Themainscripturalpassagesreferredtoareasfollows：1
　　Isaiahxi，22；2Genesisi，6；3Genesisvii，11；4Exodusxxiv，10；5Jobxxvi，11，andxxxvii，186Psalmcxlviii，4，andciv，9；7Ezekieli，22-26。ForCosmas’stheory，seeMontfaucon，CollectioNovaPatrum，Paris，1706，vol。ii，p。188；
　　alsopp。298，299。Thetextisillustratedwithengravingsshowingwallsandsolidvaultfirmament，withthewholeapparatusof“fountainsofthegreatdeep。”“windowsofheaven。”
　　angels，andthemountainbehindwhichthesunisdrawn。Forreductionofoneofthem，seePeschel，GesschichtederErdkunds，p。98；alsoarticleMaps，inKnight’sDictionaryofMechanics，NewYork，1875。ForcuriousdrawingsshowingCosmas’sschemeinadifferentwayfromthatgivenbyMontfaucon，seeextractsfromaVaticancodexoftheninthcenturyinGarucci，Storiadel’ArteChristiana，vol。iii，pp。70etseq。ForagooddiscussionofCosmas’sideas，seeSantarem，Hist。delaCosmographie，vol。ii，pp。8etseq。，andforaverythoroughdiscussionofitsdetails，Kretschmer，asabove。Forstillanothertheory，verydroll，andthoughtoutonsimilarprinciples，seeMungoPark，citedinDeMorgan，Paradoxes，p。309。ForCosmas’sjoyfulsummingup，seeMontfaucon，CollectioNovaPatrum，vol。ii，p。255。Forthecurioussurvivalinthethirteenthcenturyoftheoldideaofthe“watersabovetheheavens。”seethestoryinGervaseofTilbury，howinhistimesomepeoplecomingoutofchurchinEnglandfoundananchorletdownbyaropeoutoftheheavens，howtherecamevoicesfromsailorsabovetryingtoloosetheanchor，and，finally，howasailorcamedowntherope，who，onreachingtheearth，diedasifdrownedinwater。SeeGervaseofTilbury，OtiaImperialia，edit。Liebrecht，Hanover，1856，PrimaDecisio，cap。
　　xiii。Theworkwaswrittenabout1211。ForJohnofSanGerminiano，seehisSummadeExemplis，lib。ix，cap。43。FortheEgyptianTrinitarianviews，seeSharpe，HistoryofEgypt，vol。i，pp。94，102。
　　Fromthisoldconceptionoftheuniverseasasortofhouse，withheavenasitsupperstoryandtheearthasitsgroundfloor，flowedimportanttheologicalideasintoheathen，Jewish，andChristianmythologies。Commontothemallarelegendsregardingattemptsofmortalstoinvadetheupperapartmentfromthelower。
　　OfsucharetheGreeklegendsoftheAloidae，whosoughttoreachheavenbypilingupmountains，andwerecastdown；theChaldeanandHebrewlegendsofthewickedwhoatBabelsoughttobuild“atowerwhosetopmayreachheaven。”whichJehovahwentdownfromheaventosee，andwhichhebroughttonaughtbythe“confusionoftongues“；theHindulegendofthetreewhichsoughttogrowintoheavenandwhichBrahmablasted；andtheMexicanlegendofthegiantswhosoughttoreachheavenbybuildingthePyramidofCholula，andwhowereoverthrownbyfirefromabove。
　　Mythshavingthisgeographicalideaastheirgermdevelopedinluxuriancethroughthousandsofyears。Ascensionstoheavenanddescentsfromit，“translations。”“assumptions。”“annunciations。”
　　mortals“caughtup“intoitandreturning，angelsflyingbetweenitandtheearth，thunderboltshurleddownfromit，mightywindsissuingfromitscorners，voicesspeakingfromtheupperfloortomenonthelower，temporaryopeningsofthefloorofheaventorevealtheblessednessofthegood，“signsandwonders“hungoutfromittowarnthewicked，interventionsofeverykind——fromtheheathengodscomingdownoneverysortoferrand，andJehovahcomingdowntowalkinEdeninthecooloftheday，toSt。Markswoopingdownintothemarket-placeofVenicetobreaktheshacklesofaslave——allthesearebutfeaturesinavastevolutionofmythsarisinglargelyfromthisgeographicalgerm。
　　Nordidthisevolutionendhere。Naturally，inthisviewofthings，ifheavenwasaloft，hellwasacellar；andiftherewereascensionsintoone，thereweredescentsintotheother。
