AnothersubjectwhichgaverisetomuchsearchingofScriptureandlongtrainsoftheologicalreasoningwasthedifferencebetweenthecreationofmanandthatofotherlivingbeings。
Greatstresswaslaidbytheologians，fromSt。BasilandSt。
AugustinetoSt。ThomasAquinasandBossuet，andfromLuthertoWesley，ontheradicaldistinctionindicatedinGenesis，Godhavingcreatedman“inhisownimage。”Whatthisstatementmeantwasseeninthelightofthelaterbiblicalstatementthat“AdambegatSethinhisownlikeness，afterhisimage。”
Inviewofthisandofwell-knowntextsincorporatedfromoldercreationlegendsintotheHebrewsacredbooksitcametobewidelyheldthat，whilemanwasdirectlymouldedandfashionedseparatelybytheCreator’shand，theanimalsgenerallywereevokedinnumbersfromtheearthandseabytheCreator’svoice。
AquestionnowarosenaturallyastotheDISTINCTIONSOFSPECIES
amonganimals。Thevastmajorityoftheologiansagreedinrepresentingallanimalsascreated“inthebeginning。”andnamedbyAdam，preservedintheark，andcontinuedeverafterwardunderexactlythesamespecies。Thisbeliefripenedintoadogma。
LikesomanyotherdogmasintheChurch，CatholicandProtestant，itsrealoriginsaretobefoundratherinpaganphilosophythanintheChristianScriptures；itcamefarmorefromPlatoandAristotlethanfromMosesandSt。Paul。Butthiswasnotconsidered：moreandmoreitbecamenecessarytobelievethateachandeverydifferenceofspecieswasimpressedbytheCreator“inthebeginning。”andthatnochangehadtakenplaceorcouldhavetakenplacesince。
Somedifficultiesarosehereandthereaszoologyprogressedandrevealedever-increasingnumbersofspecies；butthroughtheMiddleAges，andindeedlongaftertheReformation，thesedifficultieswereeasilysurmountedbymakingthearkofNoahlargerandlarger，andespeciallybyholdingthattherehadbeenahumanerrorinregardtoitsmeasurement。[13]
[13]ForSt。Augustine，seeDeGenesisandDeTrinitate，passim；
forBede，seeHexaemeron，lib。i，inMigne，tomexci，pp。21，36-
38，42；andDeSexDierumCriatione，inMigne，tomexciii，p。
215；forPeterLombardon“noxiousanimals。”seehisSententiae，lib。ii，dist。xv，3，Migne，tomecxcii，p。682；forWesley，Clarke，andWatson，seequotationsfromthemandnotestheretoinmychapteronGeology；forSt。Augustineon“superfluousanimals。”seetheDeGenesi，lib。i，cap。xvi，26；onLuther’sviewofflies，seetheTableTalkandhisfamousutterance，“Odiomuscasquiasuntimaginesdiaboliethoereticorum“；fortheagencyofAristotleandPlatoinfasteningthebeliefinthefixityofspeciesintoChristiantheology，seeSachs，GeschichtederBotanik，Munchen，1875，p。107andnote，alsop。113。
Butnaturallytherewasdevelopedamongbothecclesiasticsandlaymenahumandesiretogobeyondthesespecialpointsinthehistoryofanimatedbeings——adesiretoknowwhatthecreationreallyIS。
Currentlegends，stories，andtravellers’observations，poorastheywere，tendedpowerfullytostimulatecuriosityinthisfield。
ThreecenturiesbeforetheChristianeraAristotlehadmadethefirstreallygreatattempttosatisfythiscuriosity，andhadbegunadevelopmentofstudiesinnaturalhistorywhichremainsoneoftheleadingachievementsinthestoryofourrace。
ButthefeelingwhichwehavealreadyseensostrongintheearlyChurch——thatallstudyofNaturewasfutileinviewoftheapproachingendoftheworld——indicatedsoclearlyintheNewTestamentandvoicedsopowerfullybyLactantiusandSt。
Augustine——heldbackthiscurrentofthoughtformanycenturies。
Still，thebettertendencyinhumanitycontinuedtoassertitself。Therewas，indeed，aninfluencecomingfromtheHebrewScripturesthemselveswhichwroughtpowerfullytothisend；for，inspiteofallthatLactantiusorSt。AugustinemightsayastothefutilityofanystudyofNature，thegrandutterancesinthePsalmsregardingthebeautiesandwondersofcreation，inalltheglowofthetruestpoetry，ennobledthestudyevenamongthosewhomlogicdrewawayfromit。
But，asamatterofcourse，intheearlyChurchandthroughouttheMiddleAgesallsuchstudieswerecastinatheologicmould。
WithoutsomepurposeofbiblicalillustrationorspiritualedificationtheywereconsideredfutiletoomuchpryingintothesecretsofNaturewasverygenerallyheldtobedangerousbothtobodyandsoul；onlyforshowingforthGod’sgloryandhispurposesinthecreationweresuchstudiespraiseworthy。ThegreatworkofAristotlewasundereclipse。TheearlyChristianthinkersgavelittleattentiontoit，andthatlittlewasdevotedtotransformingitintosomethingabsolutelyopposedtohiswholespiritandmethod；inplaceofittheydevelopedthePhysiologusandtheBestiaries，minglingscripturalstatements，legendsofthesaints，andfancifulinventionswithpiousintentandchildlikesimplicity。Inplaceofresearchcameauthority——theauthorityoftheScripturesasinterpretedbythePhysioCogusandtheBestiaries——andtheseremainedtheprincipalsourceofthoughtonanimatedNatureforoverathousandyears。
Occasionally，indeed，fearwasshownamongtherulersintheChurch，evenatsuchpoorpryingintothecreationasthis，andinthefifthcenturyasynodunderPopeGelasiusadministeredarebuketothePhysiologus；buttheinterestinNaturewastoostrong：thegreatworkonCreationbySt。BasilhaddrawnfromthePhysiologuspreciousillustrationsofHolyWrit，andthestrongestoftheearlypopes，GregorytheGreat，virtuallysanctionedit。
ThuswasdevelopedasacredscienceofcreationandofthedivinepurposeinNature，whichwentondevelopingfromthefourthcenturytothenineteenth——fromSt。BasiltoSt。IsidoreofSeville，fromIsidoretoVincentofBeauvais，andfromVincenttoArchdeaconPaleyandtheBridgewaterTreatises。
LikeallelseintheMiddleAges，thissacredsciencewasdevelopedpurelybytheologicalmethods。Neglectingthewonderswhichthedissectionofthecommonestanimalswouldhaveaffordedthem，thesenaturalistsattemptedtothrowlightintoNaturebyingenioususeofscripturaltexts，byresearchamongthelivesofthesaints，andbytheplentifulapplicationofmetaphysics。
HenceevensuchstrongmenasSt。IsidoreofSevilletreasuredupaccountsoftheunicornanddragonsmentionedintheScripturesandofthephoenixandbasiliskinprofanewritings。
Hencesuchcontributionstoknowledgeasthatthebasiliskkillsserpentsbyhisbreathandmenbyhisglance，thatthelionwhenpursuedeffaceshistrackswiththeendofhistail，thatthepelicannourishesheryoungwithherownblood，thatserpentslayasidetheirvenombeforedrinking，thatthesalamanderquenchesfire，thatthehyenacantalkwithshepherds，thatcertainbirdsarebornofthefruitofacertaintreewhenithappenstofallintothewater，withothermassesofscienceequallyvaluable。
AstothemethodofbringingsciencetobearonScripture，thePhysiologusgivesanexample，illustratingthepassageinthebookofJobwhichspeaksoftheoldlionperishingforlackofprey。OutoftheattempttoexplainanunusualHebrewwordinthetexttherecameacuriousdevelopmentoferror，untilwefindfullyevolvedanaccountofthe“ant-lion。”which，itgivesustounderstand，wasthelionmentionedbyJob，anditsays：“Astotheant-lion，hisfatherhaththeshapeofalion，hismotherthatofanant；thefatherlivethuponfleshandthemotheruponherbs；thesebringforththeant-lion，acompoundofbothandinpartliketoeither；forhisforepartislikethatofalionandhishindpartlikethatofanant。Beingthuscomposed，heisneitherabletoeatfleshlikehisfathernorherbslikehismother，andsoheperisheth。”
InthemiddleofthethirteenthcenturywehaveatriumphofthistheologicalmethodinthegreatworkoftheEnglishFranciscanBartholomewonThePropertiesofThings。Thetheologicalmethodasappliedtoscienceconsistslargelyinacceptingtraditionandinspinningargumentstofitit。InthisfieldBartholomewwasamaster。HavingbegunwiththeintentmainlytoexplaintheallusionsinScripturetonaturalobjects，hesoonriseslogicallyintoasurveyofallNature。Discussingthe“cockatrice“ofScripture，hetellsus：“Hedriethandburnethleaveswithhistouch，andheisofsogreatvenomandperilousthatheslayethandwastethhimthatnighethhimwithouttarrying；andyettheweaselovercomethhim，forthebitingoftheweaselisdeathtothecockatrice。Neverthelessthebitingofthecockatriceisdeathtotheweaseliftheweaseleatnotruebefore。Andthoughthecockatricebevenomouswithoutremedywhileheisalive，yetheloosethallthemalicewhenheisburnttoashes。Hisashesbeaccountedprofitableinworkingofalchemy，andnamelyinturningandchangingofmetals。”
BartholomewalsoenlightensusontheanimalsofEgypt，andsays。”Ifthecrocodilefindethamanbythewater’sbrimheslayethhim，andthenheweepethoverhimandswallowethhim。”
