Intheseventeenthcenturyableargumentsagainstthesuperstition，ongeneralgrounds，begantobemultiplied。InHolland，BalthasarBekkeropposedthis，asheopposedthewitchcraftdelusion，ongeneralphilosophicgrounds；andLubienitzkywroteinacompromisingspirittoprovethatcometswereasoftenfollowedbygoodasbyevilevents。InFrance，PierrePetit，formerlygeographerofLouisXIII，andanintimatefriendofDescartes，addressedtotheyoungLouisXIVavehementprotestagainstthesuperstition，basinghisargumentsnotonastronomy，butoncommonsense。AveryeffectivepartofthelittletreatisewasdevotedtoansweringtheauthorityofthefathersoftheearlyChurch。Todothis，hesimplyremindedhisreadersthatSt。AugustineandSt。JohnDamascenushadalsoopposedthedoctrineoftheantipodes。ThebookdidgoodserviceinFrance，andwastranslatedinGermanyafewyearslater。[116]
　　[116]ForBlaisedeVigenere，seehisTraitedesCometes，Paris，1578。ForDudith，seehisDeCometarumDignificatione，Basle，1579，towhichtheletterofErastusisappended。Bekker’sviewsmaybefoundinhisOnderzoekvandeBetekeningderCometen，Leeuwarden，1683。ForLubienitsky’s，seehisTheatrumCometicum，Amsterdam，1667，inpartii：HistoriaCometarum，preface“tothereader。”ForPetit，seehisDissertationsurlaNaturedesCometes，Paris，1665Germantranslation，DresdenandZittau，1681。
　　Alltheseweredenouncedasinfidelsandheretics，yetnonethelessdidtheysetmenatthinking，andpreparethewayforafargreatergenius；fortowardtheendofthesamecenturythephilosophicattackwastakenupbyPierreBayle，andinthewholeseriesofphilosophicchampionsheischief。WhileprofessorattheUniversityofSedanhehadobservedthealarmcausedbythecometof1680，andhenowbroughtallhisreasoningpowerstobearuponit。Thoughtsdeepandwittyhepouredoutinvolumeaftervolume。CatholicsandProtestantswerealikescandalized。
　　CatholicFrancespurnedhim，andJurieu，thegreatReformeddivine，calledhiscometaryviews“atheism。”andtriedhardtohaveProtestantHollandcondemnhim。ThoughBayledidnottouchimmediatelythemassofmankind，hewroughtwithpoweruponmenwhogavethemselvesthetroubleofthinking。ItwasindeedunfortunatefortheChurchthattheologians，insteadoftakingtheinitiativeinthismatter，leftittoBayle；for，intearingdownthepretendedscripturaldoctrineofcomets，hetoredownmuchelse：ofallmeninhistime，noonesothoroughlypreparedthewayforVoltaire。
　　Bayle’swholeargumentisrootedintheprophecyofSeneca。Hedeclares：“CometsarebodiessubjecttotheordinarylawofNature，andnotprodigiesamenabletonolaw。”Heshowshistoricallythatthereisnoreasontoregardcometsasportentsofearthlyevils。Astothefactthatsuchevilsoccurafterthepassageofcometsacrossthesky，hecomparesthepersonbelievingthatcometscausetheseevilstoawomanlookingoutofawindowintoaParisstreetandbelievingthatthecarriagespassbecauseshelooksout。Astotheaccomplishmentofsomepredictions，hecitestheshrewdsayingofHenryIV，totheeffectthat“thepublicwillrememberonepredictionthatcomestruebetterthanalltherestthathaveprovedfalse。”Finally，hesumsupbysaying：“Themorewestudyman，themoredoesitappearthatprideishisrulingpassion，andthatheaffectsgrandeureveninhismisery。Meanandperishablecreaturethatheis，hehasbeenabletopersuadementhathecannotdiewithoutdisturbingthewholecourseofNatureandobligingtheheavenstoputthemselvestofreshexpense。Inordertolighthisfuneralpomp。Foolishandridiculousvanity！Ifwehadajustideaoftheuniverse，weshouldsooncomprehendthatthedeathorbirthofaprinceistooinsignificantamattertostirtheheavens。”[117]
