NowtheSpeenhamlandscaledidnotrepresentsomeeasyandluxuriousstandard
ofliving;itrepresentedtheminimumonwhichitwassupposedthataman
employedinagriculturecouldsupportlife。Inthirty-fiveyearsthestandard
haddropped,accordingtoM’Culloch’sstatement,asmuchasathird,and
thisnotbecauseofwarorfamine,forin1826Englandhadhadelevenyears
ofpeace,butintheordinarycourseofthelifeofthenation。Issucha
declineinthestandardofliferecordedanywhereelseinhistory?
Howdidthelabourersliveatallundertheseconditions?Theirlifewas,
ofcourse,wretchedandsqualidintheextreme。Cobbettdescribesagroup
ofwomenlabourerswhomhemetbytheroadsideinHampshireas’suchanassemblage
ofragsasIneversawbeforeevenamongstthehoppersatFarnham。’Ofthe
labourersnearCrickladehesaid:’Theirdwellingsarelittlebetterthan
pig-beds,andtheirlooksindicatethattheirfoodisnotnearlyequalto
thatofapig。Thesewretchedhovelsarestuckuponlittlebedsofground
ontheroadsidewherethespacehasbeenwiderthantheroaddemanded。In
manyplacestheyhavenottworodstoahovel。Itseemsasiftheyhadbeen
sweptoffthefieldsbyahurricane,andhaddroppedandfoundshelterunder
thebanksontheroadside。Yesterdaymorningwasasharpfrost,andthis
hadsetthepoorcreaturestodigginguptheirlittleplotsofpotatoes。
InmywholelifeIneversawhumanwretchednessequaltothis;no,noteven
amongstthefreenegroesinAmericawho,onanaverage,donotworkoneday
outoffour。’35*Thelabourers’cottagesinLeicestershirehefoundwere
’hovelsmadeofmudandstraw,bitsofglassorofoldcast-offwindows,
withoutframesorhingesfrequently,andmerelystuckinthemudwall。Enter
themandlookatthebitsofchairsorstools,thewretchedboardstacked
togethertoserveforatable,thefloorofpebblebrokenorofthebare
ground;lookatthethingcalledabed,andsurveytheragsonthebacks
oftheinhabitants。’36*ADorsetshireclergyman,awitnessbeforetheCommittee
onWagesin1824,saidthatthelabourerslivedalmostentirelyonteaand
potatoes;aBedfordshirelabourersaidthatheandhisfamilylivedmainly
onbreadandcheeseandwater,andthatsometimesforamonthtogetherhe
nevertastedmeat;aSuffolkmagistratedescribedhowalaboureroutofwork,
convictedofstealingwood,beggedtobesentatoncetoaHouseofCorrection,
wherehehopedtofindfoodandemployment。ifDavieshadwrittenanaccount
ofthelabouringclassesin1820or1830,thepicturehedrewin1795would
haveseemedbrightincomparison。Buteventhiskindoflifecouldnotbe
supportedonsuchprovisionaswasmadebytheparish。How,then,didthe
labourersmaintainanykindofexistencewhensocietyceasedtopiecetogether
aminimumlivelihoodoutofratesandwages?
