[245]ForElectorofSaxony，seePeuchen，Disp。circatempestates，Jena，1697。FortheProtestanttheoryofbells，see，e。g。，theCicionesSelectaeofSuperintendentConradDieterichcitedbyPeuchen，Disp。circatempestates。ForProtestantringingofbellstodispeltempests，seeSchwimmer，PhysicalischeLuftfragen，1692citedbyPeuchen，asabove。HepicturesthewholepopulationofaThuringiniandistrictflockingtothechurchesontheapproachofastorm。
[246]ForOlausMagnus，seetheDegentibusseptentrionalibusRome，1555，lib。i，c。12，13。ForDescartes，seehisDemeteor。，cent。2，127。InhisHistoriaVentorumheagainalludestothebelief，andwithoutcomment。
Butnosuchmoderatedoctrinesufficed，andtherenownedBishopBinsfeld，ofTreves，inhisnotedtreatiseonthecredibilityoftheconfessionsofwitches，gaveanentirechaptertotheeffectofbellsincalmingatmosphericdisturbances。BasinghisgeneraldoctrineuponthefirstchapterofJobandthesecondchapterofEphesians，heinsistedontherealityofdiabolicagencyinstorms；andthen，bytheologicalreasoning，corroboratedbythestatementsextortedinthetorturechamber，heshowedtheefficacyofbellsinputtingthehellishlegionstoflight。[247]
Thiscontinued，therefore，anacceptedtenet，developedineverynation，andcomingtoitsclimaxneartheendoftheseventeenthcentury。Atthatperiod——theperiodofIsaacNewton——FatherAugustinedeAngelis，rectoroftheClementineCollegeatRome，publishedunderthehighestChurchauthorityhislecturesuponmeteorology。ComingfromthecentreofCatholicChristendom，atsolateaperiod，theyareveryimportantasindicatingwhathadbeendevelopedundertheinfluenceoftheologyduringnearlyseventeenhundredyears。ThislearnedheadofagreatcollegeattheheartofChristendomtaughtthat“thesurestremedyagainstthunderisthatwhichourHolyMothertheChurchpractises，namely，theringingofbellswhenathunderboltimpends：thencefollowsatwofoldeffect，physicalandmoral——aphysical，becausethesoundvariouslydisturbsandagitatestheair，andbyagitationdispersesthehotexhalationsanddispelsthethunder；
butthemoraleffectisthemorecertain，becausebythesoundthefaithfularestirredtopourforththeirprayers，bywhichtheywinfromGodtheturningawayofthethunderbolt。”Hereweseeinthisbranchofthought，asinsomanyothers，atthecloseoftheseventeenthcentury，thedawnofrationalism。FatherDeAngelisnowkeepsdemoniacalinfluenceinthebackground。
Little，indeed，issaidoftheefficiencyofbellsinputtingtoflightthelegionsofSatan：thewiseprofessorisevidentlypreparingforthatinevitablecompromisewhichweseeinthehistoryofeverysciencewhenitisclearthatitcannolongerbesuppressedbyecclesiasticalfulminations。[248]
[247]SeeBinsfeld，DeConfessionbusMalef。，pp。308-314，editionof1623。
[248]ForDeAngelis，seehisLectionesMeteorol。，p。75。
III。THEAGENCYOFWITCHES。
But，whilethiscomparativelyharmlessdoctrineofthwartingthepowersoftheairbyfetichesandbell-ringingwasdeveloped，therewereevolvedanothertheory，andaseriesofpracticessanctionedbytheChurch，whichmustforeverbeconsideredasamongthemostfearfulcalamitiesinhumanhistory。Indeed，fewerrorshaveevercostsomuchsheddingofinnocentbloodoversuchwideterritoryandduringsomanygenerations。Outoftheolddoctrine——paganandChristian——ofevilagencyinatmosphericphenomenawasevolvedthebeliefthatcertainmen，women，andchildrenmaysecureinfernalaidtoproducewhirlwinds，hail，frosts，floods，andthelike。
Asearlyastheninthcenturyonegreatchurchman，Agobard，ArchbishopofLyons，struckaheavyblowatthissuperstition。
Hiswork，AgainsttheAbsurdOpinionoftheVulgartouchingHailandThunder，showshimtohavebeenoneofthemostdevotedapostlesofrightreasonwhomhumanhistoryhasknown。Byargumentandridicule，andattimesbyaloftyeloquence，heattemptedtobreastthistide。Onepassageisofhistoricalsignificance。Hedeclares：“Thewretchedworldliesnowunderthetyrannyoffoolishness；thingsarebelievedbyChristiansofsuchabsurdityasnooneevercouldaforetimeinducetheheathentobelieve。”[249]
