyknewthatconviction
  wouldbefollowedbytransportation。ThenewActof1828,whichalloweda
  persontobeconvictedbeforetwomagistrates,reservedtransportationfor
  thethirdoffence,punishingthefirstoffencebythreemonths’,andthe
  secondbysixmonths’imprisonment。Buttheconvictedpersonhadtofind
  suretiesafterhisrelease,orelsegobacktohardlabourforanothersix
  monthsifitwasafirstoffence,oranothertwelvemonthsifitwashis
  second。Further,ifthreemenwerefoundinawoodandoneofthemcarried
  agunorbludgeon,allthreewereliabletobetransportedforfourteenyears。40*
  Althorp’sBillof1831whichabolishedthequalificationsoftheActofCharles
  II,gavetherighttoshoottoeverylandownerwhotookoutacertificate,
  andmadethesaleofgamelegal,proposedinitsoriginalformtoalterthese
  punishments,makingthatforthefirstandsecondoffencesrathermoresevere
  fourandeightmonths,andthatforthethird,twoyears’imprisonment。
  InCommitteeintheHouseofCommonsthetwoyearswerereducedtooneyear
  ontheproposalofOratorHunt。TheHouseofLords,however,restoredthe
  punishmentsoftheActof1828。