Genesis，pp。300and306；alsoSchrader；forSt。Basil，seeHexaemeronandHomiliesvii-ix；butforthesteadfastnessofBasil’sviewinregardtotheimmutabilityofspecies，seeaCatholicwriteronevolutionandFaithintheDublinReviewforJuly，1871，p。13；forcitationsofSt。AugustineonGenesis，seetheDeGenesicontraManichoeos，lib。ii，cap。14，inMigne，xxxiv，188，——lib。v，cap。5andcap。23，——andlibvii，capI；forthecitationsfromhisworkontheTrinity，seehisDeTrinitate，lib。iii，cap。8and9，inMigne，xlii，877，878；forthegeneralsubjectveryfullyandadequatelypresented，seeOsborn，FromtheGreekstoDarwin，NewYork，1894，chaps。iiandiii。
　　Thisideaofadevelopmentbysecondarycausesapartfromtheoriginalcreationwashelpedinitsgrowthbyatheologicalexigency。Moreandmore，astheorganicworldwasobserved，thevastmultitudeofpettyanimals，wingedcreatures，and“creepingthings“wasfelttobeastrainuponthesacrednarrative。MoreandmoreitbecamedifficulttoreconcilethedignityoftheAlmightywithhisworkinbringingeachofthesecreaturesbeforeAdamtobenamed；ortoreconcilethehumanlimitationsofAdamwithhisworkinnaming“everylivingcreature“；ortoreconcilethedimensionsofNoah’sarkwiththespacerequiredforpreservingallofthem，andthefoodofallsortsnecessaryfortheirsustenance，whethertheywereadmittedbytwos，asstatedinonescripturalaccount，orbysevens，asstatedintheother。
　　Theinadequatesizeofthearkgaveespecialtrouble。Origenhaddealtwithitbysuggestingthatthecubitwassixtimesgreaterthanhadbeensupposed。BedeexplainedNoah’sabilitytocompletesolargeavesselbysupposingthatheworkeduponitduringahundredyears；and，astotheprovisionoffoodtakenintoit，hedeclaredthattherewasnoneedofasupplyformorethanoneday，sinceGodcouldthrowtheanimalsintoadeepsleeporotherwisemiraculouslymakeoneday’ssupplysufficient；healsolessenedthestrainonfaithstillmorebydiminishingthenumberofanimalstakenintotheark——supportinghisviewuponAugustine’stheoryofthelaterdevelopmentofinsectsoutofcarrion。
　　DoubtlessthistheologicalnecessitywasamongthemainreasonswhichledSt。IsidoreofSeville，intheseventhcentury，toincorporatethistheory，supportedbySt。BasilandSt。
　　Augustine，intohisgreatencyclopedicworkwhichgavematerialsforthoughtonGodandNaturetosomanygenerations。Hefamiliarizedthetheologicalworldstillfurtherwiththedoctrineofsecondarycreation，givingsuchexamplesofitasthat“beesaregeneratedfromdecomposedveal，beetlesfromhorseflesh，grasshoppersfrommules，scorpionsfromcrabs。”and，inordertogivestillstrongerforcetotheideaofsuchtransformations，hedwellsonthebiblicalaccountofNebuchadnezzar，whichappearstohavetakenstrongholduponmedievalthoughtinscience，andhedeclaresthatotherhumanbeingshadbeenchangedintoanimals，especiallyintoswine，wolves，andowls。
　　Thisdoctrineofafter-creationswentongatheringstrengthuntil，inthetwelfthcentury，PeterLombard，inhistheologicalsummary，TheSentences，sopowerfulinmouldingthethoughtoftheChurch，emphasizedthedistinctionbetweenanimalswhichspringfromcarrionandthosewhicharecreatedfromearthandwater；theformerheholdstohavebeencreated“potentially“
　　thelatter“actually。”
　　Inthecenturyfollowing，thisideawastakenupbySt。ThomasAquinasandvirtuallyreceivedfromhimitsfinalform。IntheSumma，whichremainsthegreatestworkofmedievalthought，heacceptstheideathatcertainanimalsspringfromthedecayingbodiesofplantsandanimals，anddeclaresthattheyareproducedbythecreativewordofGodeitheractuallyorvirtually。Hedevelopsthisviewbysaying，“NothingwasmadebyGod，afterthesixdaysofcreation，absolutelynew，butitwasinsomesenseincludedintheworkofthesixdays“；andthat“evennewspecies，ifanyappear，haveexistedbeforeincertainnativeproperties，justasanimalsareproducedfromputrefaction。”
　　Thedistinctionthusdevelopedbetweencreation“causally“or“potentially。”and“materially“or“formally。”wasmademuchofbycommentatorsafterward。CorneliusaLapidespreaditbysayingthatcertainanimalswerecreatednot“absolutely。”butonly“derivatively。”andthisthoughtwasstillfurtherdevelopedthreecenturieslaterbyAugustinusEugubinus，whotellsusthat，afterthefirstcreativeenergyhadcalledforthlandandwater，lightwasmadebytheAlmighty，theinstrumentofallfuturecreation，andthatthelightcalledeverythingintoexistence。
