ThisfirstworkofSimonwasfollowedbyothers，inwhichhesought，intheinterestofscripturaltruth，tothrowanewandpurerlightuponoursacredliterature；butBossuetprovedimplacable。AlthoughunabletosuppressallofSimon’sworks，hewasabletodrivehimfromtheOratory，andtobringhimintodisreputeamongtheverymenwhooughttohavebeenproudofhimasFrenchmenandthankfultohimasChristians。
　　Butotherscholarsofeminencewerenowworkinginthisfield，andchiefamongthemLeClerc。VirtuallydrivenoutofGeneva，hetookrefugeatAmsterdam，andtherepublishedaseriesofworksupontheHebrewlanguage，theinterpretationofScripture，andthelike。InthesehecombatedtheprevalentideathatHebrewwastheprimitivetongue，expressedtheopinionthatinthepluralformofthewordusedinGenesisforGod，“Elohim。”
　　thereisatraceofChaldeanpolytheism，and，inhisdiscussionontheserpentwhotemptedEve，curiouslyanticipatedmoderngeologicalandzoologicalideasbyquietlyconfessinghisinabilitytoseehowdeprivingtheserpentoffeetandcompellinghimtogoonhisbellycouldbepunishment——sinceallthiswasnaturaltotheanimal。Healsoventuredquasi-scientificexplanationsoftheconfusionoftonguesatBabel，thedestructionofSodom，theconversionofLot’swifeintoapillarofsalt，andthedividingoftheRedSea。AstothePentateuchingeneral，hecompletelyrejectedtheideathatitwaswrittenbyMoses。ButhismostpermanentgifttothethinkingworldwashisanswertothosewhoinsisteduponthereferencebyChristandhisapostlestoMosesastheauthorofthePentateuch。Theanswerbecameaformulawhichhasprovedeffectivefromhisdaytoours：“OurLordandhisapostlesdidnotcomeintothisworldtoteachcriticismtotheJews，andhencespokeaccordingtothecommonopinion。”
　　Againstallthesescholarscameatheologicalstorm，butitragedmostpitilesslyagainstLeClerc。SuchrenownedtheologiansasCarpzovinGermany，WitsiusinHolland，andHuetinFranceberatedhimunmercifullyandoverwhelmedhimwithassertionswhichstillfilluswithwonder。ThatofHuet，attributingtheoriginofpaganaswellasChristiantheologytoMoses，wehavealreadyseen；butCarpzovshowedthatProtestantismcouldnotbeoutdonebyCatholicismwhenhedeclared，inthefaceofallmodernknowledge，thatnotonlythematterbuttheexactformandwordsoftheBiblehadbeendivinelytransmittedtothemodernworldfreefromallerror。
　　AtthisLeClercstoodaghast，andfinallystammeredoutasortofhalfrecantation。[475]
　　[475]ForCarlstadt，andLuther’sdealingswithhimonvariousaccounts，seeMeyer，Geschichtederexegese，vol。ii，pp。373，397。AstothevalueofMaes’sworkingeneral，seeMeyer，vol。
　　ii，p。125；andastothesortofworkinquestion，ibid。，vol。
　　iii，p。425，note。ForCarlstadt，seealsoFarrar，HistoryofInterpretation，andMoore’sintroduction，asabove。ForHobbes’sviewthatthePentateuchwaswrittenlongafterMoses’sday，seetheLeviathan，vol。iii，p。33。ForLaPeyrere’sview，seeespeciallyhisPrae-Adamitae，lib。iv，chap。ii，alsolib。ii，passim；alsoLecky，RationalisminEurope，vol。i，p。294；alsointerestingpointsinBayle’sDictionary。ForSpinoza’sview，seetheTractatusTheologico-Politicus，chaps。iiandiii，andforthepersecution，seethevariousbiographies。DetailsregardingthedemonstrationagainsttheunveilingofhisstatueweregiventothepresentwriteratthetimebyBertholdAuerbach，whotookpartintheceremony。ForMorinusandCappellus，seeFarrar，asabove，p。387andnote。ForRichardSimon，seehisHistoireCritiquedel’AncienTestament，liv。i，chaps。ii，iii，iv，v，andxiii。ForhisdenialoftheprevailingtheoryregardingHebrew，seeliv。i，chap。iv。ForMorinusMorinandhiswork，seetheBiog。Univ。andNouvelleBiog。Generale；alsoCurtiss。ForBousset’soppositiontoSimon，seetheHistoiredeBousserintheOeuvresdeBousset，Paris，1846，tomexii，pp。330，331；alsot。x，p。378；alsosundryattacksinvariousvolumes。ItisinterestingtonotethatamongthechiefinstigatorsofthepersecutionwerethePort-Royalists，uponwhosepersecutionafterwardbytheJesuitssomuchsympathyhasbeenlavishedbytheProtestantworld。ForLeClerc，seeespeciallyhisPentateuchus，Prolegom，dissertat。i；alsoCom。inGenes。，cap。vi-viii。Foratranslationofselectedpassagesonthepointsnoted，seeTwelveDissertationsoutofMonsieurLeClerc’sGenesis，doneoutofLatinbyMr。Brown，London，1696；
