PopeUrbanIIIreiteratedthedeclarationthatthepassageinSt。
Lukeforbadethetakingofanyinterestwhatever。PopeAlexanderIIIdeclaredthattheprohibitioninthismattercouldneverbesuspendedbydispensation。
InthethirteenthcenturyPopeGregoryIXdealtanespeciallysevereblowatcommercebyhisdeclarationthateventoadvanceoninterestthemoneynecessaryinmaritimetradewasdamnableusury；andthiswasfitlyfollowedbyGregoryX，whoforbadeChristianburialtothoseguiltyofthispractice；theCouncilofLyonsmetedoutthesamepenalty。Thisideawasstillmorefirmlyfastenedupontheworldbythetwogreatestthinkersofthetime：first，bySt。ThomasAquinas，whoknititintothemindoftheChurchbytheuseoftheScripturesandofAristotle；andnextbyDante，whopicturedmoney-lendersinoneoftheworstregionsofhell。
Aboutthebeginningofthefourteenthcenturythe“SubtileDoctor“oftheMiddleAges，DunsScotus，gavetotheworldanexquisitepieceofreasoninginevasionoftheaccepteddoctrine；
butalltonopurpose：theCouncilofVienne，presidedoverbyPopeClementV，declaredthatifanyone“shallpertinaciouslypresumetoaffirmthatthetakingofinterestformoneyisnotasin，wedecreehimtobeaheretic，fitforpunishment。”ThisinfallibleutteranceboundthedogmawithadditionalforceontheconscienceoftheuniversalChurch。
Norwasthisadoctrineenforcedbyrulersonly；thepeoplewerenolessstrenuous。In1390thecityauthoritiesofLondonenactedthat，“ifanypersonshalllendorputintothehandsofanypersongoldorsilvertoreceivegainthereby，suchpersonshallhavethepunishmentforusurers。”AndinthesameyeartheCommonsprayedthekingthatthelawsofLondonagainstusurymighthavetheforceofstatutesthroughouttherealm。
InthefifteenthcenturytheCounciloftheChurchatSalzburgexcludedfromcommunionandburialanywhotookinterestformoney，andthiswasaverygeneralrulethroughoutGermany。
Anexceptionwas，indeed，sometimesmade：somecanonistsheldthatJewsmightbeallowedtotakeinterest，sincetheyweretobedamnedinanycase，andtheirmonopolyofmoney-lendingmightpreventChristiansfromlosingtheirsoulsbygoingintothebusiness。YeteventheJewswerefromtimetotimepunishedforthecrimeofusury；and，asregardsChristians，punishmentwasbestowedonthedeadaswellastheliving——thebodiesofdeadmoney-lendersbeinghereandtheredugupandcastoutofconsecratedground。
Thepopularpreachersconstantlydeclaimedagainstallwhotookinterest。Themedievalanecdotebooksforpulpituseareespeciallyfullonthispoint。JacquesdeVitrytellsusthatdemonsononeoccasionfilledadeadmoney-lender’smouthwithred-hotcoins；CesariusofHeisterbachdeclaredthatatoadwasfoundthrustingapieceofmoneyintoadeadusurer’sheart；inanothercase，adevilwasseenpouringmoltengolddownadeadmoney-lender’sthroat。[450]
[450]Foranenumerationofcouncilscondemningthetakingofinterestformoney，seeLiegeois，Essaisurl’HistoireetlaLegislationdel’Usure，Paris，1865，p。78；alsotheCatholicDictionaryasabove。Forcuriousadditionaldetailsandsourcesregardingmediaevalhorrorofusurers，seeDucange，Glossarium，etc。，articleCaorcini。Thedate306，fortheCouncilofElviraisthatassignedbyHefele。ForthedecreeofAlexanderIII，seecitationfromtheLatintextinLecky。Foralongcatalogueofecclesiasticalandcivildecreesagainsttakingofinterest，seePetit，Traitedel’Usure，Paris，1840。Forthereasoningatthebottomofthis，seeCunningham，ChristianOpiniononUsury，London，1884。FortheSalzburgdecrees，seeZillner，SalzburguscheCulturgeschichte，p。232；andforGermanygenerally，seeNeumann，GeschichtedesWuchersinDeutschland，Halle，1865，especiallypp。22etseq；alsoRoscher，National-
Oeconomis。ForeffectofmistranslationofthepassageofLukeintheVulgate，seeDollinger，p。170，andespeciallypp。224，225
ForthecapitulariesofCharlemagneagainstusury，seeLiegeois，p。77。ForGregoryXandtheCouncilofLyons，seeSextusDecretaliumliber，pp。669et。seq。ForPeterLombard，seehisLib。Sententiarum，III，dist。xxxvii，3。ForSt。ThomasAquinas，seehisworks，Migne，vol。iii，Paris1889，quaestio78，pp。587
