ThebeliefthateverycometisaballoffireflungfromtherighthandofanangryGodtowarnthegrovellingdwellersofearthwasreceivedintotheearlyChurch，transmittedthroughtheMiddleAgestotheReformationperiod，andinitstransmissionwasmadeallthemorepreciousbysupposedtextualproofsfromScripture。ThegreatfathersoftheChurchcommittedthemselvesunreservedlytoit。InthethirdcenturyOrigen，perhapsthemostinfluentialoftheearlierfathersoftheuniversalChurchinallquestionsbetweenscienceandfaith，insistedthatcometsindicatecatastrophesandthedownfallofempiresandworlds。
　　Bede，sojustlyreveredbytheEnglishChurch，declaredintheeighthcenturythat“cometsportendrevolutionsofkingdoms，pestilence，war，winds，orheat“；andJohnofDamascus，hiseminentcontemporaryintheEasternChurch，tookthesameview。
　　RabanusMaurus，thegreatteacherofEuropeintheninthcentury，anauthoritythroughouttheMiddleAges，adoptedBede’sopinionfully。St。ThomasAquinas，thegreatlightoftheuniversalChurchinthethirteenthcentury，whoseworksthePopenowreigningcommendsasthecentreandsourceofalluniversityinstruction，acceptedandhandeddownthesameopinion。ThesaintedAlberttheGreat，themostnotedgeniusofthemedievalChurchinnaturalscience，receivedanddevelopedthistheory。
　　Thesemenandthosewhofollowedthemfoundeduponscripturaltextsandtheologicalreasoningsasystemthatforseventeencenturiesdefiedeveryadvanceofthought。[93]
　　[93]ForOrigen，sehisDePrincip。，vol。i，p。7；alsoMaury，Leg。pieuses，p。203，note。ForBedeandothers，seeDeNat。，vol。xxiv；Joh。Dam。，DeFid。Or。，vol。ii，p。7；Maury，LaMagieetl’Astronomie，pp。181，182。ForAlbertusMagnus，seehisOpera，vol。i，tr。iii，chaps。x，xi。AmongthetextsofScriptureonwhichthisbeliefrestedwasespeciallyJoelii，30，31。
　　Themainevilsthencearisingwerethree：theparalysisofself-help，thearousingoffanaticism，andthestrengtheningofecclesiasticalandpoliticaltyranny。Thefirsttwooftheseevils——theparalysisofself-helpandthearousingoffanaticism——areevidentthroughoutalltheseages。AttheappearanceofacometweconstantlyseeallChristendom，frompopetopeasant，insteadofstrivingtoavertwarbywisestatesmanship，insteadofstrivingtoavertpestilencebyobservationandreason，insteadofstrivingtoavertfaminebyskilfuleconomy，whiningbeforefetiches，tryingtobribethemtoremovethesesignsofGod’swrath，andplanningtowreakthissupposedwrathofGoduponmisbelievers。
　　Astothethirdoftheseevils——thestrengtheningofecclesiasticalandcivildespotism——examplesappearoneveryside。Itwasnaturalthathierarchsandmonarchswhosebirthswereannouncedbystars，orwhosedeathswereannouncedbycomets，shouldregardthemselvesasfarabovethecommonherd，andshouldbesoregardedbymankind；passiveobediencewasthusstrengthened，andthemostmonstrousassumptionsofauthoritywereconsideredsimplyasmanifestationsoftheDivinewill。
　　ShakespearemakesCalphurniasaytoCaesar：
　　“Whenbeggarsdie，therearenocometsseen；
　　Theheavensthemselvesblazeforththedeathofprinces。”
　　Galeazzo，thetyrantofMilan，expressingsatisfactiononhisdeathbedthathisapproachingendwasofsuchimportanceastobeheraldedbyacomet，isbutatypeofmanythusencouragedtopreyuponmankind；andCharlesV，oneofthemostpowerfulmonarchstheworldhasknown，abdicatingunderfearofthecometof1556，takingrefugeinthemonasteryofSanYuste，andgivingupthebestofhisvastrealmstosuchascribblingbigotasPhilipII，furnishesanexampleevenmorestriking。[94]
　　[94]ForCaesar，seeShakespeare，JuliusCaesar，actii，sc。2。
　　ForGaleazzo，seeGuillemin，WorldofComets，p。19。ForCharlesV，seeProf。Wolf’sessayintheMonatschriftdeswissenschaftlichenVereins，Zurich，1857，p。228。
　　Butfortheretentionofthisbelieftherewasamoralcause。
