andthebookofMaeswasplacedbytheolderChurchontheIndex。
ButaswenowlookbackovertheRevivalofLearning，theAgeofDiscovery，andtheReformation，wecanseeclearlythatpowerfulastheolderChurchthenwas，andpowerfulastheReformedChurchwastobe，therewasatworksomethingfarmoremightythaneitherorthanboth；andthiswasagreatlawofnature——thelawofevolutionthroughdifferentiation。Obedienttothislawtherenowbegantoarise，bothwithintheChurchandwithoutit，anewbodyofscholars——notsomuchtheologiansassearchersfortruthbyscientificmethods。Some，likeCusa，wereecclesiastics；some，likeValla，Erasmus，andtheScaligers，werenotsuchinanyrealsense；butwhetherinholyorders，really，nominally，ornotatall，theywere，firstofall，literaryandscientificinvestigators。
Duringthesixteenthcenturyastrongimpulsewasgiventomorethoroughresearchbyseveralveryremarkabletriumphsofthecriticalmethodasdevelopedbythisnewclassofmen，andtwooftheseoughtheretoreceiveattentiononaccountoftheirinfluenceuponthewholeaftercourseofhumanthought。
FormanycenturiestheDecretalsbearingthegreatnameofIsidorehadbeencherishedasamongthemostvaluedmunimentsoftheChurch。Theycontainedwhatclaimedtobeamassofcanons，lettersofpopes，decreesofcouncils，andthelike，fromthedaysoftheapostlesdowntotheeighthcentury——allsupportingatimportantpointsthedoctrine，thediscipline，theceremonial，andvarioushighclaimsoftheChurchanditshierarchy。
ButinthefifteenthcenturythatsturdyGermanthinker，CardinalNicholasofCusa，insistedonexaminingthesedocumentsandonapplyingtothemthesamethoroughresearchandpatientthoughtwhichledhim，evenbeforeCopernicus，todetecttheerrorofthePtolemaicastronomy。
Asaresult，heavowedhisscepticismregardingthispiousliterature；otherclosethinkersfollowedhimininvestigatingit，anditwassoonfoundatissueofabsurdanachronisms，withendlessclashingandconfusionofeventsandpersons。
ForatimeheroicattemptsweremadebyChurchauthoritiestocoverupthesefacts。Scholarsrevealingthemwerefrownedupon，evenpersecuted，andtheirworksplacedupontheIndex；
scholarsexplainingthemaway——the“apologists“or“reconcilers“
ofthatday——wererewardedwithChurchpreferment，oneofthemsecuringforaveryfeebletreatiseacardinal’shat。Butallinvain；thesewritingswereatlengthacknowledgedbyallscholarsofnote，CatholicandProtestant，tobemainlyamassofdevoutlycunningforgeries。
WhiletheeyesofscholarswerethusopenedasneverbeforetotheskillofearlyChurchzealotsinforgingdocumentsusefultoecclesiasticism，anotherdiscoveryrevealedtheirequalskillinforgingdocumentsusefultotheology。
FormorethanathousandyearsgreatstresshadbeenlaidbytheologiansuponthewritingsascribedtoDionysiustheAreopagite，theAthenianconvertofSt。Paul。Claimingtocomefromonesonearthegreatapostle，theywereprizedasamostprecioussupplementtoHolyWrit。AbeliefwasdevelopedthatwhenSt。Paulhadreturnedtoearth，afterhavingbeen“caughtuptothethirdheaven。”hehadrevealedtoDionysiusthethingshehadseen。HenceitwasthatthevariedpicturesgiveninthesewritingsoftheheavenlyhierarchyandtheangelicministersoftheAlmightytookstrongholdupontheimaginationoftheuniversalChurch：theirtheologicalstatementssankdeeplyintotheheartsandmindsoftheMysticsofthetwelfthcenturyandthePlatonistsofthefifteenth；andthetenepistlestheycontained，addressedtoSt。John，toTitus，toPolycarp，andothersoftheearliestperiod，wereconsideredtreasuresofsacredhistory。AnEmperoroftheEasthadsentthesewritingstoanEmperoroftheWestasthemostpreciousofimperialgifts。
ScotusErigenahadtranslatedthem；St。ThomasAquinashadexpoundedthem；Dantehadglorifiedthem；AlberttheGreathadclaimedthattheywerevirtuallygivenbySt。PaulandinspiredbytheHolyGhost。Theirauthenticitywastakenforgrantedbyfathers，doctors，popes，councils，andtheuniversalChurch。
Butnow，intheglowoftheRenascence，allthistreasurewasfoundtobebutdross。InvestigatorsintheoldChurchandinthenewjoinedinprovingthatthegreatmassofitwasspurious。
Tosaynothingofotherevidences，itfailedtostandthesimplestofalltests，forthesewritingsconstantlypresupposedinstitutionsandreferredtoeventsofmuchlaterdatethanthetimeofDionysius；theywereatlengthacknowledgedbyallauthoritiesworthyofthename，CatholicaswellasProtestant，tobesimply——liketheIsidorianDecretals——piousfrauds。