[249]ForaveryinterestingstatementofAgobard’spositionandwork，withcitationsfromhisLibercontrainsulsamvulgiopinionemdegrandineettonitruis，seePoole，IllustrationsoftheHistoryofMediaevalThought，pp。40etseq。TheworksofAgobardareinvol。civofMigne’sPatrol。Lat。
Allinvain；thetideofsuperstitioncontinuedtorollon；
greattheologiansdevelopeditandecclesiasticsfavouredit；
untilasweneartheendofthemedievalperiodtheinfalliblevoiceofRomeisheardacceptingit，andclinchingthisbeliefintothemindofChristianity。For，in1437，PopeEugeneIV，byvirtueoftheteachingpowerconferredonhimbytheAlmighty，andunderthedivineguaranteeagainstanypossibleerrorintheexerciseofit，issuedabullexhortingtheinquisitorsofheresyandwitchcrafttousegreaterdiligenceagainstthehumanagentsofthePrinceofDarkness，andespeciallyagainstthosewhohavethepowertoproducebadweather。In1445PopeEugenereturnedagaintothecharge，andagainissuedinstructionsandcommandsinfalliblycommittingtheChurchtothedoctrine。ButagreaterthanEugenefollowed，andstampedtheideayetmoredeeplyintothemindoftheChurch。Onthe7thofDecember，1484，PopeInnocentVIIIsentforthhisbullSummisDesiderantes。OfalldocumentseverissuedfromRome，imperialorpapal，thishasdoubtless，firstandlast，costthegreatestsheddingofinnocentblood。Yetnodocumentwasevermoreclearlydictatedbyconscience。Inspiredbythescripturalcommand，“Thoushaltnotsufferawitchtolive。”PopeInnocentexhortedtheclergyofGermanytoleavenomeansuntriedtodetectsorcerers，andespeciallythosewhobyevilweatherdestroyvineyards，gardens，meadows，andgrowingcrops。ThesepreceptswerebaseduponvarioustextsofScripture，especiallyuponthefamousstatementinthebookofJob；and，tocarrythemout，witch-findinginquisitorswereauthorizedbythePopetoscourEurope，especiallyGermany，andamanualwaspreparedfortheiruse——theWitch-Hammer，MalleusMaleficarum。Inthismanual，whichwasreveredforcenturies，bothinCatholicandProtestantcountries，asalmostdivinelyinspired，thedoctrineofSatanicagencyinatmosphericphenomenawasfurtherdeveloped，andvariousmeansofdetectingandpunishingitweredweltupon。[250]
[250]ForthebullofPopeEugene，seeRaynaldus，AnnalesEccl。，pp。1437，1445。TheLatintextofthebullSummisDesiderantesmaynowbefoundintheMalleusMaleficarum，inBinsfeld’sDeConfessionibuscitedbelow，orinRoskoff’sGeschichtedesTeuflesLeipsic，1869，vol。i，pp。222-225。Thereis，sofarasIknow，nogoodanalysis，inanyEnglishbook，ofthecontentsoftheWitch-Hammer；butsuchmaybefoundinRoskoff’sGeschichtedesTeufels，orinSoldan’sGeschichtederHexenprozesse。Itsfirstdatededitionisthatof1489；butProf。Burrhasshownthatitwasprintedasearlyas1486。Itwas，happily，nevertranslatedintoanymoderntongue。
Withtheapplicationoftorturetothousandsofwomen，inaccordancewiththepreceptslaiddownintheMalleus，itwasnotdifficulttoextractmassesofproofforthissacredtheoryofmeteorology。Thepoorcreatures，writhingontherack，heldinhorrorbythosewhohadbeennearestanddearesttothem，anxiousonlyfordeathtorelievetheirsufferings，confessedtoanythingandeverythingthatwouldsatisfytheinquisitorsandjudges。Allthatwasneededwasthattheinquisitorsshouldaskleadingquestions[251]andsuggestsatisfactoryanswers：theprisoners，toshortenthetorture，weresuresoonerorlatertogivetheanswerrequired，eventhoughtheyknewthatthiswouldsendthemtothestakeorscaffold。Underthedoctrineof“exceptedcases。”therewasnolimittotortureforpersonsaccusedofheresyorwitchcraft；eventhesafeguardswhichtheoldpaganworldhadimposedupontorturewerethusthrowndown，andtheprisonerMUSTconfess。
[251]Forstillextantlistsofsuchquestions，seetheZeitschriftfurdeutscheCulturgeschichtefor1858，pp。522-528，orDiefenbach，DerHexenwahninDeutschland，pp。15-17。FatherVincentofBerginhisEnchiridiumgivesasimilarlistforusebypriestsintheconfessionoftheaccused。ManuscriptlistsofthissortwhichhaveactuallydoneserviceinthecourtsofBadenandBavariamaybeseeninthelibraryofCornellUniversity。