　　[117]RegardingBayle，seeMadler，Himmelskunde，vol。i，p。327。
　　ForspecialpointsofinterestinBayle’sarguments，seehisPenseesDiversessurlesCometes，Amsterdam，1749，pp。79，102，134，206。FortheresponsetoJurieu，seethecontinuationdesPensees，Rotterdam，1705；alsoChampion，p。164，Lecky，ubisupra，andGuillemin，pp。29，30。
　　Thisgreatphilosophicchampionofrightreasonwasfollowedbyaliterarychampionhardlylessfamous；forFontenellenowgavetotheFrenchtheatrehisplayofTheComet，andapointofcapitalimportanceinFrancewasmadebyrenderingthearmyofignoranceridiculous。[118]
　　[118]SeeFontenelle，citedbyChampion，p。167。
　　Suchwasthelineofphilosophicandliteraryattack，asdevelopedfromScaligertoFontenelle。Butbeneathandinthemidstofallofit，fromfirsttolast，givingfirmness，strength，andnewsourcesofvitalitytoit，wasthesteadydevelopmentofscientificeffort；andtotheseriesofgreatmenwhopatientlywroughtandthoughtoutthetruthbyscientificmethodsthroughallthesecenturiesbelongthehonoursofthevictory。
　　Forgenerationsmeninvariouspartsoftheworldhadbeenmakingcarefulobservationsonthesestrangebodies。AsfarbackasthetimewhenLutherandMelanchthonandZwingliwereplungedintoalarmbyvariouscometsfrom1531to1539，PeterApiankepthisheadsufficientlycooltomakescientificnotesoftheirpathsthroughtheheavens。Alittlelater，whenthegreatcometof1556scaredpopes，emperors，andreformersalike，suchmenasFabriciusatViennaandHelleratNurembergquietlyobserveditspath。InvaindidmenlikeDieterichandHeerbrandandCelichfromvariouspartsofGermanydenouncesuchobservationsandinvestigationsasimpious；theyweresteadilycontinued，andin1577camethefirstwhichledtothedistinctfoundationofthemoderndoctrine。InthatyearappearedacometwhichagainplungedEuropeintoalarm。IneveryEuropeancountrythisalarmwasstrong，butinGermanystrongestofall。Thechurcheswerefilledwithterror-strickenmultitudes。CelichpreachingatMagdeburgwasechoedbyHeerbrandpreachingatTubingen，andboththesefromthousandsofotherpulpits，CatholicandProtestant，throughoutEurope。Inthemidstofallthisdinandoutcryafewmenquietlybutsteadilyobservedthemonster；andTychoBraheannounced，astheresult，thatitspathlayfartherfromtheearththantheorbitofthemoon。Anothergreatastronomicalgenius，Kepler，confirmedthis。Thisdistinctbeginningofthenewdoctrinewasbitterlyopposedbytheologians；theydenounceditasoneoftheevilresultsofthatscientificmeddlingwiththedesignsofProvidenceagainstwhichtheyhadsolongdeclaimedinpulpitsandprofessors’chairs；theyevenbroughtforwardsomeastronomersambitiousorwrong-headedenoughtotestifythatTychoandKeplerwereinerror。[119]
　　[119]SeeMadler，Himmelskunde，vol。i，pp。181，197；alsoWolf，Gesch。d。Astronomie，andJanssen，Gesch。d。deutschenVolkes，vol。v，p。350。Heerbrand’ssermon，citedabove，isagoodspecimenofthetheologicattitude。SeePingre，vol。ii，p。81。