Thusaroseanatmosphereofcriticismverydifferentfromtheatmosphereofliterarydocilityandacquiescenceofthe“AgesofFaith“；thusitcamethatgreatscholarsinallpartsofEuropebegantorealize，asneverbefore，thepartwhichtheologicalskillandecclesiasticalzealhadtakeninthedevelopmentofspurioussacredliterature；thuswasstimulatedanewenergyinresearchintoallancientdocuments，nomatterwhattheirclaims。
Tostrengthenthisfeelingandtointensifythestimulatingqualitiesofthisnewatmospherecame，aswehaveseen，theresearchesandrevelationsofVallaregardingtheforgedLetterofChristtoAbgarus，thefraudulentDonationofConstantine，andthelatedateoftheApostles’Creed；and，togivethisfeelingdirectiontowardtheHebrewandChristiansacredbooks，cametheexampleofErasmus。[474]
[474]ForveryfairstatementsregardingthegreatforgeddocumentsoftheMiddleAges，seeAddisandArnold，CatholicDictionary，articlesDionysiustheAreopagiteandFalseDecretals，andinthelatterthecuriousacknowledgmentthatthemassofpseudo-IsidorianDecretals“iswhatwenowcallaforgery。”
ForthederivationofDionysius’sideasfromSt。Paul，andfortheideaofinspirationattributedtohim，seeAlbertusMagnus，OperaOmnia，vol。xiii，earlychaptersandchap。vi。Forveryinterestingdetailsonthisgeneralsubject，seeDollinger，DasPapstthum，chap。ii；alsohisFablesrespectingthePopesoftheMiddleAges，translatedbyPlummerandH。B。Smith，parti，chap。
v。Oftheexposureoftheseworks，seeFarrar，asabove，pp。
254，255；alsoBeard，HibbertLectures，pp。4，354。FortheFalseDecretals，seeMilman，HistoryofLatinChristianity，vol。
ii，pp。373etseq。Forthegreatworkofthepseudo-Dionysius，seeibid。，vol。iii，p。352，andvol。vi，pp。402etseq。，andCanonWestcott’sarticleonDionysiustheAreopagiteinvol。voftheContemporaryReview；alsothechaptersonAstronomyinthiswork。
Naturally，then，inthisnewatmospherethebolderscholarsofEuropesoonbegantopushmorevigorouslytheresearchesbeguncenturiesbeforebyAbenEzra，andthenexteffortsofthesemenwereseenaboutthemiddleoftheseventeenthcentury，whenHobbes，inhisLeviathan，andLaPevrere，inhisPreadamites，tookthemupanddevelopedthemstillfurther。Theresultcamespeedily。Hobbes，forthisandothersins，wasputundertheban，evenbythepoliticalpartywhichsorelyneededhim，andwasregardedgenerallyasanoutcast；whileLaPeyrere，forthisandotherheresies，wasthrownintoprisonbytheGrandVicarofMechlin，andkeptthereuntilhefullyretracted：hisbookwasrefutedbyseventheologianswithinayearafteritsappearance，andwithinagenerationthirty-sixelaborateanswerstoithadappeared：theParliamentofParisorderedittobeburnedbythehangman。
In1670cameanutterancevastlymoreimportant，byamanfargreaterthananyofthese——theTractatusThrologico-PoliticusofSpinoza。Reverentlybutfirmlyhewentmuchmoredeeplyintothesubject。Suggestingnewargumentsandrecastingtheold，hesummedupallwithjudicialfairness，andshowedthatMosescouldnothavebeentheauthorofthePentateuchintheformthenexisting；thattherehadbeenglossesandrevisions；thatthebiblicalbookshadgrownupasaliterature；that，thoughgreattruthsaretobefoundinthem，andtheyaretoberegardedasadivinerevelation，theoldclaimsofinerrancyforthemcannotbemaintained；thatinstudyingthemmenhadbeenmisledbymistakinghumanconceptionsfordivinemeanings；that，whileprophetshavebeeninspired，thepropheticfacultyhasnotbeenthedowryoftheJewishpeoplealone；thattolookforexactknowledgeofnaturalandspiritualphenomenainthesacredbooksisanuttermistake；andthatthenarrativesoftheOldandNewTestaments，whiletheysurpassthoseofprofanehistory，differamongthemselvesnotonlyinliterarymerit，butinthevalueofthedoctrinestheyinculcate。AstotheauthorshipofthePentateuch，hearrivedattheconclusionthatitwaswrittenlongafterMoses，butthatMosesmayhavewrittensomebooksfromwhichitwascompiled——as，forexample，thosewhicharementionedintheScriptures，theBookoftheWarsofGod，theBookoftheCovenant，andthelike——andthatthemanyrepetitionsandcontradictionsinthevariousbooksshowalackofcarefuleditingaswellasavarietyoforiginalsources。SpinozathenwentontothrowlightintosomeotherbooksoftheOldandNewTestaments，andaddedtwogeneralstatementswhichhaveprovedexceedinglyserviceable，fortheycontainthegermsofallmodernbroadchurchmanship；andthefirstofthemgavetheformulawhichwasdestinedinourowntimetosavetotheAnglicanChurchalargenumberofhernoblestsons：thiswas，that“sacredScriptureCONTAINStheWordofGod，andinsofarasitcontainsitisincorruptible“；thesecondwas，that“errorinspeculativedoctrineisnotimpious。”