NaturallythisgoodFranciscannaturalistdevotesmuchthoughttothe“dragons“mentionedinScripture。Hesays：“Thedragonismostgreatestofallserpents，andoftheisdrawnoutofhisdenandrisethupintotheair，andtheairismovedbyhim，andalsotheseaswellethagainsthisvenom，andhehathacrest，andrearethhistongue，andhathteethlikeasaw，andhathstrength，andnotonlyinteethbutintail，andgrievethwithbitingandwithstinging。Whomhefindethheslayeth。Oftfourorfiveofthemfastentheirtailstogetherandrearuptheirheads，andsailovertheseatogetgoodmeat。Betweenelephantsanddragonsiseverlastingfighting；forthedragonwithhistailspanneththeelephant，andtheelephantwithhisnosethrowethdownthedragon……Thecausewhythedragondesirethhisbloodisthecoldnessthereof，bythewhichthedragondesirethtocoolhimself。Jeromesaiththatthedragonisafullthirstybeast，insomuchthatheopenethhismouthagainstthewindtoquenchtheburningofhisthirstinthatwise。Therefore，whenheseethshipsingreatwindhefliethagainstthesailtotakethecoldwind，andoverthroweththeship。”
TheseideasofFriarBartholomewspreadfarandstruckdeepintothepopularmind。HisbookwastranslatedintotheprincipallanguagesofEurope，andwasoneofthosemostgenerallyreadduringtheAgesofFaith。Itmaintaineditspositionnearlythreehundredyears；evenaftertheinventionofprintingithelditsown，andinthefifteenthcenturytherewereissuednolessthanteneditionsofitinLatin，fourinFrench，andvariousversionsofitinDutch，Spanish，andEnglish。PreachersfounditespeciallyusefulinillustratingthewaysofGodtoman。Itwasonlywhenthegreatvoyagesofdiscoverysubstitutedascertainedfactfortheologicalreasoninginthisprovincethatitsauthoritywasbroken。
ThesamesortofscienceflourishedintheBestiaries，whichwereusedeverywhere，andespeciallyinthepulpits，fortheedificationofthefaithful。Inallofthese，asinthatcompiledearlyinthethirteenthcenturybyanecclesiastic，WilliamofNormandy，wehavethislesson，borrowedfromthePhysiologus：“Thelionessgivethbirthtocubswhichremainthreedayswithoutlife。Thencomeththelion，breathethuponthem，andbringeththemtolife……ThusitisthatJesusChristduringthreedayswasdeprivedoflife，butGodtheFatherraisedhimgloriously。”
Pioususewasconstantlymadeofthisscience，especiallybymonkishpreachers。Thephoenixrisingfromhisashesprovesthedoctrineoftheresurrection；thestructureandmischiefofmonkeysprovestheexistenceofdemons；thefactthatcertainmonkeyshavenotailsprovesthatSatanhasbeenshornofhisglory；theweasel，which“constantlychangesitsplace，isatypeofthemanestrangedfromthewordofGod，whofindethnorest。”
Themoraltreatisesofthetimeoftentooktheformofworksonnaturalhistory，inorderthemorefullytoexploitthesereligiousteachingsofNature。ThusfromthebookOnBees，theDominicanThomasofCantimpre，welearnthat“waspspersecutebeesandmakewaronthemoutofnaturalhatred“；andthese，hetellsus，typifythedemonswhodwellintheairandwithlightningandtempestassailandvexmankind——whereuponhefillsalongchapterwithanecdotesofsuchdemonicwarfareonmortals。
Inlikemannerhisfellow-Dominican，theinquisitorNider，inhisbookTheAntHill，teachesusthattheantsinEthiopia，whicharesaidtohavehornsandtogrowsolargeastolooklikedogs，areemblemsofatrociousheretics，likeWyclifandtheHussites，whobarkandbiteagainstthetruth；whiletheantsofIndia，whichdigupgoldoutofthesandwiththeirfeetandhoardit，thoughtheymakenouseofit，symbolizethefruitlesstoilwithwhichthehereticsdigoutthegoldofHolyScriptureandhoarditintheirbookstonopurpose。
Thispiousspiritnotonlypervadedscience；itbloomedoutinart，andespeciallyinthecathedrals。Inthegargoylesoverhangingthewalls，inthegrotesquesclamberingaboutthetowersorpercheduponpinnacles，inthedragonsprowlingunderarchwaysorlurkinginbossesoffoliage，intheapocalypticbeastscarveduponthestallsofthechoir，stainedintothewindows，wroughtintothetapestries，illuminatedinthelettersandbordersofpsaltersandmissals，thesemarvelsofcreationsuggestedeverywheremoralsfromthePhysiologus，theBestiaries，andtheExempla。[14]