Fortheanswertothisquestionwemustturntothehistoryofcrimeand
punishment;totheReportsoftheParliamentaryCommitteesonLabourers’
WagesontheGameLaws,onEmigration1826and1827,
onCriminalCommitmentsandConvictionsandSecondaryPunishments1827,
1828,1831,and1832,andtheevidenceofthosewhowereintouchwiththis
sideofvillagelife。Fromthesesourceswelearnthat,rateaidnotbeing
sufficienttobringwagestothemaintenancelevel,poaching,smuggling,
andultimatelythievingwerecalledintorehabilitatethelabourer’seconomic
position。37*Hewasdriventothewagesofcrime。Thehistoryoftheagricultural
labourerinthisgenerationiswritteninthecodeoftheGameLaws,the
growingbrutalityoftheCriminalLaw,andthepreoccupationoftherich
withtheefficacyofpunishment。
WeknowfromFieldingwithwhatsortofjusticethemagistratestreated
personsaccusedofpoachinginthereignofGeorgeIII’sgrandfather,but
whenhewrotehisaccountofSquireWestern,andwhenBlackstonewrotethat
theGameLawshadraisedupalittleNimrodineverymanor,thebloodof
menandboyshadnotyetbeenspiltforthepleasuresoftherich。itis
onlyafterFieldingandBlackstonewerebothintheirgravesthatthispage
ofhistorybecamecrimson,andthatthegentlemenofEnglandtooktoguarding
theirspecialamusementsbymethodsofwhichaMemberofParliamentdeclared
thatthenoblesofFrancehadnotventuredontheirlikeinthedaysoftheir
mostsplendidarrogance。ThelittleNimrodswhomadeandapplied。theircode
wereasmallandselectclass。Theywerethepersonsqualifiedunderthe
lawofCharlesIItoshootgame,i。e。,personswhopossessedafreeholdestate
ofatleast£;100ayear,oraleaseholdestateofatleast£;150
ayear,orthesonorheir-apparentofanesquireorpersonofhigherdegree。
ThelegislationthatoccupiessomuchofEnglishhistoryduringaperiod
ofmiseryandfamineisdevotedtotheprotectionofthemonopolyofthis
class,comprisinglessthanoneintenthousandofthepeopleofEngland。
AMemberofParliamentnamedWarburtonsaidintheHouseofCommonsthat
theonlyparalleltothismonopolywastobefoundinMariner’saccountof
theTongaIslands,whereratswerepreservedasgame。Anybodymighteatrats
there,butnobodywasallowedtokillthemexceptpersonsdescendedfrom
godsorkings。
Withthegeneralgrowthofupper-classrichesandluxurytherecameover
shootingachangecorrespondingwiththechangethatturnedhuntinginto
amagnificentandextravagantspectacle。Thehabitsetinofpreservinggame
ingreatmasses,oforganisingthebattue,ofmaintainingarmiesofkeepers。
Inmanypartsofthecountry,pheasantswerenowintroduCedforthefirst
time。Whereasgamehadhithertokeptsomethingofthewildness,andvagrancy,
andcarelessfreedomofNature,thewoodswerenowpackedwithtameanddocile
birds,whosegayfeatherssparkledamongthetrees,beforetheeyesofthe
half-starvedlabourersbreakingstonesontheroadathalfacrownaweek。
ThechangeisdescribedbywitnessessuchasSirJamesGrahamandSirThomas
Baring,magistratesrespectivelyinCumberlandandHampshire,beforethe
SelectCommitteeonCriminalCommitmentsandConvictionsin1827。England
was,infact,passingthroughaprocesspreciselyoppositetothatwhich
hadtakenplaceinFrance:thesportoftherichwasbecomingmoreandmore
ofanelaboratesystem,andmoreofavestedinterest。Thisdevelopmentwas
markedbythegrowthofanoffensivecombinationamonggamepreservers;in
somepartsofthecountrygameassociationswereformed,fortheexpress
purposeofpayingthecostsofprosecutions,sothatthepoacherhadagainst
himnotmerelyabenchofgamepreservers,butaringofsquires,asort
ofHolyAllianceforthepunishmentofsocialrebels,whichdrewitsmeshes
notroundaparishbutroundacounty。Simultaneously,aswehaveseen,a
generalchangewascomingoverthecircumstancesandpositionofthepoor。
Themassofthepeoplewerelosingtheirrightsandindependence;theywere
beingforcedintoanabsolutedependenceonwages,andwerelivingonthe
brinkoffamine。Thesetwodevelopmentsmustbekeptinmindinwatching
thebuildingupofthegamecodeinthelastphaseoftheancientré;gime。
TheActsforprotectinggamepassedaftertheaccessionofGeorgeIII
areinacrescendooffierceness。ThefirstimportantActwaspassedin1770。
UnderthisActanyonewhokilledgameofanykindbetweensunsettingand
sunrising,orusedanygun,ordog,snare,net,orotherenginefordestroying
gameatnight,was,onconvictionbyonewitnessbeforeoneJusticeofthe
Peace,tobepunishedwithimprisonmentfornotlessthanthreemonthsor
morethansix。Forasubsequentoffencehewastobeimprisonedfornotmore
