EarlyinthefollowingcenturySirWalterRaleigh，inhisHistoryoftheWorld1603-1616，pointedoutthedangerofadheringtotheoldsystem。He，too，foresawoneoftheresultsofmoderninvestigation，statingitinthesewords，whichhavetheringofpropheticinspiration：“ForinAbraham’stimeallthethenknownpartsoftheworldweredeveloped……Egypthadmanymagnificentcities，……andthesenotbuiltwithsticks，butofhewnstone，……whichmagnificenceneededaparentofmoreantiquitythantheseothermenhavesupposed。”InviewoftheseconsiderationsRaleighfollowedthechronologyoftheSeptuagintversion，whichenabledhimtogivetothehumanraceafewmoreyearsthanwereusuallyallowed。
AboutthemiddleoftheseventeenthcenturyIsaacVossius，oneofthemosteminentscholarsofChristendom，attemptedtobringtheprevailingbeliefintocloseraccordancewithascertainedfacts，but，savebyachosenfew，hiseffortswererejected。InsomepartsofEuropeamanholdingnewviewsonchronologywasbynomeanssafefrombodilyharm。Asanexampleoftheextremepressureexertedbytheoldtheologicalsystemattimesuponhonestscholars，wemaytakethecaseofLaPeyrere，whoaboutthemiddleoftheseventeenthcenturyputforthhisbookonthePre-Adamites——anattempttoreconcilesundrywell-knowndifficultiesinScripturebyclaimingthatmanexistedonearthbeforethetimeofAdam。Hewastakeninhandatonce；greattheologiansrushedforwardtoattackhimfromallpartsofEurope；withinfiftyyearsthirty-sixdifferentrefutationsofhisargumentshadappeared；theParliamentofParisburnedthebook，andtheGrandVicarofthearchdioceseofMechlinthrewhimintoprisonandkepthimthereuntilhewasforced，notonlytoretracthisstatements，buttoabjurehisProtestantism。
InEngland，oppositiontothegrowingtruthwashardlylessearnest。EspeciallystrongwasPearson，afterwardMasterofTrinityandBishopofChester。InhistreatiseontheCreed，publishedin1659，whichhasremainedatheologicclassic，hecondemnedthosewhoheldtheearthtobemorethanfifty-sixhundredyearsold，insistedthatthefirstmanwascreatedjustsixdayslater，declaredthattheEgyptianrecordswereforged，andcalledallChristianstoturnfromthemto“theinfallibleannalsoftheSpiritofGod。”
But，inspiteofwarningslikethese，weseethenewideacroppingoutinvariouspartsofEurope。In1672，SirJohnMarshampublishedaworkinwhichheshowedhimselfboldandhonest。AfterdescribingtheheathensourcesofOrientalhistory，heturnstotheChristianwriters，and，havingusedthehistoryofEgypttoshowthatthegreatChurchauthoritieswerenotexact，heendsoneimportantargumentwiththefollowingwords：“ThusthemostinterestingantiquitiesofEgypthavebeeninvolvedinthedeepestobscuritybytheveryinterpretersofherchronology，whohavejumbledeverythingupquiomniasusquedequepermiscuerunt，soastomakethemmatchwiththeirownreckoningsofHebrewchronology。Trulyaverybadexample，andquiteunworthyofreligiouswriters。”
ThissturdyprotestofSirJohnagainstthedominantsystemandagainstthe“jumbling“bywhichEusebiushadendeavouredtocutdownancientchronologywithinsafeandsoundorthodoxlimits，hadlittleeffect。Thougheminentchronologistsoftheeighteenthcentury，likeJackson，Hales，andDrummond，gaveforthmultitudesofponderousvolumespleadingforaperiodsomewhatlongerthanthatgenerallyallowed，andinsistingthatthereceivedHebrewtextwasgrosslyvitiatedasregardschronology，eventhispoorfavourwasrefusedthem；themassofbelieversfounditmorecomfortabletoholdfastthefaithcommittedtothembyUsher，anditremainedsettledthatmanwascreatedaboutfourthousandyearsbeforeourera。
Tothosewhowishedevengreaterprecision，Dr。JohnLightfoot，Vice-ChancelloroftheUniversityofCambridge，thegreatrabbinicalscholarofhistime，gavehisfamousdemonstrationfromoursacredbooksthat“heavenandearth，centreandcircumference，werecreatedtogether，inthesameinstant，andcloudsfullofwater。”andthat“thisworktookplaceandmanwascreatedbytheTrinityonthetwenty-thirdofOctober，4004B。C。，atnineo’clockinthemorning。”