　　Hellbeingsonear，interferencesbyitsoccupantswiththedwellersoftheearthjustabovewereconstant，andformavastchapterinmedievalliterature。Dantemadethisconceptionofthelocationofhellstillmorevivid，andwefindsomeformsofitseriousbarrierstogeographicalinvestigation。Manyaboldnavigator，whowasquitereadytobravepiratesandtempests，trembledatthethoughtoftumblingwithhisshipintooneoftheopeningsintohellwhichawidespreadbeliefplacedintheAtlanticatsomeunknowndistancefromEurope。ThisterroramongsailorswasoneofthemainobstaclesinthegreatvoyageofColumbus。Inamedievaltext-book，givingsciencetheformofadialogue，occurthefollowingquestionandanswer：“Whyisthesunsoredintheevening？”“Becausehelookethdownuponhell。”
　　Buttheancientgermofscientifictruthingeography——theideaoftheearth’ssphericity——stilllived。AlthoughthegreatmajorityoftheearlyfathersoftheChurch，andespeciallyLactantius，hadsoughttocrushitbeneaththeutterancesattributedtoIsaiah，David，andSt。Paul，thebetteropinionofEudoxusandAristotlecouldnotbeforgotten。ClementofAlexandriaandOrigenhadevensupportedit。AmbroseandAugustinehadtoleratedit，and，afterCosmashadheldswayahundredyears，itreceivednewlifefromagreatchurchmanofsouthernEurope，IsidoreofSeville，who，howeverfetteredbythedominanttheologyinmanyotherthings，braveditinthis。IntheeighthcenturyasimilardeclarationwasmadeinthenorthofEuropebyanothergreatChurchauthority，Bede。Againstthenewlifethusgiventotheoldtruth，thesacredtheorystruggledlongandvigorouslybutinvain。Eminentauthoritiesinlaterages，likeAlberttheGreat，St。ThomasAquinas，Dante，andVincentofBeauvais，feltobligedtoacceptthedoctrineoftheearth’ssphericity，andasweapproachthemodernperiodwefinditstruthacknowledgedbythevastmajorityofthinkingmen。TheReformationdidnotatfirstyieldfullytothisbettertheory。
　　Luther，Melanchthon，andCalvinwereverystrictintheiradherencetotheexactletterofScripture。EvenZwingli，broadashisviewsgenerallywere，wascloselybounddowninthismatter，andheldtotheopinionofthefathersthatagreatfirmament，orfloor，separatedtheheavensfromtheearth；thataboveitwerethewatersandangels，andbelowittheearthandman。
　　ThemainscopegiventoindependentthoughtonthisgeneralsubjectamongtheReformerswasinafewminorspeculationsregardingtheuniversewhichencompassedEden，theexactcharacteroftheconversationoftheserpentwithEve，andthelike。
　　InthetimesimmediatelyfollowingtheReformationmatterswereevenworse。TheinterpretationsofScripturebyLutherandCalvinbecameassacredtotheirfollowersastheScriptureitself。WhenCalixtventured，ininterpretingthePsalms，toquestiontheacceptedbeliefthat“thewatersabovetheheavens“
　　werecontainedinavastreceptacleupheldbyasolidvault，hewasbitterlydenouncedasheretical。
　　InthelatterpartofthesixteenthcenturyMusaeusinterpretedtheaccountsinGenesistomeanthatfirstGodmadetheheavensfortherooforvault，andleftitthereonhighswinginguntilthreedayslaterheputtheearthunderit。Butthenewscientificthoughtastotheearth’sformhadgainedtheday。
　　Themoststurdybelieverswereobligedtoadjusttheir，biblicaltheoriestoitasbesttheycould。[29]
　　[29]ForadiscussionofthegeographicalviewsofIsidoreandBede，seeSantarem，Cosmographie，voli，pp。22-24。Forthegradualacceptanceoftheideaoftheearth’ssphericityaftertheeighthcentury，seeKretschmer，pp。51etseq。，wherecitationsfromamultitudeofauthorsaregiven。FortheviewsoftheReformers，seeZockler，vol。i，pp。679and693。ForCalixt，Musaeus，andothers，ibid。，pp。673-677and761。
　　II。THEDELINEATIONOFTHEEARTH。
　　Everygreatpeopleofantiquity，asarule，regardeditsowncentralcityormostholyplaceasnecessarilythecentreoftheearth。