etseq。，citingtheScripturesandAristotle，andespeciallydevelopingAristotle’smetaphysicalidearegardingthe“barrenness“ofmoney。ForaverygoodsummaryofSt。Thomas’sideas，seePearson。pp。30etseq。ForDante，seeincantoxioftheInfernoarevelationoftheamazingdepthofthehostilitytothetakingofinterest。FortheLondonlawof1390andthepetitiontotheking，seeCunningham，GrowthofEnglishIndustryandCommerce，pp。210，326；alsotheAbridgmentoftheRecordsintheTowerofLondon，p。339。ForthetheorythatJews，beingdamnedalready，mightbeallowedtopracticeusury，seeLiegeois，Histoiredel’Usure，p。82。ForSt。Bernard’sview，seeEpist。
CCCLXIII，inMigne，vol。clxxxii，p。567。Forideasandanecdotesforpreachers’use，seeJoannesaSanGeminiano，SummadeExemplis，Antwerp，1629，fol。493，a；alsotheeditionofVenice，1584，ff。132，159；butespecially，formultitudesofexamples，seetheExemplaofJacquesdeVitry，editedbyProf。T。
F。Crane，ofCornellUniversity，London，1890，pp。203etseq。
Forthecanonlawinregardtointerest，seealonglineofauthoritiescitedinDieWucherfrage，St。Louis，1869，pp。92etseq。，andespeciallyDecret。Gregor。，lib。v，lit。19，cap。iii，andClementin。，lib。v，lit。5，sec。2；seealsotheCorpusJurisCanonici，Paris，1618，pp。227，228。ForthepositionoftheEnglishChurch，seeGibson’sCorpusJurisEcclesiasticiAnglicani，pp。1070，1071，1106。
Thistheologicalhostilitytothetakingofinterestwasimbeddedfirmlyinthecanonlaw。Againandagainitdefinedusurytobethetakingofanythingofvaluebeyondtheexactoriginalamountofaloan；andundersanctionoftheuniversalChurchitdenouncedthisasacrimeanddeclaredallpersonsdefendingittobeguiltyofheresy。Whatthismeanttheworldknowsbuttoowell。
ThewholeevolutionofEuropeancivilizationwasgreatlyhinderedbythisconscientiouspolicy。Moneycouldonlybeloanedinmostcountriesattheriskofincurringodiuminthisworldanddamnationinthenext；hencetherewasbutlittlecapitalandfewlenders。Theratesofinterestbecameattimesenormous；ashighasfortypercentinEngland，andtenpercentamonthinItalyandSpain。Commerce，manufactures，andgeneralenterpriseweredwarfed，whilepauperismflourished。
Yetworsethanthesewerethemoralresults。Doingwhatoneholdstobeevilisonlysecondinbadconsequencestodoingwhatisreallyevil；hence，alllendingandborrowing，evenforthemostlegitimatepurposesandatthemostreasonablerates，tendedtodebasebothborrowerandlender。TheprohibitionoflendingatinterestincontinentalEuropepromotedluxuryanddiscouragedeconomy；therich，whowerenotengagedinbusiness，findingnoeasywayofemployingtheirincomesproductively，spentthemlargelyinostentationandriotousliving。Oneevileffectisfeltinallpartsoftheworldtothishour。TheJews，soacuteinintellectandstronginwill，werevirtuallydrawnordrivenoutofallotherindustriesorprofessionsbythetheorythattheirrace，beingaccursed，wasonlyfittedfortheabhorredprofessionofmoney-lending。[451]
[451]Forevileconomicresults，andespeciallyfortheriseoftherateofinterestinEnglandandelsewhereattimestofortypercent，seeCunningham，GrowthofEnglishIndustryandCommerce，Cambridge，1890，p。189；andforitsrisingtotenpercentamonth，seeBedarride，LesJuifsenFrance，enItalie，atenEspagne，p。220；seealsoHallam’sMiddleAges，London，1853，pp。401，402。FortheevilmoraleffectsoftheChurchdoctrineagainsttakinginterest，seeMontesquieu，EspritdesLois，lib。
xxi，chap。xx；seealsoSismondi，citedinLecky。Forthetriflingwithconscience，distinctionbetween“consumptibles“and“fungibles。”“possessio“and“dominium。”etc。，seeAshley，EnglishEconomicHistory，NewYork，pp。152，153；seealsoLeopoldDelisle，Etudes，pp。198，468。FortheeffectsofthesedoctrinesontheJews，seeMilman，HistoryoftheJews，vol。iii，p。179；alsoWellhausen，HistoryofIsrael，London，1885，p。546；
alsoBeugnot，LesJuifsd’Occident，Paris，1824，pt。2，p。114
ondrivingJewsoutofotherindustriesthanmoney-lending。
ForanotedmediaevalevasionoftheChurchrulesagainstusury，seePeruzzi，StoriadelCommercioedeiBanchieridiFirenze，Florence，1868，pp。172，173。
Theseevilsweresomanifest，whentradebegantorevivethroughoutEuropeinthefifteenthcentury，thatmostearnestexertionswereputforthtoinducetheChurchtochangeitsposition。