Thistideoftheologicalreasoningrolledonthroughtheeighteenthcentury，swollenbythebiblicalresearchesofleadingcommentators，CatholicandProtestant，untilitcameinmuchmajestyandforceintoourownnineteenthcentury。AttheverybeginningofthecenturyitgainednewstrengthfromvariousgreatmenintheChurch，amongwhommaybeespeciallynamedDr。
AdamClarke，whodeclaredthat，“toprecludethepossibilityofamistake，theunerringSpiritofGoddirectedMosesintheselectionofhisfactsandtheascertainingofhisdates。”
Alloppositiontothereceivedviewseemedbrokendown，andaslateas1835——indeed，aslateas1850——cameanannouncementintheworkofoneofthemosteminentEgyptologists，SirJ。G。
Wilkinson，totheeffectthathehadmodifiedtheresultshehadobtainedfromEgyptianmonuments，inorderthathischronologymightnotinterferewiththereceiveddateoftheDelugeofNoah。[183]
[183]ForLightfoot，seehisProlegomenarelatingtotheageoftheworldatthebirthofChrist；seealsointheeditionofhisworks，London，1822，vol。4，pp。64，112。ForScaliger，seeintheDeEmendationeTemporum，1583；alsoMarkPattison，Essays，Oxford，1889，vol。i，pp。162etseq。ForRaleigh’smisgivings，seehisHistoryoftheWorld，London，1614，p。227，bookiiofparti，section7ofchapteri；alsoClinton’sFastiHellenici，vol。ii，p。293。ForUsher，seehisAnnalesVet。etNov。Test。，London，1650。ForPearson，seehisExpositionoftheCreed，sixthedition，London，1692，pp。59etseq。ForMarsham，seehisChronicusCanonAegypticus，Ebraicus，Graecus，etDisquisitiones，London，1672。ForLaPeyrere，seeespeciallyQuatrefarges，inRevuedeDeuxMondesfor1861；alsootherchaptersinthiswork。
ForJackson，Hales，andothers，seeWallace’sTrueAgeoftheWorld。ForWilkinson，seevariouseditionsofhisworkonEgypt。
ForVignolles，seeLeblois，vol。iii，p。617。Astothedeclarationinfavoroftherecentoriginofman，sanctionedbyPopesGregoryXIIIandUrbanVIII，seeStrachius，citedinWallace，p。97。ForthegeneralagreementofChurchauthorities，asstated，seeL’ArtdeVerifierlesDates，asabove。Astodifficultiesofscripturalchronology，seeEwald，HistoryofIsrael，Englishtranslation，London，1883，pp。204etseq。
II。THENEWCHRONOLOGY。
ButallinvestigatorswerenotsodocileasWilkinson，andtheresooncameanewtrainofscientificthoughtwhichrapidlyunderminedallthistheologicalchronology。Nottospeakofothernotedmen，wehaveearlyinthepresentcenturyYoung，Champollion，andRosellini，beginninganewepochinthestudyoftheEgyptianmonuments。Nothingcouldbemorecautiousthantheirprocedure，buttheevidencewassoonoverwhelminginfavourofavastlylongerexistenceofmanintheNileValleythancouldbemadetoagreewitheventhelongestdurationthenallowedbytheologians。For，inspiteofallthesupplenessofmenlikeWilkinson，itbecameevidentthat，whateversystemofscripturalchronologywasadopted，Egyptwastheseatofaflourishingcivilizationataperiodbeforethe“FloodofNoah。”andthatnosuchfloodhadeverinterruptedit。Thiswasbad，butworseremainedbehind：itwassoonclearthatthecivilizationofEgyptbeganearlierthanthetimeassignedforthecreationofman，evenaccordingtothemostliberalofthesacredchronologists。
Astimewenton，thisbecamemoreandmoreevident。ThelongdurationassignedtohumancivilizationinthefragmentsofManetho，theEgyptianscribeatThebesinthethirdcenturyB。C。，wasdiscoveredtobemoreaccordantwithtruththanthechronologiesofthegreattheologians；and，asthepresentcenturyhasgoneon，scientificresultshavebeenreachedabsolutelyfataltothechronologicalviewbasedbytheuniversalChurchuponScripturefornearlytwothousandyears。
Asiswellknown，thefirstoftheEgyptiankingsofwhommentionismadeuponthemonumentsoftheNileValleyisMena，orMenes。