　　TheChaldeansheldthattheir“holyhouseofthegods“wasthecentre。TheEgyptianssketchedtheworldundertheformofahumanfigure，inwhichEgyptwastheheart，andthecentreofitThebes。FortheAssyrians，itwasBabylon；fortheHindus，itwasMountMeru；fortheGreeks，sofarasthecivilizedworldwasconcerned，OlympusorthetempleatDelphi；forthemodernMohammedans，itisMeccaanditssacredstone；theChinese，tothisday，speakoftheirempireasthe“middlekingdom。”Itwasinaccordance，then，withasimpletendencyofhumanthoughtthattheJewsbelievedthecentreoftheworldtobeJerusalem。
　　ThebookofEzekielspeaksofJerusalemasinthemiddleoftheearth，andallotherpartsoftheworldassetaroundtheholycity。Throughoutthe“agesoffaith“thiswasverygenerallyacceptedasadirectrevelationfromtheAlmightyregardingtheearth’sform。St。Jerome，thegreatestauthorityoftheearlyChurchupontheBible，declared，onthestrengthofthisutteranceoftheprophet，thatJerusalemcouldbenowherebutattheearth’scentre；intheninthcenturyArchbishopRabanusMaurusreiteratedthesameargument；intheeleventhcenturyHughofSt。Victorgavetothedoctrineanotherscripturaldemonstration；andPopeUrban，inhisgreatsermonatClermonturgingtheFrankstothecrusade，declared，“Jerusalemisthemiddlepointoftheearth“；inthethirteenthcenturyanecclesiasticalwritermuchinvogue，themonkCaesariusofHeisterbach，declared，“Astheheartinthemidstofthebody，soisJerusalemsituatedinthemidstofourinhabitedearth。”——“soitwasthatChristwascrucifiedatthecentreoftheearth。”
　　DanteacceptedthisviewofJerusalemasacertainty，weddingittoimmortalverse；andinthepiousbookoftravelsascribedtoSirJohnMandeville，sowidelyreadintheMiddleAges，itisdeclaredthatJerusalemisatthecentreoftheworld，andthataspearstandingerectattheHolySepulchrecastsnoshadowattheequinox。
　　Ezekiel’sstatementthusbecamethestandardoforthodoxytoearlymap-makers。ThemapoftheworldatHerefordCathedral，themapsofAndreaBianco，MarinoSanuto，andamultitudeofothersfixedthisviewinmen’sminds，anddoubtlessdiscouragedduringmanygenerationsanyscientificstatementstendingtounbalancethisgeographicalcentrerevealedinScripture。[30]
　　[30]Forbeliefsofvariousnationsofantiquitythattheearth’scenterwasintheirmostsacredplace，seecitationsfromMaspero，Charton，Sayce，andothersinLethaby，Architecture，Mysticism，andMyth，chap。iv。AstotheGreeks，wehavetypicalstatementsintheEumenidesofAeschylus，wherethestoneinthealtaratDelphiisrepeatedlycalled“theearth’snavel“——whichispreciselytheexpressionusedregardingJerusalemintheSeptuaginttranslationofEzekielseebelow。TheprooftextsonwhichthemediaevalgeographersmainlyreliedastotheformoftheearthwereEzekielv，5，andxxxviii，12。TheprogressofgeographicalknowledgeevidentlycausedthemtobesofteneddownsomewhatinourKingJames’sversion；butthefirstofthemreads，intheVulgate，“IstaestHierusalem，inmediogentiumposuieametincircuituejusterrae“；andthesecondreads，intheVulgate，“inmedioterrae。”andintheSeptuagint，。
　　Thattheliteralcentreoftheearthwasunderstood，seeproofinSt。Jerome，Commentat。inEzekiel，lib。ii；andforgeneralproof，seeLeopardi，Saggiosopraglierroripopolaridegliantichi，pp。207，208。ForRabanusMaurus，seehisDeUniverso，lib。xii，cap。4，inMigne，tomecxi，p。339。ForHughofSt。
　　Victor，sehisDeSituTerrarum，cap。ii。ForDante’sbelief，seeInferno，cantoxxxiv，112-115：
　　“Ese’orsottol’emisperiogiunto，Ch’eoppositoaquelchelagranseccaCoverchia，esottoilcuicolmoconsuntoFul’uomchenacqueevissesenzapecca。”
　　FororthodoxgeographyintheMiddleAges，seeWright’sEssaysonArchaeology，vol。ii，chapteronthemapoftheworldinHerefordCathedral；alsotherudemapsinCardinald’Ailly’sYmagoMundi；
　　alsocopiesofmapsofMarinoSanutoandothersinPeschel，Erdkunde，p。210；alsoMunster，FacSimiledell’AtlantediAndreaBianco，Venezia，1869。Andfordiscussionsofthewholesubject，seeSatarem，vol。ii，p。295，vol。iii，pp。71，183，184，andelsewhere。Forabriefsummarywithcitations，seeEiken，Geschichte，etc。，pp。622，623。