Havinglaidthesescripturalfoundations，Isidoreshowsconsiderablepowerofthought；indeed，attimes，whenhediscussestherainbow，rain，hail，snow，andfrost，histheoriesarerational，andgiveevidencethat，ifhecouldhavebrokenawayfromhisadhesiontotheletterofScripture，hemighthavegivenastrongimpulsetotheevolutionofatruescience。[203]
[203]ForCosmas，seehisTopographiaChristianainMontfaucon，Collectionovapatrum，vol。ii，andthemorecompleteaccountofhistheorygiveninthechapteronGeographyinthiswork。ForIsidore，seetheEtymologiae，lib。xiii，cap。7-9，Deordinecreaturarum，cap。3，4，andDenaturarerum，cap。29，30。
Migne，Patr。Lat。，vol。lxxxii，pp。476，477，vol。lxxxiii，pp。
920-922，1001-1003。
Aboutacenturylaterappeared，attheotherextremityofEurope，thesecondinthetriooftheologicalmenofscienceintheearlyMiddleAges——BedetheVenerable。Thenucleusofhistheoryalsoistobefoundintheacceptedviewofthe“firmament“andofthe“watersabovetheheavens。”derivedfromGenesis。Thefirmamentheholdstobespherical，andofanaturesubtileandfiery；theupperheavens，hesays，whichcontaintheangels，Godhastemperedwithice，lesttheyinflamethelowerelements。Astothewatersplacedabovethefirmament，lowerthanthespiritualheavens，buthigherthanallcorporealcreatures，hesays，“SomedeclarethattheywerestoredtherefortheDeluge，butothers，morecorrectly，thattheyareintendedtotemperthefireofthestars。”HegoesonwithlongdiscussionsastovariouselementsandforcesinNature，anddwellsatlengthupontheair，ofwhichhesaysthattheupper，sereneairisovertheheavens；whilethelower，whichiscoarse，withhumidexhalations，issentofffromtheearth，andthatinthisarelightning，hail，snow，ice，andtempests，findingproofofthisintheonehundredandforty-eighthPsalm，wherethesearecommandedto“praisetheLordfromtheearth。”[204]
[204]SeeBede，DenaturarerumMigne，Patr。Lat。，vol。xc。
SogreatwasBede’sauthority，thatnearlyalltheanonymousspeculationsofthenextfollowingcenturiesuponthesesubjectswereeventuallyascribedtohim。Inoneofthesespurioustreatisesanattemptismadetogetnewlightuponthesourcesofthewatersabovetheheavens，themainreliancebeingthesheetcontainingtheanimalsletdownfromheaven，inthevisionofSt。
Peter。Anotherofthesetreatisesisstillmorecurious，foritendeavourstoaccountforearthquakesandtidesbymeansoftheleviathanmentionedinScripture。Thischaracteristicpassagerunsasfollows：“Somesaythattheearthcontainstheanimalleviathan，andthatheholdshistailafterafashionofhisown，sothatitissometimesscorchedbythesun，whereuponhestrivestogetholdofthesun，andsotheearthisshakenbythemotionofhisindignation；hedrinksinalso，attimes，suchhugemassesofthewavesthatwhenhebelchesthemforthalltheseasfeeltheireffect。”Andthistheologicaltheoryofthetides，ascausedbythealternatesuctionandbelchingofleviathan，wentfarandwide。[205]
[205]SeethetreatiseDemundiconstitutione，inBede’sOperaMigne，Patr。Lat。，vol。xc，p。884。
InthewritingsthuscoveredwiththenameofBedethereismuchshowingascientificspirit，whichmighthavecometosomethingofpermanentvaluehaditnotbeenhamperedbythesupposednecessityofconformingtotheletterofScripture。ItisasstartlingasitisrefreshingtohearoneofthesemedievaltheoristsburstoutasfollowsagainstthosewhoarecontenttoexplaineverythingbythepowerofGod：“WhatismorepitiablethantosaythatathingIS，becauseGodisabletodoit，andnottoshowanyreasonwhyitisso，noranypurposeforwhichitisso；justasifGoddideverythingthatheisabletodo！YoutalklikeonewhosaysthatGodisabletomakeacalfoutofalog。ButDIDheeverdoit？Either，then，showareasonwhyathingisso，orapurposewhereforeitisso，orelseceasetodeclareitso。”[206]
[206]Forthisremonstrance，seetheElementaphilosophiae，inBede’sOperaMigne，Patr。Lat。，vol。xc，p。1139。Thistreatise，whichhasalsobeenprinted，underthetitleofDephilosophiamundi，amongtheworksofHonoriusofAutun，isbelievedbymodernscholarsHaureau，Werner，PooletobetheproductionofWilliamofConches。
ThemostpermanentcontributionofBedetoscientificthoughtinthisfieldwashisrevivaloftheviewthatthefirmamentismadeofice；andhesupportedthisfromthewordsinthetwenty-sixthchapterofJob，“Hebindethupthewatersinhisthickcloud，andthecloudisnotrentunderthem。”
AboutthebeginningoftheninthcenturyappearedthethirdinthattriumvirateofchurchmenwhoweretheoraclesofsacredsciencethroughouttheearlyMiddleAges——RabanusMaurus，AbbotofFuldaandArchbishopofMayence。Starting，likeallhispredecessors，fromthefirstchapterofGenesis，borrowinghereandtherefromtheancientphilosophers，andexcludingeverythingthatcouldconflictwiththeletterofScripture，hefollows，inhisworkupontheuniverse，histwopredecessors，IsidoreandBede，developingespeciallySt。Jerome’stheory，drawnfromEzekiel，thatthefirmamentisstrongenoughtoholdupthe“watersabovetheheavens。”becauseitismadeofice。
Forcenturiestheauthorityofthesethreegreatteacherswasunquestioned，andincountlessmanualsandcatechismstheirdoctrinewastranslatedanddilutedforthecommonmind。Butaboutthesecondquarterofthetwelfthcenturyapriest，HonoriusofAutun，producedseveraltreatiseswhichshowthatthoughtonthissubjecthadmadesomelittleprogress。Heexplainedtherainrationally，andmainlyinthemodernmanner；
withthethunderheislesssuccessful，butinsiststhatthethunderbolt“isnotstone，assomeassert。”Histhinkingisvigorousandindependent。Hadtheoristssuchashebeenmany，anewsciencecouldhavebeenrapidlyevolved，butthetheologicalcurrentwastoostrong。[207]
[207]ForRabanusMaurus，seetheComment。inGenesimandDeUniversoMigne，Patr。Lat。，vol。cvii，cxi。Foracharminglynaiveexampleoftheprimersreferredto，seethelittleAnglo-
Saxonmanualofastronomy，sometimesattributedtoAelfric；itisinthevernacular，butistranslatedinWright’sPopularTreatisesonScienceduringtheMiddleAges。Bedeis，ofcourse，itschiefsource。ForHonorius，seeDeimaginemundiandHexaemeronMigne，Patr。Lat。，vol。clxxii。TheDephilosophiamundi，themostrationalofall，is，however，believedbymodernscholarstobeunjustlyascribedtohim。Seenoteabove。
ThestrengthofthiscurrentwhichoverwhelmedthethoughtofHonoriusisseenagainintheworkoftheDominicanmonk，JohnofSanGeminiano，whointhethirteenthcenturygaveforthhisSummadeExemplisfortheuseofpreachersinhisorder。Ofitsthousandpages，overtwohundredaredevotedtoillustrationsdrawnfromtheheavensandtheelements。AcharacteristicspecimenishisexplanationofthePsalmist’sphrase，“Thearrowsofthethunder。”These，hetellsus，areforgedoutofadryvapourrisingfromtheearthandkindledbytheheatoftheupperair，whichthen，comingintocontactwithacloudjustturningintorain，“isconglutinatedlikeflourintodough。”but，beingtoohottobeextinguished，itsparticlesbecomemerelysharpenedatthelowerend，andsoblazingarrows，cleavingandburningeverythingtheytouch。[208]
[208]SeeJoannesaS。Geminiano，Summa，c。75。
Butfarmoreimportant，inthethirteenthcentury，wasthefactthatthemosteminentscientificauthorityofthatage，AlberttheGreat，BishopofRatisbon，attemptedtoreconcilethespeculationsofAristotlewiththeologicalviewsderivedfromthefathers。Inoneveryimportantrespectheimproveduponthemeteorologicalviewsofhisgreatmaster。Thethunderbolt，hesays，isnomerefire，buttheproductofblackcloudscontainingmuchmud，which，whenitisbakedbytheintenseheat，formsafieryblackorredstonethatfallsfromthesky，tearingbeamsandcrushingwallsinitscourse：suchhehasseenwithhisowneyes。[209]
[209]SeeAlbertusMagnus，IISent。，Op。，vol。xv，p。137，a。
citedbyHeller，Gesch。d。Physik，vol。i，p。184andhisLiberMethaurorum，III，iv，18ofwhichIhaveusedtheeditionofVenice，1488。
ThemonkishencyclopedistsofthelaterMiddleAgesaddedlittletothesetheories。AsweglanceoverthepagesofVincentofBeauvais，themonkBartholomew，andWilliamofConches，wenoteonlyagrowingdeferencetotheauthorityofAristotleassupplementingthatofIsidoreandBedeandexplainingsacredScripture。AristotleistreatedlikeaChurchfather，butextremecareistakennottogobeyondthegreatmaximofSt。
Augustine；then，littlebylittle，BedeandIsidorefallintothebackground，Aristotlefillsthewholehorizon，andhisutterancesaresecondinsacrednessonlytothetextofHolyWrit。