Manethohadgivenastatement，accordingtowhichMenamusthavelivednearlysixthousandyearsbeforetheChristianera。Thiswaslookeduponforalongtimeasutterlyinadmissible，asitwassoclearlyatvariancewiththechronologyofourownsacredbooks；but，astimewenton，largefragmentsoftheoriginalworkofManethoweremorecarefullystudiedanddistinguishedfromcorrupttranscriptions，thelistsofkingsatKarnak，Sacquarah，andthetwotemplesatAbydoswerebroughttolight，andthelistsofcourtarchitectswerediscovered。AmongallthesemonumentsthescholarwhovisitsEgyptismostimpressedbythesculpturedtabletsgivingthelistsofkings。Eachshowsthemonarchoftheperioddoinghomagetothelonglineofhisancestors。Eachofthesesculpturedmonarchshasnearhimatabletbearinghisname。Thatgreatcarewasalwaystakentokeeptheseimposingrecordscorrectiscertain；theloyaltyofsubjects，thedevotionofpriests，andthefamilyprideofkingswereallcombinedinthis；andhoweffectivethiscarewas，isseeninthefactthatkingsnowknowntobeusurpersarecarefullyomitted。Thelistsofcourtarchitects，extendingovertheperiodfromSetitoDarius，throwafloodoflightovertheotherrecords。
Comparing，then，allthesesources，andapplyinganaveragefromthelengthsofthelongseriesofwell-knownreignstothereignspreceding，themostcarefulandcautiousscholarshavesatisfiedthemselvesthattheoriginalfragmentsofManethorepresenttheworkofamanhonestandwellinformed，and，aftermakingallallowancesfordiscrepanciesandtheoverlappingofreigns，ithasbecomeclearthattheperiodknownasthereignofMenamustbefixedatmorethanthreethousandyearsB。C。InthisthegreatEgyptologistsofourtimeconcur。Mariette，theeminentFrenchauthority，putsthedateat5004B。C。；Brugsch，theleadingGermanauthority，putsitatabout4500B。C。；andMeyer，thelatestandmostcautiousofthehistoriansofantiquity，declares3180B。C。thelatestpossibledatethatcanbeassignedit。WiththesedatestheforemostEnglishauthorities，SayceandFlindersPetrie，substantiallyagree。
ThisviewisalsoconfirmedonastronomicalgroundsbyMr。
Lockyer，theAstronomerRoyal。Wehaveit，then，astheresultofacenturyofworkbythemostacuteandtrainedEgyptologists，andwiththeinscriptionsuponthetemplesandpapyribeforethem，bothofwhicharenowreadwithasmuchfacilityasmanymedievalmanuscripts，thatthereignofMenamustbeplacedmorethanfivethousandyearsago。
ButthesignificanceofthisconclusioncannotbefullyunderstooduntilwebringintoconnectionwithitsomeotherfactsrevealedbytheEgyptianmonuments。
ThefirstoftheseisthatwhichstruckSirWalterRaleigh，that，eveninthetimeofthefirstdynastiesintheNileValley，ahighcivilizationhadalreadybeendeveloped。Take，first，manhimself：wefindsculpturedupontheearlymonumentstypesofthevariousraces——Egyptians，Israelites，negroes，andLibyans——asclearlydistinguishableinthesepaintingsandsculpturesoffromfourtosixthousandyearsagoasthesametypesareatthepresentday。NoonecanlookatthesesculpturesupontheEgyptianmonuments，oreventhedrawingsofthem，asgivenbyLepsiusorPrissed’Avennes，withoutbeingconvincedthattheyindicate，evenatthatremoteperiod，adifferenceofracessomarkedthatlongpreviousagesmusthavebeenrequiredtoproduceit。
ThesocialconditionofEgyptrevealedintheseearlymonumentsofartforcesustothesameconclusion。Thoseearliestmonumentsshowthataverycomplexsocietyhadeventhenbeendeveloped。Wenotonlyhaveaseparationbetweenthepriestlyandmilitaryorders，butagriculturists，manufacturers，andtraders，withawholeseriesofsubdivisionsineachoftheseclasses。Theearlytombsshowussculpturedandpaintedrepresentationsofadailylifewhicheventhenhadbeendevelopedintoavastwealthandvarietyofgrades，forms，andusages。
Take，next，thepoliticalandmilitarycondition。Onefactoutofmanyrevealsapolicywhichmusthavebeentheresultoflongexperience。Justasnow，attheendofthenineteenthcentury，theBritishGovernment，havingfoundthattheycannotrelyuponthenativeEgyptiansfortheprotectionofthecountry，aredrillingthenegroesfromtheinteriorofAfricaassoldiers，sothecelebratedinscriptionofPrinceUna，asfarbackasthesixthdynasty，speaksoftheMaksiornegroesleviedanddrilledbytensofthousandsfortheEgyptianarmy。
Take，next，engineering。Herewefindveryearlyoperationsinthewayofcanals，dikes，andgreatpublicedifices，soboldinconceptionandthoroughinexecutionastofillourgreatestengineersofthesedayswithastonishment。Thequarrying，conveyance，cutting，jointing，andpolishingoftheenormousblocksintheinterioroftheGreatPyramidalonearethemarveloftheforemoststone-workersofourcentury。