ThefirstimportanteffortofthiskindwasmadebyJohnGerson。
HisgenerallearningmadehimChancelloroftheUniversityofParis；hissacredlearningmadehimtheleadingoratorattheCouncilofConstance；hispietyledmentoattributetohimTheImitationofChrist。Shakingofftheologicalshackles，hedeclared，“Betterisittolendmoneyatreasonableinterest，andthustogiveaidtothepoor，thantoseethemreducedbypovertytosteal，wastetheirgoods，andsellatalowpricetheirpersonalandrealproperty。”
ButthisideawasatonceburiedbeneathcitationsfromtheScriptures，thefathers，councils，popes，andthecanonlaw。
Eveninthemostactivecountriesthereseemedtobenohope。InEngland，underHenryVII，CardinalMorton，thelordchancellor，addressedParliament，askingittotakeintoconsiderationloansofmoneyatinterest。Theresultwasalawwhichimposedonlendersatinterestafineofahundredpoundsbesidestheannulmentoftheloan；and，toshowthattherewasanoffenceagainstreligioninvolved，therewasaddedaclause“reservingtotheChurch，notwithstandingthispunishment，thecorrectionoftheirsoulsaccordingtothelawsofthesame。”
SimilarenactmentsweremadebycivilauthorityinvariouspartsofEurope；andjustwhenthetrade，commerce，andmanufacturesofthemodernepochhadreceivedanimmenseimpulsefromthegreatseriesofvoyagesofdiscoverybysuchmenasColumbus，VascodaGama，Magellan，andtheCabots，thisbarrieragainstenterprisewasstrengthenedbyadecreefromnolessenlightenedapontiffthanLeoX。
Thepopularfeelingwarrantedsuchdecrees。AslateastheendoftheMiddleAgeswefindthepeopleofPiacenzadraggingthebodyofamoney-lenderoutofhisgraveinconsecratedgroundandthrowingitintotheriverPo，inordertostopaprolongedrainstorm；andoutbreaksofthesamespiritwerefrequentinothercountries。[452]
[452]ForGerson’sargumentfavouringareasonablerateofinterest，seeCoquelinandGuillaumin，Dictionnaire，articleInteret。FortherenewedoppositiontothetakingofinterestinEngland，seeCraik，HistoryofBritishCommerce，chap。vi。Thestatutecitedis3HenryVII，chap。vi；itisfoundinGibson’sCorpusJurisEccles。Anglic。，p。1071。FortheadversedecreeofLeoX，seeLiegeois，p。76。SeealsoLecky，Rationalism，vol。ii。
Forthedraggingoutoftheusurer’sbodyatPiacenza，seeBurckhardt，TheRenaissanceinItaly，London，1878，vol。ii，p。
339。ForpublicopinionofsimilarstrengthonthissubjectinEngland，seeCunningham，p。239；alsoPike，HistoryofCrimeinEngland，vol。i，pp。127，193。Forgoodgeneralobservationsonthesame，seeStephen，HistoryofCriminalLawinEngland，London，1883，vol。iii，pp。195-197。ForusurylawsinCastileandAragon，seeBedarride，pp。191，192。ForexceedinglyvaluabledetailsastotheattitudeofthemediaevalChurch，seeLeopoldDelisle，EtudessurlaClasseAgricoleenNormandieauMoyenAge，Evreux，1851，pp。200etseq。，alsop。468。ForpenaltiesinFrance，seeMatthewParis，ChronicaMajora，intheRollsSeries，especiallyvol。iii，pp。191，192。Foracuriousevasion，sanctionedbyPopesMartinVandCalixtusIIIwhenChurchcorporationsbecamemoney-lenders，seeH。C。LeaonTheEcclesiasticalTreatmentofUsury，intheYaleReviewforFebruary，1894。Foradetaileddevelopmentofinterestingsubordinatepoints，seeAshley，IntroductiontoEnglishEconomicHistoryandTheory，vol。ii，ch，vi。
Anothermodeofobtainingreliefwastried。Subtletheologiansdevisedevasionsofvarioussorts。Twoamongtheseinventionsoftheschoolmenobtainedmuchnotoriety。
Thefirstwasthedoctrineof“damnumemergens“：ifalendersufferedlossbythefailureoftheborrowertoreturnaloanatadatenamed，compensationmightbemade。Thusitwasthat，ifthenominaldateofpaymentwasmadetofollowquicklyaftertherealdateoftheloan，thecompensationfortheanticipateddelayinpaymenthadaverystrongresemblancetointerest。Equallycogentwasthedoctrineof“lucrumcessans“：ifaman，inordertolendmoney，wasobligedtodiminishhisincomefromproductiveenterprises，itwasclaimedthathemightreceiveinreturn，inadditiontohismoney，anamountexactlyequaltothisdiminutioninhisincome。
Butsuchevasionswerelookeduponwithlittlefavourbythegreatbodyoftheologians，andthenameofSt。ThomasAquinaswastriumphantlycitedagainstthem。