　　MyriadsofgoodmenintheChristianChurchdowntoarecentperiodsawintheappearanceofcometsnotmerelyanexhibitionof“signsintheheavens“foretoldinScripture，butalsoDivinewarningsofvastvaluetohumanityasincentivestorepentanceandimprovementoflife-warnings，indeed，sopreciousthattheycouldnotbesparedwithoutdangertothemoralgovernmentoftheworld。AndthisbeliefintheportentouscharacterofcometsasanessentialpartoftheDivinegovernment，being，asitwasthought，infullaccordwithScripture，wasmadeforcenturiesasourceofterrortohumanity。Tosaynothingofexamplesintheearlierperiods，cometsinthetenthcenturyespeciallyincreasedthedistressofallEurope。InthemiddleoftheeleventhcenturyacometwasthoughttoaccompanythedeathofEdwardtheConfessorandtopresagetheNormanconquest；thetravellerinFranceto-daymayseethisbeliefasitwasthenwroughtintotheBayeuxtapestry。[95]
　　[95]Forevidencesofthiswidespreadterror，seechroniclesofRaoulGlaber，GuillaumedeNangis，WilliamofMalmesbury，FlorenceofWorcester，OrdericusVitalis，etal。，passim，andtheAnglo-SaxonChronicleintheRollsSeries。ForverythrillingpicturesofthishorrorinEngland，seeFreeman，NormanConquest，vol。iii，pp。640-644，andWilliamRufus，vol。ii，p。118。FortheBayeautapestry，seeBruce，BayeuxTapestryElucidated，plateviiandp。86；alsoGuillemin，WorldofComets，p。24。Thereisalargephotographiccopy，intheSouthKensingtonMuseumatLondon，oftheoriginal，wrought，asisgenerallybelieved，bythewifeofWilliamtheConquerorandherladies，andisstillpreservedinthetownmuseumatBayeux。
　　NearlyeverydecadeofyearsthroughouttheMiddleAgessawEuropeplungedintoalarmbyappearancesofthissort，buttheculminationseemstohavebeenreachedin1456。AtthattimetheTurks，afteralongeffort，hadmadegoodtheirfootinginEurope。Alargestatesmanshiporgeneralshipmighthavekeptthemout；but，whiledifferentreligiousfactionsweredisputingoverpettyshadesofdogma，theyhadadvanced，hadtakenConstantinople，andwereevidentlysecuringtheirfoothold。Nowcamethefullbloomofthissuperstition。Acometappeared。ThePopeofthatperiod，CalixtusIII，thoughamanofmorethanordinaryability，wassaturatedwiththeideasofhistime。
　　Alarmedatthismonster，ifwearetobelievethecontemporaryhistorian，thisinfallibleheadoftheChurchsolemnly“decreedseveraldaysofprayerfortheavertingofthewrathofGod，thatwhatevercalamityimpendedmightbeturnedfromtheChristiansandagainsttheTurks。”And，thatallmightjoindailyinthispetition，therewasthenestablishedthatmiddayAngeluswhichhaseversincecalledgoodCatholicstoprayeragainstthepowersofevil。Then，too，wasincorporatedintoalitanytheplea。”FromtheTurkandthecomet，goodLord，deliverus。”Neverwaspapalintercessionlesseffective；fortheTurkhasheldConstantinoplefromthatdaytothis，whiletheobstinatecomet，beingthatnowknownunderthenameofHalley，hasreturnedimperturbablyatshortperiodseversince。[96]
　　[96]Theusualstatementis，thatCalixtusexcommunicatedthecometbyabull，andthisisacceptedbyArago，Grant，Hoefer，Guillemin，Watson，andmanyhistoriansofastronomy。HencetheparallelismadeonanotedoccasionbyPresidentLincoln。Nosuchbull，however，istobefoundinthepublishedBulleria，andthatestablishingtheAngelusasgivenbyRaynaldusintheAnnalesEccl。containsnomentionofthecomet。ButtheauthorityofPlatinainhisVitaePontificum，Venice，1479，subCalistusIIIwhowasnotonlyinRomeatthetime，butwhenhewrotehishistory，archivistoftheVatican，isfinalastothePope’sattitude。Platina’sauthoritywasneverquestioneduntilmodernsciencechangedtheideasoftheworld。TherecentattemptofPastorinhisGeschichtederPapstetopooh-poohdownthewholematteristooevidentanevasiontocarryweightwiththosewhoknowhoweventhemostcarefulhistorieshavetobemodifiedtosuittheviewsofthecensorshipatRome。