　　Allthis“sciencefalselysocalled。”sosedulouslydevelopedbythemastermindsoftheChurch，andyetsofutilethatwemightalmostsupposethatthegreatapostle，inaglowofpropheticvision，hadforeseenitinhisfamouscondemnation，seemsatthisdistanceveryharmlessindeed；yet，tomanyguardiansofthe“sacreddepositofdoctrine“intheChurch，evensoslightadeparturefromthemaincurrentofthoughtseemeddangerous。Itappearedtothemlikepressingthedoctrineofsecondarycausestoaperilousextent；andaboutthebeginningoftheseventeenthcenturywehavetheeminentSpanishJesuitandtheologianSuarezdenouncingit，anddeclaringSt。Augustineahereticforhisshareinit。
　　Buttherewaslittledangertotheolderideajustthen；themaintheologicaltendencywassostrongthattheworldkeptonasofold。Biblicaltheologycontinuedtospinitsownwebsoutofitsownbowels，andallthelessertheologicalfliescontinuedtobeentangledinthem；yethereandtherestrongerthinkersbrokeloosefromthisentanglementandhelpedsomewhattodisentangleothers。[20]
　　[20]ForBede’sviewofthearkandtheoriginofinsects，seehisHexaemeron，iandii；forIsidore，seetheEtymologiae，xi，4，andxiii，22；forPeterLombard，seeSent。，lib。ii，dist。xv，4inMigne，cxcii，682；forSt。ThomasAquinasastothelawsofNature，seeSummaeTheologica，i，Quaest。lxvii，art。iv；forhisdiscussiononAvicenna’stheoryoftheoriginofanimals，seeibid。，iQuaest。lxxi，vol。i，pp。1184and1185，ofMigne’sedit。；forhisideaastothewordofGodbeingtheactiveproducingprinciple，seeibid。，i，Quaest。lxxi，art。i；forhisremarksonspecies，seeibid，i，Quaest。lxxii，art。i；forhisideasonthenecessityoftheprocreationofman，seeibid，i，Quaest。lxxii，art。i；fortheoriginofanimalsfromputrefaction，seeibid，i，Quaest。lxxix，art。i，3；forCorneliusaLapideonthederivativecreationofanimals，seehisInGenesimComment。，cap。i，citedbyMivart，GenesisofSpecies，p。282；forareferencetoSuarez’sdenunciationoftheviewofSt。Augustine，seeHuxley’sEssays。
　　AtthecloseoftheMiddleAges，inspiteofthedevotionoftheReformedChurchtotheletterofScripture，therevivaloflearningandthegreatvoyagesgaveanatmosphereinwhichbetterthinkingontheproblemsofNaturebegantogainstrength。Onallsides，ineveryfield，menweremakingdiscoverieswhichcausedthegeneraltheologicalviewtoappearmoreandmoreinadequate。
　　FirstofthosewhoshouldbementionedwithreverenceasbeginningtodevelopagainthatcurrentofGreekthoughtwhichthesystemdrawnfromoursacredbooksbythefathersanddoctorsoftheChurchhadinterruptedformorethanathousandyears，wasGiordanoBruno。Hisutteranceswereindeedvagueandenigmatical，butthisfaultmaywellbeforgivenhim，forhesawbuttooclearlywhatmustbehisrewardforanymoreopenstatements。Hisrewardindeedcame——evenforhisfaultyutterances——when，towardtheendofthenineteenthcentury，thoughtfulmenfromallpartsoftheworldunitedinerectinghisstatueonthespotwherehehadbeenburnedbytheRomanInquisitionnearlythreehundredyearsbefore。
　　AfterBruno’sdeath，duringthefirsthalfoftheseventeenthcentury，Descartesseemedabouttotaketheleadershipofhumanthought：histheories，howeversupersedednow，gaveagreatimpulsetoinvestigationthen。Hisgeniusinpromotinganevolutiondoctrineasregardsthemechanicalformationofthesolarsystemwasgreat，andhismodeofthoughtstrengthenedthecurrentofevolutionarydoctrinegenerally；buthisconstantdreadofpersecution，bothfromCatholicsandProtestants，ledhimsteadilytoveilhisthoughtsandeventosuppressthem。TheexecutionofBrunohadoccurredinhischildhood，andinthemidstofhiscareerhehadwatchedtheGalileostruggleinallitsstages。Hehadseenhisownworkscondemnedbyuniversityafteruniversityunderthedirectionoftheologians，andplacedupontheRomanIndex。AlthoughhegavenewandstrikingargumentstoprovetheexistenceofGod，andhumbledhimselfbeforetheJesuits，hewascondemnedbyCatholicsandProtestantsalike。SinceRogerBacon，perhaps，nogreatthinkerhadbeensocompletelyabasedandthwartedbytheologicaloppression。