Thoughpublishedinvariouseditions，thebookseemedtoproducelittleeffectupontheworldatthattime；butitsresulttoSpinozahimselfwasnonethelessserious。ThoughsodeeplyreligiousthatNovalisspokeofhimas“aGod-intoxicatedman。”
andSchleiermachercalledhima“saint。”hehadbeen，fortheearlierexpressionofsomeoftheopinionsitcontained，abhorredasahereticbothbyJewsandChristians：fromthesynagoguehewascutoffbyapubliccurse，andbytheChurchhewasnowregardedasinsomesortaforerunnerofAntichrist。Forallthis，heshowednoresentment，butdevotedhimselfquietlytohisstudies，andtothesimplemanuallabourbywhichhesupportedhimself；declinedallprofferedhonours，amongthemaprofessorshipatHeidelberg；foundpleasureonlyinthesocietyofafewfriendsasgentleandaffectionateashimself；anddiedcontentedly，withoutseeinganywidespreadeffectofhisdoctrineotherthantheprevailingabhorrenceofhimself。
PerhapsinalltheseventeenthcenturytherewasnomanwhomJesusofNazarethwouldhavemoredeeplyloved，andnolifewhichhewouldhavemorewarmlyapproved；yetdowntoaveryrecentperiodthishatredforSpinozahascontinued。When，about1880，itwasproposedtoerectamonumenttohimatAmsterdam，discoursesweregiveninchurchesandsynagoguesprophesyingthewrathofHeavenuponthecityforsuchaprofanation；andwhenthemonumentwasfinished，thepolicewereobligedtoexertthemselvestopreventinjurytothestatueandtotheeminentscholarswhounveiledit。
ButtheideasofSpinozaatlastsecuredrecognition。Theyhadsunkdeeplyintotheheartsandmindsofvariousleadersofthought，and，mostimportantofall，intotheheartandmindofLessing；hebroughtthemtobearinhistreatiseontheEducationoftheWorld，aswellasinhisdrama，NathantheWise，andboththeseworkshavespokenwithpowertoeverygenerationsince。
InFrance，also，camethesamehealthfulevolutionofthought。
Forgenerationsscholarshadknownthatmultitudesoferrorshadcreptintothesacredtext。RobertStephenshadfoundovertwothousandvariationsintheoldestmanuscriptsoftheOldTestament，andin1633JeanMorin，apriestoftheOratory，pointedoutclearlymanyofthemostglaringofthese。
Seventeenyearslater，inspiteofthemostearnestProtestanteffortstosuppresshiswork，CappellusgaveforthhisCriticaSacra，demonstratingnotonlythatthevowelpointingofScripturewasnotdivinelyinspired，butthattheHebrewtextitself，fromwhichthemoderntranslationsweremade，isfulloferrorsduetothecarelessness，ignorance，anddoctrinalzealofearlyscribes，andthattherehadclearlybeennomiraculouspreservationofthe“originalautographs“ofthesacredbooks。
WhileorthodoxFrancewasundertheuneasinessandalarmthuscaused，appearedaCriticalHistoryoftheOldTestamentbyRichardSimon，apriestoftheOratory。Hewasathoroughlyreligiousmanandanacutescholar，whosewholepurposewastodeveloptruthswhichhebelievedhealthfultotheChurchandtomankind。ButhedeniedthatMoseswastheauthorofthePentateuch，andexhibitedtheinternalevidence，nowsowellknown，thatthebookswerecomposedmuchlaterbyvariouspersons，andeditedlaterstill。HealsoshowedthatotherpartsoftheOldTestamenthadbeencompiledfromoldersources，andattackedthetime-honouredtheorythatHebrewwastheprimitivelanguageofmankind。Thewholecharacterofhisbookwassuchthatinthesedaysitwouldpass，onthewhole，asconservativeandorthodox；ithadbeenapprovedbythecensorin1678，andprinted，whenthetableofcontentsandapageoftheprefacewereshowntoBossuet。Thegreatbishopandtheologianwasinstantlyaroused；hepronouncedthework“amassofimpietiesandabulwarkofirreligion“；hisbiographertellsusthat，althoughitwasHolyThursday，thebishop，inspiteofthesolemnityoftheday，hastenedatoncetotheChancellorLeTellier，andsecuredanordertostopthepublicationofthebookandtoburnthewholeeditionofit。Fortunately，afewcopieswererescued，andafewyearslatertheworkfoundanewpublisherinHolland；yetnotuntiltherehadbeenattachedtoit，evidentlybysomeProtestantdivineofauthority，anessaywarningthereaderagainstitsdangerousdoctrines。TwoyearslateratranslationwaspublishedinEngland。