　　alsoLeClerc’sSentimentsdeQuelquesTheologiensdeHollande，passim；alsohisworkonInspiration，Englishtranslation，Boston，1820，pp。47-50，also57-67。ForWitsiusandCarpzov，seeCurtiss，asabove。Forsomesubordinatepointsintheearliergrowthoftheopinionatpresentdominant，seeBriggs，TheHigherCriticismoftheHexateuch，NewYork，1893，chap。iv。
　　Duringtheeighteenthcenturyconstantadditionsweremadetotheenormousstructureoforthodoxscripturalinterpretation，someofthemgainingtheapplauseoftheChristianworldthen，thoughnearlyallareutterlydiscreditednow。Butin1753appearedtwocontributionsofpermanentinfluence，thoughdifferingvastlyinvalue。Inthecomparativeestimateofthesetwoworkstheworldhasseenaremarkablereversalofpublicopinion。
　　ThefirstofthesewasBishopLowth’sPrelectionsupontheSacredPoetryoftheHebrews。InthiswaswellbroughtoutthatcharacteristicofHebrewpoetrytowhichitowessomuchofitspeculiarcharm——itsparallelism。
　　ThesecondofthesebookswasAstruc’sConjecturesontheOriginalMemoirswhichMosesusedincomposingtheBookofGenesis。Inthiswasforthefirsttimeclearlyrevealedthefactthat，amidvariousfragmentsofoldwritings，atleasttwomainnarrativesenterintothecompositionofGenesis；thatinthefirstoftheseisgenerallyusedasanappellationoftheAlmightytheword“Elohim。”andinthesecondtheword“Yahveh“
　　Jehovah；thateachnarrativehascharacteristicsofitsown，inthoughtandexpression，whichdistinguishitfromtheother；
　　that，byseparatingthese，twoclearanddistinctnarrativesmaybeobtained，eachconsistentwithitself，andthatthus，andthusalone，canbeexplainedtherepetitions，discrepancies，andcontradictionsinGenesiswhichsolongbaffledtheingenuityofcommentators，especiallythetwoaccountsofthecreation，soutterlyinconsistentwitheachother。
　　InterestingaswasLowth’sbook，thisworkbyAstrucwas，asthethinkingworldnowacknowledges，infinitelymoreimportant；itwas，indeed，themostvaluablesinglecontributionevermadetobiblicalstudy。ButsuchwasnotthejudgmentoftheworldTHEN。WhileLowth’sbookwascoveredwithhonouranditsauthorpromotedfromthebishopricofSt。David’stothatofLondon，andevenofferedtheprimacy，Astrucandhisbookwerecoveredwithreproach。Though，asanorthodoxCatholic，hehadmainlydesiredtoreasserttheauthorshipofMosesagainsttheargumentofSpinoza，hereceivednothanksonthataccount。Theologiansofallcreedssneeredathimasadoctorofmedicinewhohadblunderedbeyondhisprovince；hisfellow-CatholicsinFrancebitterlydenouncedhimasaheretic；andinGermanythegreatProtestanttheologian，Michaelis，whohadeditedandexaltedLowth’swork，pouredcontemptoverAstrucasanignoramus。
　　ThecaseofAstrucisoneofthemanywhichshowthewonderfulpoweroftheoldertheologicalreasoningtoclosethestrongestmindsagainsttheclearesttruths。Thefactwhichhediscoveredisnowasdefinitelyestablishedasanyinthewholerangeofliteratureorscience。Ithasbecomeasclearastheday，andyetfortwothousandyearsthemindsofprofessionaltheologians，JewishandChristian，wereunabletodetectit。Notuntilthiseminentphysicianappliedtothesubjectamindtrainedinmakingscientificdistinctionswasitgiventotheworld。
　　Itwas，ofcourse，notpossibleevenforsoeminentascholarasMichaelistopooh-poohdownadiscoverysopregnant；and，curiouslyenough，itwasoneofMichaelis’sownscholars，Eichhorn，whodidthemainworkinbringingthenewtruthtobearupontheworld。He，withothers，developedoutofitthetheorythatGenesis，andindeedthePentateuch，ismadeupentirelyoffragmentsofoldwritings，mainlydisjointed。Buttheydidfarmorethanthis：theyimpresseduponthethinkingpartofChristendomthefactthattheBibleisnotaBOOK，butaLITERATURE；thatthestyleisnotsupernaturalandunique，butsimplytheOrientalstyleofthelandsandtimesinwhichitsvariouspartswerewritten；andthatthesemustbestudiedinthelightofthemodesofthoughtandstatementandtheliteraryhabitsgenerallyofOrientalpeoples。FromEichhorn’stimetheprocesswhich，byhistorical，philological，andtextualresearch，bringsoutthetruthregardingthisliteraturehasbeenknownas“thehighercriticism。”