thantwelvemonthsorlessthansix,andtobewhippedpubliclybetweenthe
hoursoftwelveandoneo’clock。Thiswaslightpunishmentcomparedwith
themeasuresthatweretofollow。Intheyear1800,theyearofMarengo,
whenallEnglandwasbracedupforitsgreatduelwiththecommonenemyof
freedomandorder,andthelabourersweretoldeverydaythattheywould
bethefirsttosufferifNapoleonlandedinEngland,theEnglishParliament
foundtimetopassanotherActtopunishpoachers,andtoteachjusticeto
mendherslowpace。BythisActwhentwoormorepersonswerefoundinany
forest,chase,park,wood,plantation,paddock,field,meadow,orotheropen
orenclosedground,havinganygun,net,engine,orotherinstrument,with
theintenttodestroy,take,orkillgame,theyweretobeseizedbykeepers
orservants,andonconvictionbeforeaJ。P。,theyweretobetreatedas
roguesandvagabondsundertheActof1744,i。e。,theyweretobepunished
byimprisonmentwithhardlabour;anincorrigiblerogue,i。e。,asecondoffender,
wastobeimprisonedfortwoyearswithwhipping。Further,iftheoffender
wasovertwelveyearsofage,themagistratesmightsentencehimtoserve
inthearmyornavy。IfanincorrigiblerogueescapedfromtheHouseofCorrection
hewastobeliabletotransportationforsevenyears。
TwoconsequencesfollowedfromthisAct。Nowthatpunishmentwasmade
sosevere,thepoacherhadastrongreasonforviolence:surrendermeant
serviceinacondemnedregiment,andhethereforetooktherisksofresistance。
Thesecondconsequencewasthepracticeofpoachinginlargegroups。The
organisationofpoachinggangswasnotanaturaldevelopmentoftheindustry;
itwasadoptedinself-defence。38*ThisActledinevitablytothosebattles
betweengamekeepersandlabourersthatbecamesoconspicuousafeatureof
Englishlifeatthistime,andin1803LordEllenboroughpassedanActwhich
providedthatanypersonswhopresentedagunortried,tostaborcut’with
intenttoobstruct,resist,orpreventthelawfulapprehensionordetainer
ofthepersonorpersonssostabbingorcutting,orthelawfulapprehension
ordetainerofanyofhis,her,ortheiraccomplicesforanyoffencesfor
whichhe,she,ortheymayrespectivelybeliablebylawtobeapprehended,
imprisoned,ordetained,’shouldsufferdeathasafelon。In1816,whenpeace
andthefallofpriceswerebringingnewproblemsintheirtrain,therewent
throughParliament,withoutasyllableofdebate,aBillofwhichRomilly
saidthatnoparalleltoitcouldbefoundinthelawsofanycountryin
theworld。BythatActapersonwhowasfoundatnightunarmed,butwith
anetforpoaching,inanyforest,chase,orparkwastobepunishedbytransportation
forsevenyears。ThisActRomillyinducedParliamenttorepealinthefollowing
year,buttheActthattookitsplaceonlysoftenedthelawtotheextent
ofwithdrawingthispunishmentfrompersonsfoundwithnets,butwithout
gunsorbludgeons:itenactedthatanypersonsofound,armedwithgun,crossbow,
firearms,bludgeon,oranyotheroffensiveweapon,wastobetriedatQuarter
Sessions,andifconvicted,tobesentencedtotransportationforsevenyears:
ifsuchoffenderweretoreturntoGreatBritainbeforehistimewasover,
hewastobetransportedfortherestofhislife。39*
ThissavageAct,thoughbynomeansadeadletter,asParliamentaryReturns
show,seemstohavedefeateditsownend,forin1828itwasrepealed,because,
asLordWharncliffetoldtheHouseofLords,therewasacertainreluctance
onthepartofjuriestoconvictaprisoner,whentheyknewthatconviction
wouldbefollowedbytransportation。ThenewActof1828,whichalloweda
persontobeconvictedbeforetwomagistrates,reservedtransportationfor
thethirdoffence,punishingthefirstoffencebythreemonths’,andthe
secondbysixmonths’imprisonment。Buttheconvictedpersonhadtofind
suretiesafterhisrelease,orelsegobacktohardlabourforanothersix
monthsifitwasafirstoffence,oranothertwelvemonthsifitwashis
second。Further,ifthreemenwerefoundinawoodandoneofthemcarried
agunorbludgeon,allthreewereliabletobetransportedforfourteenyears。40*
Althorp’sBillof1831whichabolishedthequalificationsoftheActofCharles
II,gavetherighttoshoottoeverylandownerwhotookoutacertificate,
andmadethesaleofgamelegal,proposedinitsoriginalformtoalterthese
punishments,makingthatforthefirstandsecondoffencesrathermoresevere
fourandeightmonths,andthatforthethird,twoyears’imprisonment。
InCommitteeintheHouseofCommonsthetwoyearswerereducedtooneyear
ontheproposalofOratorHunt。TheHouseofLords,however,restoredthe
punishmentsoftheActof1828。