　　Nothingcouldbemorenaturalthansuchopposition；forthissimpleannouncementbyTychoBrahebegananewera。Itshooktheveryfoundationofcometarysuperstition。TheAristotelianview，developedbythetheologians，wasthatwhatlieswithinthemoon’sorbitappertainstotheearthandisessentiallytransitoryandevil，whilewhatliesbeyonditbelongstotheheavensandispermanent，regular，andpure。TychoBraheandKepler，therefore，havingbymeansofscientificobservationandthoughttakencometsoutofthecategoryofmeteorsandappearancesintheneighbourhoodoftheearth，andplacedthemamongtheheavenlybodies，dealtablowattheveryfoundationsofthetheologicalargument，andgaveagreatimpulsetotheideathatcometsarethemselvesheavenlybodiesmovingregularlyandinobediencetolaw。
　　Attemptswerenowmadetocompromise。Itwasdeclaredthat，whilesomecometsweredoubtlesssupralunar，somemustbesublunar。Butthisadmissionwasnolessfatalonanotheraccount。DuringmanycenturiesthetheoryfavouredbytheChurchhadbeen，aswehaveseen，thattheearthwassurroundedbyhollowspheres，concentricandtransparent，forminganumberofglassystrataincasingoneanother“likethedifferentcoatingsofanonion。”andthateachoftheseinitsmovementabouttheearthcarriesoneormoreoftheheavenlybodies。Somemaintainedthatthesesphereswerecrystal；butLactantius，andwithhimvariousfathersoftheChurch，spokeoftheheavenlyvaultasmadeofice。Now，theadmissionthatcometscouldmovebeyondthemoonwasfataltothistheory，foritsentthemcrashingthroughthesespheresoficeorcrystal，andthereforethroughthewholesacredfabricofthePtolemaictheory。[120]
　　[120]Forthesefeaturesincometarytheory，seePingre，vol。i，p。89；alsoHumboldt，CosmosEnglishtranslation，London，1868，vol。iii，p。169。
　　Herewemaypauseforamomenttonoteoneofthechiefdifferencesbetweenscientificandtheologicalreasoningconsideredinthemselves。Kepler’smainreasoningastotheexistenceofalawforcometarymovementwasright；buthissecondaryreasoning，thatcometsmovenearlyinstraightlines，waswrong。HisrightreasoningwasdevelopedbyGassendiinFrance，byBorelliinItaly，byHevelandDoerfelinGermany，byEysatandBernouilliinSwitzerland，byPercyand——mostimportantofall，asregardsmathematicaldemonstration——byNewtoninEngland。Thegeneraltheory，whichwastrue，theyacceptedanddeveloped；thesecondarytheory，whichwasfounduntrue，theyrejected；and，asaresult，bothofwhattheythusacceptedandofwhattheyrejected，wasevolvedthebasisofthewholemoderncometarytheory。
　　Verydifferentwasthisfromthetheologicalmethod。Asarule，whentherearisesathinkerasgreatintheologyasKeplerinscience，thewholemassofhisconclusionsripensintoadogma。
　　Hisdiscipleslabournottotestit，buttoestablishit；andwhile，intheCatholicChurch，itbecomesadogmatobebelievedordisbelievedunderthepenaltyofdamnation，itbecomesintheProtestantChurchthebasisforonemoresect。
　　VariousastronomerslabouredtodevelopthetruthdiscoveredbyTychoandstrengthenedbyKepler。CassiniseemedlikelytowinforItalythegloryofcompletingthegreatstructure；buthewassadlyfetteredbyChurchinfluences，andwasobligedtoleavemostoftheworktoothers。EarlyamongthesewasHevel。Hegavereasonsforbelievingthatcometsmoveinparaboliccurvestowardthesun。Thencameamanwhodevelopedthistruthfurther——SamuelDoerfel；anditisapleasuretonotethathewasaclergyman。Thecometof1680，whichsetErniinSwitzerland，MatherinNewEngland，andsomanyothersinallpartsoftheworldatdeclaiming，setDoerfelatthinking。UndismayedbytheauthorityofOrigenandSt。JohnChrysostom，theargumentsofLuther，Melanchthon，andZwingli，theoutcriesofCelich，Heerbrand，andDieterich，heponderedovertheprobleminhislittleSaxonparsonage，untilin1681hesetforthhisproofsthatcometsareheavenlybodiesmovinginparabolasofwhichthesunisthefocus。Bernouilliarrivedatthesameconclusion；