　　Hewasadeeplyreligiousman，andthemainspringofhiseffortswasthedesiretobringbacktotheChurchtheeducatedclasses，whohadbeenrepelledbythestiffLutheranorthodoxy；butthisonlyincreasedhostilitytohim。OppositionmethiminGermanyateveryturn；andinEngland，Lloyd，RegiusProfessorofHebrewatCambridge，whosoughtpatronageforatranslationofEichhorn’swork，wasmetgenerallywithcontemptandfrequentlywithinsult。
　　ThroughoutCatholicGermanyitwasevenworse。In1774
　　Isenbiehl，apriestatMayencewhohaddistinguishedhimselfasaGreekandHebrewscholar，happenedtoquestiontheusualinterpretationofthepassageinIsaiahwhichreferstothevirgin-bornImmanuel，andshowedthen——whateverycompetentcriticknowsnow——thatithadreferencetoeventslookedforinolderJewishhistory。Thecensorshipandfacultyoftheologyattackedhimatonceandbroughthimbeforetheelector。
　　Luckily，thispotentatewasoneoftheoldeasy-goingprince-bishops，andcontentedhimselfwithtellingthepriestthat，thoughhiscontentionwasperhapstrue，he“mustremainintheoldpaths，andavoideverythinglikelytomaketrouble。”
　　Butattheelector’sdeath，soonafterward，thetheologiansrenewedtheattack，threwIsenbiehloutofhisprofessorshipanddegradedhim。Oneinsultdeservesmentionforitsingenuity。
　　Itwasdeclaredthathe——thesuccessfulandbrilliantprofessor——showedbytheobnoxiousinterpretationthathehadnotyetrightlylearnedtheScriptures；hewasthereforesentbacktothebenchesofthetheologicalschool，andmadetotakehisseatamongtheingenuousyouthwhowereconningtherudimentsoftheology。Atthishemadeanewstatement，socarefullyguardedthatitdisarmedmanyofhisenemies，andhishighscholarshipsoonwonforhimanewprofessorshipofGreek——theconditionbeingthatheshouldceasewritinguponScripture。Butacraftybooksellerhavingrepublishedhisformerbook，andhavingprotectedhimselfbykeepingtheplaceanddateofpublicationsecret，anewstormfellupontheauthor；hewasagainremovedfromhisprofessorshipandthrownintoprison；hisbookwasforbidden，andallcopiesofitinthatpartofGermanywereconfiscated。In1778，havingescapedfromprison，hesoughtrefugewithanotheroftheminorrulerswhoinblissfulunconsciousnessweredoingtheirworstwhileawaitingtheFrenchRevolution，butwasatoncedelivereduptotheMayenceauthoritiesandagainthrownintoprison。
　　ThePope，PiusVI，nowintervenedwithabriefonIsenbiehl’sbook，declaringit“horrible，false，perverse，destructive，taintedwithheresy。”andexcommunicatingallwhoshouldreadit。
　　Atthis，Isenbiehl，declaringthathehadwrittenitinthehopeofdoingaservicetotheChurch，recanted，andvegetatedinobscurityuntilhisdeathin1818。
　　But，despitetheologicalfaculties，prince-bishops，andevenpopes，thenewcurrentofthoughtincreasedinstrengthandvolume，andintoitattheendoftheeighteenthcenturycameimportantcontributionsfromtwosourceswidelyseparatedandmostdissimilar。
　　Thefirstofthese，whichgaveastimulusnotyetexhausted，wastheworkofHerder。Byaremarkableintuitionhehadanticipatedsomeofthoseideasofanevolutionaryprocessinnatureandinliteraturewhichfirstgainedfullrecognitionnearlythreequartersofacenturyafterhim；buthisgreatestserviceinthefieldofbiblicalstudywashiswork，atonceprofoundandbrilliant，TheSpiritofHebrewPoetry。InthisfieldheeclipsedBishopLowth。Amongotherthingsofimportance，heshowedthatthePsalmswerebydifferentauthorsandofdifferentperiods——thebloomofagreatpoeticliterature。
　　Untilhistimenoonehadsoclearlydonejusticetotheirsublimityandbeauty；butmoststrikingofallwashisdiscussionofSolomon’sSong。Forovertwentycenturiesithadbeencustomarytoattributetoitmysticalmeanings。Ifhereandtheresomemansawthetruth，hewascareful，likeAbenEzra，tospeakwithbatedbreath。
　　Thepenaltyforanymorehonestinterpretationwasseen，amongProtestants，whenCalvinandBezapersecutedCastellio，coveredhimwithobloquy，andfinallydrovehimtostarvationanddeath，forthrowinglightupontherealcharacteroftheSongofSongs；