AcuriousillustrationofthedifficultiesthesemedievalscholarshadtomeetinreconcilingthescientifictheoriesofAristotlewiththeletteroftheBibleisseeninthecaseoftherainbow。ItistothehonourofAristotlethathisconclusionsregardingtherainbow，thoughslightlyerroneous，werebaseduponcarefulobservationandevolvedbyreasoningalone；buthisChristiancommentators，whileanxioustofollowhim，hadtobearinmindthescripturalstatementthatGodhadcreatedtherainbowasasigntoNoahthatthereshouldneveragainbeaFloodontheearth。EvensoboldathinkerasCardinald’Ailly，whosespeculationsastothegeographyoftheearthdidsomuchafterwardinstimulatingColumbus，falteredbeforethisstatement，acknowledgingthatGodalonecouldexplainit；butsuggestedthatpossiblyneverbeforetheDelugehadacloudbeensufferedtotakesuchapositiontowardthesunastocausearainbow。
Thelearnedcardinalwasalsoconstrainedtobelievethatcertainstarsandconstellationshavesomethingtodoincausingtherain，sincethesewouldbestexplainNoah’sforeknowledgeoftheDeluge。Inconnectionwiththisscripturaldoctrineofwindscameascripturaldoctrineofearthquakes：theywerebelievedtobecausedbywindsissuingfromtheearth，andthisviewwasbaseduponthepassageintheonehundredandthirty-fifthPsalm。”Hebringeththewindoutofhistreasuries。”[210]
[210]ForD’Ailly，seehisConcordiaastronomicaeveritatiscumtheologiaParis，1483——intheImagomundi——andVenice，1490；
alsoEck’scommentaryonAristotle’sMeteorologicaAusburg，1519，lib。ii，nota2；alsoReisch，Margaritaphilosophica，lib。
ix，c。18。
Suchwerethemaintypicalattemptsduringnearlyfourteencenturiestobuildupundertheologicalguidanceandwithinscripturallimitationsasacredscienceofmeteorology。Butthesetheoriesweremainlyevolvedintheefforttoestablishabasisandgeneraltheoryofphenomena：itstillremainedtoaccountforspecialmanifestations，andherecameatwofolddevelopmentoftheologicalthought。
Ononehand，thesephenomenawereattributedtotheAlmighty，and，ontheother，toSatan。Astothefirstofthesetheories，weconstantlyfindtheDivinewrathmentionedbytheearlierfathersasthecauseoflightning，hailstorms，hurricanes，andthelike。
IntheearlydaysofChristianityweseeacuriousstrugglebetweenpaganandChristianbeliefuponthispoint。NearthecloseofthesecondcenturytheEmperorMarcusAurelius，inhisefforttosavetheempire，foughtahotlycontestedbattlewiththeQuadi，inwhatisnowHungary。WhiletheissueofthisgreatbattlewasyetdoubtfultherecamesuddenlyablindingstormbeatingintothefacesoftheQuadi，andthisgavetheRomantroopstheadvantage，enablingMarcusAureliustowinadecisivevictory。Votariesofeachofthegreatreligionsclaimedthatthisstormwascausedbytheobjectoftheirownadoration。ThepagansinsistedthatJupiterhadsentthestorminobediencetotheirprayers，andontheAntonineColumnatRomewemaystillseethefigureofOlympianJovecastinghisthunderboltsandpouringastormofrainfromtheopenheavensagainsttheQuadi。
Ontheotherhand，theChristiansinsistedthatthestormhadbeensentbyJehovahinobediencetoTHEIRprayers；andTertullian，Eusebius，St。GregoryofNyssa，andSt。Jeromewereamongthosewhoinsisteduponthismeteorologicalmiracle；thefirsttwo，indeed，inthefervouroftheirargumentsforitsreality，allowingthemselvestobecarriedconsiderablybeyondexacthistoricaltruth。[211]
[211]Fortheauthorities，paganandChristian，seethenoteofMerivale，inhisHistoryoftheRomansundertheEmpire，chap。
lxviii。HerefersforstillfullercitationstoFynesClinton’sFastiRom。，p。24。
Astimewenton，thefathersdevelopedthisviewmoreandmorefromvarioustextsintheJewishandChristiansacredbooks，substitutingforJupiterflinginghisthunderboltstheAlmightywrappedinthunderandsendingforthhislightnings。ThroughtheMiddleAgesthiswasfostereduntilitcametobeacceptedasameretruism，enteringintoallmedievalthinking，andwasstillfurtherdevelopedbyanattempttospecifytheparticularsinswhichwerethuspunished。ThuseventherationalFlorentinehistorianVillaniascribedfloodsandfirestothe“toogreatprideofthecityofFlorenceandtheingratitudeofthecitizenstowardGod。”which，“ofcourse。”saysarecenthistorian，“meanttheirinsufficientattentiontotheceremoniesofreligion。”[212]