　　and，finally，thisgreatseriesofmenandworkswasclosedbythegreatestofall，whenNewton，in1686，havingtakenthedatafurnishedbythecometof1680，demonstratedthatcometsareguidedintheirmovementsbythesameprinciplethatcontrolstheplanetsintheirorbits。Thuswascompletedtheevolutionofthisnewtruthinscience。
　　Yetwearenottosupposethatthesetwogreatseriesofphilosophicalandscientificvictoriesclearedthefieldofallopponents。Declamationandpretendeddemonstrationoftheoldtheologicviewwerestillheard；butthedayofcompletevictorydawnedwhenHalley，aftermostthoroughobservationandcalculation，recognisedthecometof1682asonewhichhadalreadyappearedatstatedperiods，andforetolditsreturninaboutseventy-fiveyears；andthebattlewasfullywonwhenClairaut，secondedbyLalandeandMme。Lepaute，predicteddistinctlythetimewhenthecometwouldarriveatitsperihelion，andthispredictionwasverified。[121]ThenitwasthataRomanheathenphilosopherwasprovedmoreinfallibleandmoredirectlyunderDivineinspirationthanaRomanChristianpontiff；fortheverycometwhichthetravellerfindsto-daydepictedontheBayeuxtapestryasportendingdestructiontoHaroldandtheSaxonsattheNormaninvasionofEngland，andwhichwasregardedbyPopeCalixtusasportendingeviltoChristendom，wasfoundsixcenturieslatertobe，asSenecahadprophesied，aheavenlybodyobeyingthegreatlawsoftheuniverse，andcomingatregularperiods。Thenceforththewholeponderousengineryofthissuperstition，withitsproof-textsregarding“signsintheheavens。”itstheologicalreasoningtoshowthemoralnecessityofcometarywarnings，anditsecclesiasticalfulminationsagainstthe“atheism，godlessness，andinfidelity“ofscientificinvestigation，wasseenbyallthinkingmentobeasweakagainstthescientificmethodasIndianarrowsagainstneedleguns。Copernicus，Galileo，Cassini，Doerfel，Newton，Halley，andClairauthadgainedthevictory。[122]
　　[121]SeePingre，vol。i，p。53；Grant，HistoryofPhysicalAstronomy，p。305，etc。，etc。ForacuriouspartialanticipationbyHooke，in1664，ofthegreattruthannouncedbyHalleyin1682，seePepy’sDiaryforMarch1，1664。ForexcellentsummariesofthewholeworkofHalleyandClairautandtheirforerunnersandassociates，seePingre，Madler，Wolf，Arago，etal。
　　[122]InaccordancewithHalley’sprophecy，thecometof1682hasreturnedin1759and1835。SeeMadler，Guillemin，Watson，Grant，Delambre，Proctor，articleAstronomyinEncycl。Brit。，andespeciallyfordetails，Wolf，pp。407-412and701-722。ForclearstatementregardingDoerfel，seeWolf，p。411。
　　Itisinstructivetonote，evenafterthemainbattlewaslost，arenewaloftheattempt，alwaysseenunderlikecircumstances，toeffectacompromise，toestablisha“safescience“ongroundspseudo-scientificandpseudo-theologic。Luther，withhisstrongcommonsense，hadforeshadowedthis；Keplerhadexpressedawillingnesstoacceptit。Itwasinsistedthatcometsmightbeheavenlybodiesmovinginregularorbits，andevenobedienttolaw，andyetbesentas“signsintheheavens。”Manygoodmenclunglonginglytothisphaseoftheoldbelief，andin1770