ThetheologicalliteratureoftheMiddleAgeswasthusenrichedwithnumberlessstatementsregardingmodesofSatanicinfluenceontheweather。Pathetic，indeed，aretherecords；andnonemoresothantheconfessionsofthesepoorcreatures，chieflywomenandchildren，duringhundredsofyears，astotheirmannerofraisinghailstormsandtempests。Suchconfessions，bytensofthousands，arestilltobefoundinthejudicialrecordsofGermany，andindeedofallEurope。Typicalamongtheseisoneonwhichgreatstresswaslaidduringages，andforwhichtheworldwasfirstindebtedtooneofthesepoorwomen。Crazedbytheagonyoftorture，shedeclaredthat，returningwithademonthroughtheairfromthewitches’sabbath，shewasdroppedupontheearthintheconfusionwhichresultedamongthehellishlegionswhentheyheardthebellssoundingtheAveMaria。Itissadtonotethat，afteracontributionsovaluabletosacredscience，thepoorwomanwascondemnedtotheflames。Thisrevelationspeedilyripenedthebeliefthat，whatevermightbegoingonatthewitches’sabbath——nomatterhowtriumphantSatanmightbe——atthemomentofsoundingtheconsecratedbellstheSatanicpowerwasparalyzed。Thistheoryoncestarted，proofscameintosupportit，duringahundredyears，fromthetorturechambersinallpartsofEurope。
ThroughoutthelaterMiddleAgestheDominicanshadbeenthemainagentsinextortingandpromulgatingtheserevelations，butinthecenturiesfollowingtheReformationtheJesuitsdevotedthemselveswithevenmorekeennessandvigourtothesametask。
Somecuriousquestionsincidentallyarose。Itwasmootedamongtheorthodoxauthoritieswhetherthedamagedonebystormsshouldorshouldnotbeassesseduponthepropertyofconvictedwitches。
Thetheologiansinclineddecidedlytotheaffirmative；thejurists，onthewhole，tothenegative。[252]
[252]ForproofsofthevigouroftheJesuitsinthispersecution，seenotonlythehistoriesofwitchcraft，butalsotheAnnuaelitteraeoftheJesuitsthemselves，passim。
Inspiteofthesetortures，lightningandtempestscontinued，andgreatmenaroseintheChurchthroughoutEuropeineverygenerationtopointoutnewcrueltiesforthediscoveryof“weather-makers。”andnewmethodsforbringingtheirmachinationstonaught。
Buthereandthere，asearlyasthesixteenthcentury，webegintoseethinkersendeavouringtomodifyoropposethesemethods。
AtthattimeParacelsuscalledattentiontothereverberationofcannonasexplainingtherollingofthunder，buthewasconfrontedbyoneofhisgreatestcontemporaries。JeanBodin，assuperstitiousinnaturalashewasrationalinpoliticalscience，madesportofthescientifictheory，anddeclaredthundertobe“aflamingexhalationsetinmotionbyevilspirits，andhurleddownwardwithagreatcrashandahorriblesmellofsulphur。”Insupportofthisview，hedweltupontheconfessionsoftorturedwitches，upontheacknowledgedagencyofdemonsintheWill-o’-the-wisp，andspeciallyuponthepassageintheonehundredandfourthPsalm，“Whomakethhisangelsspirits，hisministersaflamingfire。”
Toresistsuchpowerfulargumentsbysuchpowerfulmenwasdangerousindeed。In1513，Pomponatius，professoratPadua，publishedavolumeofDoubtsastotheFourthBookofAristotle’sMeteorologica，andalsodaredtoquestionthispowerofdevils；
buthesoonfounditadvisabletoexplainthat，whileasaPHILOSOPHERhemightdoubt，yetasaCHRISTIANheofcoursebelievedeverythingtaughtbyMotherChurch——devilsandall——andsoescapedthefateofseveralotherswhodaredtoquestiontheagencyofwitchesinatmosphericandotherdisturbances。
AfewyearslaterAgrippaofNettesheimmadeasomewhatsimilarefforttobreastthistheologicaltideinnorthernEurope。Hehadwonagreatreputationinvariousfields，butespeciallyinnaturalscience，assciencewasthenunderstood。Seeingthefollyandcrueltyoftheprevailingtheory，heattemptedtomodifyit，andin1518，asSyndicofMetz，endeavouredtosaveapoorwomanontrialforwitchcraft。Butthechiefinquisitor，backedbythesacredScriptures，thepapalbulls，thetheologicalfaculties，andthemonks，wastoostrongforhim；hewasnotonlyforcedtogiveuphisoffice，butforthisandotheroffencesofasimilarsortwasimprisoned，drivenfromcitytocityandfromcountrytocountry，andafterhisdeathhisclericalenemies，especiallytheDominicans，pursuedhismemorywithcalumny，andplacedoverhisgraveprobablythemostmalignantepitapheverwritten。