　　Nearthecloseofthesamecenturyanothergreatthinker，Leibnitz，thoughnotpropoundinganyfulldoctrineonevolution，gaveitanimpulsebysuggestingaviewcontrarytothesacrosanctbeliefintheimmutabilityofspecies——thatis，tothepiousdoctrinethateveryspeciesintheanimalkingdomnowexistsasitleftthehandsoftheCreator，thenamingprocessbyAdam，andthedoorofNoah’sark。
　　HispunishmentatthehandsoftheChurchcameafewyearslater，when，in1712，theJesuitsdefeatedhisattempttofoundanAcademyofScienceatVienna。Theimperialauthoritiescoveredhimwithhonours，butthepriests——rulingintheconfessionalsandpulpits——wouldnotallowhimtheprivilegeofaidinghisfellow-mentoascertainGod’struthsrevealedinNature。
　　Spinoza，Hume，andKantmayalsobementionedasamongthosewhosethinking，evenwhenmistaken，mighthavedonemuchtoaidinthedevelopmentofatruertheoryhadnotthetheologicatmosphereoftheirtimesbeensounpropitious；butafewyearsafterLeibnitz’sdeathcameinFranceathinkerinnaturalscienceofmuchlessinfluencethananyofthese，whomadeadecidedstepforward。
　　EarlyintheeighteenthcenturyBenoistdeMaillet，amanoftheworld，butawideobserverandclosethinkeruponNature，beganmeditatingespeciallyupontheoriginofanimalforms，andwasledintotheideaofthetransformationofspeciesandsointoatheoryofevolution，whichinsomeimportantrespectsanticipatedmodernideas。Hedefinitely，thoughattimesabsurdly，conceivedtheproductionofexistingspeciesbythemodificationoftheirpredecessors，andheplainlyacceptedoneofthefundamentalmaximsofmoderngeology——thatthestructureoftheglobemustbestudiedinthelightofthepresentcourseofNature。
　　Buthefellbetweentworanksofadversaries。Ononeside，theChurchauthoritiesdenouncedhimasafreethinker；ontheother，Voltaireridiculedhimasadevotee。Feelingthathisgreatestdangerwasfromtheorthodoxtheologians，DeMailletendeavouredtoprotecthimselfbydisguisinghisnameinthetitleofhisbook，andbysowordingitsprefaceanddedicationthat，ifpersecuted，hecoulddeclareitameresportoffancy；hethereforeannounceditasthereverieofaHindusageimpartedtoaChristianmissionary。Butthisstrategyavailednothing：hehadallowedhisHindusagetosuggestthatthedaysofcreationnamedinGenesismightbelongperiodsoftime；andthis，withotherideasofequallyfearfulimport，wasfatal。Thoughthebookwasintypein1735，itwasnotpublishedtill1748——threeyearsafterhisdeath。
　　Ontheotherhand，theheterodoxtheologyofVoltairewasalsoaroused；and，asDeMaillethadseeninthepresenceoffossilsonhighmountainsaproofthatthesemountainswereoncebelowthesea，Voltaire，recognisinginthisanargumentforthedelugeofNoah，ridiculedthenewthinkerwithoutmercy。Unfortunately，someofDeMaillet’svagarieslentthemselvesadmirablytoVoltaire’ssarcasm；bettermaterialforitcouldhardlybeconceivedthanthetheory，seriouslyproposed，thatthefirsthumanbeingwasbornofamermaid。
　　Henceitwasthat，betweenthesetwoextremesoftheology，DeMailletreceivednorecognitionuntil，veryrecently，thegreatestmenofscienceinEnglandandFrancehaveunitedingivinghimhisdue。Buthisworkwasnotlost，eveninhisownday；RobinetandBonnetpushedforwardvictoriouslyonhelpfullines。
　　Inthesecondhalfoftheeighteenthcenturyagreatbarrierwasthrownacrossthiscurrent——theauthorityofLinnaeus。Hewasthemosteminentnaturalistofhistime，awideobserver，aclosethinker；buttheatmosphereinwhichhelivedandmovedandhadhisbeingwassaturatedwithbiblicaltheology，andthispermeatedallhisthinking。
　　HewhovisitsthetombofLinnaeusto-day，enteringthebeautifulcathedralofUpsalabyitssouthernporch，seesaboveit，wroughtinstone，theHebrewlegendofcreation。Inaseriesofmedallions，theAlmighty——inhumanform——accomplishestheworkofeachcreativeday。Indueorderheputsinplacethesolidfirmamentwiththewatersaboveit，thesun，moon，andstarswithinit，thebeasts，birds，andplantsbelowit，andfinisheshistaskbytakingmanoutofalittlehillockof“theearthbeneath。”andwomanoutofman’sside。DoubtlessLinnaeus，ashewenttohisdevotions，oftensmiledatthischildlikeportrayal。
　　Yethewasneverabletobreakawayfromtheideaitembodied。
　　Attimes，infaceofthedifficultieswhichbesettheorthodoxtheory，heventuredtofavoursomeslightconcessions。Towardtheendofhislifehetimidlyadvancedthehypothesisthatallthespeciesofonegenusconstitutedatthecreationonespecies；