　　Butthesuperstitionwentstillfurther。Itbecamemoreandmoreincorporatedintowhatwasconsidered“scripturalscience“and“soundlearning。”Theencyclopedicsummaries，inwhichthescienceoftheMiddleAgesandtheReformationperiodtookform，furnishabundantproofsofthis。
　　Yetscientificobservationwasslowlyunderminingthisstructure。
　　TheinspiredprophecyofSenecahadnotbeenforgotten。Evenasfarbackastheninthcentury，inthemidstofthesacredlearningsoabundantatthecourtofCharlemagneandhissuccessors，wefindascholarprotestingagainsttheaccepteddoctrine。InthethirteenthcenturywehaveamildquestionbyAlberttheGreatastothesupposedinfluenceofcometsuponindividuals；buttheprevailingtheologicalcurrentwastoostrong，andhefinallyyieldedtoitinthisasinsomanyotherthings。
　　So，too，inthesixteenthcentury，wehaveCopernicusrefusingtoaccepttheusualtheory，ParacelsuswritingtoZwingliagainstit，andJuliusCaesarScaligerdenouncingitas“ridiculousfolly。”[97]
　　[97]Astoencyclopedicsummaries，seeVincentofBeauvais，SpeculumNaturale，andthevariouseditionsofReisch’sMargaritaPhilosophica。ForCharlemagne’stime，seeChampion，LaFinduMonde，p。156；Leopardi，ErroriPopolari，p。165。AstoAlberttheGreat’squestion，seeHeller，GeschichtederPhysik，vol。i，p。188。Astoscepticisminthesixteenthcentury，seeChampion，LaFinduMonde，pp。155，156；andforScaliger，Dudith’sbook，citedbelow。
　　Atfirstthisscepticismonlyarousedthehorroroftheologiansandincreasedthevigourofecclesiastics；bothassertedthetheologicaltheoryofcometsallthemorestrenuouslyasbasedonscripturaltruth。DuringthesixteenthcenturyFrancefelttheinfluenceofoneofhergreatestmenonthesideofthissuperstition。JeanBodin，sofarbeforehistimeinpoliticaltheories，wasonlythoroughlyabreastofitinreligioustheories：thesamereverenceforthemereletterofScripturewhichmadehimsofatallypowerfulinsupportingthewitchcraftdelusion，ledhimtosupportthistheologicaltheoryofcomets——butwithadifference：hethoughtthemthesoulsofmen，wanderinginspace，bringingfamine，pestilence，andwar。
　　NotlessstrongwasthesamesuperstitioninEngland。Baseduponmediaevaltheology，itoutlivedtherevivaloflearning。Fromamultitudeofexamplesafewmaybeselectedastypical。EarlyinthesixteenthcenturyPolydoreVirgil，anecclesiasticoftheunreformedChurch，alludes，inhisEnglishHistory，tothepresageofthedeathoftheEmperorConstantinebyacometastoasimplematteroffact；andinhisworkonprodigieshepushesthissuperstitiontoitsmostextremepoint，exhibitingcometsasprecedingalmosteveryformofcalamity。
　　In1532，justatthetransitionperiodfromtheoldChurchtothenew，Cranmer，pavingthewaytohisarchbishopric，writesfromGermanytoHenryVIII，andsaysofthecometthenvisible：“Whatstrangethingsthesetokensdosignifytocomehereafter，Godknoweth；fortheydonotlightlyappearbutagainstsomegreatmatter。”
　　TwentyyearslaterBishopLatimer，inanAdventsermon，speaksofeclipses，ringsaboutthesun，andthelike，assignsoftheapproachingendoftheworld。[98]
　　[98]ForBodin，seeTheatr。，lib。ii，citedbyPingre，vol。i，p。
　　45；alsoavaguecitationinBaudrillart，BodinetsonTemps，p。
　　360。ForPolydoreVirgil，seeEnglishHistory，p。97inCamdenSocietyPublications。ForCranmer，seeRemains，vol。ii，p。535
　　inParkerSocietyPublications。ForLatimer，seeSermons，secondSundayinAdvent，1552。
　　In1580，underQueenElizabeth，therewassetforthan“orderofprayertoavertGod’swrathfromus，threatenedbythelateterribleearthquake，tobeusedinallparishchurches。”Inconnectionwiththistherewasalsocommendedtothefaithful“agodlyadmonitionforthetimepresent“；andamongthethingsreferredtoasevidenceofGod’swratharecomets，eclipses，andfallsofsnow。
　　ThisviewheldswayintheChurchofEnglandduringElizabeth’swholereignandfarintotheStuartperiod：Strype，theecclesiasticalannalist，givesampleevidenceofthis，andamongthemorecuriousexamplesisthesurmisethatthecometof1572