InalltheearliestdevelopmentsofhumanthoughtwefindastrongtendencytoascribemysteriouspowersoverNaturetomenandwomenespeciallygiftedorskilled。Survivalsofthisviewarefoundtothisdayamongsavagesandbarbariansleftbehindintheevolutionofcivilization，andespeciallyisthisthecaseamongthetribesofAustralia，Africa，andthePacificcoastofAmerica。Eveninthemostenlightenednationsstillappearpopularbeliefs，observances，orsayings，drawnfromthisearlierphaseofthought。
　　Betweentheprehistoricsavagedevelopingthistheory，andthereforeendeavouringtodealwiththepowersofNaturebymagic，andthemodernmanwhohasoutgrownit，appearsalonglineofnationsstrugglingupwardthroughit。Asthehieroglyphs，cuneiforminscriptions，andvariousotherrecordsofantiquityareread，thedevelopmentofthisbeliefcanbestudiedinEgypt，India，Babylonia，Assyria，Persia，andPhoenicia。FromthesecivilizationsitcameintotheearlythoughtofGreeceandRome，butespeciallyintotheJewishandChristiansacredbooks。
　　BothintheOldTestamentandintheNewwefindmagic，witchcraft，andsoothsayingconstantlyreferredtoasrealities。[266]
　　[266]Formagicinprehistorictimesandsurvivalsofitsince，withabundantcitationofauthorities，seeTylor，PrimitiveCulture，chap。iv；alsoTheEarlyHistoryofMankind，bythesameauthor，thirdedition，pp。115etseq。，alsop。380。；alsoAndrewLang，Myth，Ritual，andReligion，vol。i，chapiv。FormagicinEgypt，seeLenormant，ChaldeanMagic，chaps。vi-viii；alsoMaspero，HistoireAnciennedesPeuplesdel’Orient；alsoMasperoandSayce，TheDawnofCivilization，p。282，andforthethreatofmagicianstowreckheaven，seeibid，p。17，note，andespeciallythecitationsfromChabas，LePapyrusMagiqueHarris，inchap。vii；alsoMaury，LaMagieetl’Astrologiedansl’AntiquiteetauMoyenAge。FormagicinChaldea，seeLenormantasabove；alsoMasperoandSayce，pp。780etseq。ForexamplesofmagicalpowersinIndia，seeMaxMuller’sSacredBooksoftheEast，vol。xvi，pp。121etseq。ForalegendaryviewofmagicinMedia，seetheZendAvesta，parti，p。14，translatedbyDarmsteter；andforamorehighlydevelopedview，seetheZendAvesta，partiii，p。239，translatedbyMill。FormagicinGreeceandRome，andespeciallyintheNeoplatonicschool，aswellasintheMiddleAges，seeespeciallyMaury，LaMagieetl’Astrologie，chaps。iii-v。Forvarioussortsofmagicrecognisedandcondemnedinoursacredbooks，seeDeuteronomyxviii，10，11；andfortheburningofmagicalbooksatEphesusundertheinfluenceofSt。Paul，seeActsxix，14。SeealsoEwald，HistoryofIsrael，Martineau’stranslation，fourthedition，vol。iii，pp。45-51。Foraveryelaboratesummingupofthepassagesinoursacredbooksrecognizingmagicasafact，seeDeHaen，DeMagia，Leipsic，1775，chaps。i，ii，andiii，ofthefirstpart。Forthegeneralsubjectofmagic，seeEnnemoser，HistoryofMagic，translatedbyHowitt，which，however，constantlymixessorcerywithmagicproper。
　　ThefirstdistinctimpulsetowardahigherviewofresearchintonaturallawswasgivenbythephilosophersofGreece。Itistruethatphilosophicaloppositiontophysicalresearchwasattimesstrong，andthatevenagreatthinkerlikeSocratesconsideredcertainphysicalinvestigationsasanimpiousintrusionintotheworkofthegods。ItisalsotruethatPlatoandAristotle，whilebringingtheirthoughtstobearupontheworldwithgreatbeautyandforce，didmuchtodrawmankindawayfromthosemethodswhichinmoderntimeshaveproducedthebestresults。
　　Platodevelopedaworldinwhichthephysicalscienceshadlittleifanyrealreasonforexisting；Aristotle，aworldinwhichthesamesciencesweredevelopedlargelyindeedbyobservationofwhatis，butstillmorebyspeculationonwhatoughttobe。FromtheformerofthesetwogreatmencameintoChristiantheologymanygermsofmedievalmagic，andfromthelattersundrymodesofreasoningwhichaidedintheevolutionofthese；yettheimpulsetohumanthoughtgivenbythesegreatmasterswasofinestimablevaluetoourrace，andonelegacyfromthemwasespeciallyprecious——theideathatascienceofNatureispossible，andthatthehighestoccupationofmanisthediscoveryofitslaws。
　　Stillanothergiftfromthemwasgreatestofall，fortheygavescientificfreedom。Theylaidnointerdictuponnewpaths；theyinterposednobarrierstotheextensionofknowledge；theythreatenednodoominthislifeorinthenextagainstinvestigatorsonnewlines；theylefttheworldfreetoseekanynewmethodsandtofollowanynewpathswhichthinkingmencouldfind。
　　Thislegacyofbeliefinscience，ofrespectforscientificpursuits，andoffreedominscientificresearch，wasespeciallyreceivedbytheschoolofAlexandria，andaboveallbyArchimedes，whobegan，justbeforetheChristianera，toopennewpathsthroughthegreatfieldoftheinductivesciencesbyobservation，comparison，andexperiment。[267]
　　[267]AstothebeginningsofphysicalscienceinGreece，andofthetheologicaloppositiontophysicalscience，alsoSocrates’sviewregardingcertainbranchesasinterdictedtohumanstudy，seeGrote’sHistoryofGreece，vol。i，pp。495and504，505；alsoJowett’sintroductiontohistranslationoftheTimaeus，andWhewell’sHistoryoftheInductiveSciences。ForexamplesshowingtheincompatibilityofPlato’smethodsinphysicalsciencewiththatpursuedinmoderntimes，seeZeller，PlatoandtheOlderAcademy，EnglishtranslationbyAlleyneandGoodwin，pp。375et。seq。ThesupposedoppositiontofreedomofopinionintheLawsofPlato，towardtheendofhislife，canhardlymakeagainstthewholespiritofGreekthought。
　　TheestablishmentofChristianity，beginninganewevolutionoftheology，arrestedthenormaldevelopmentofthephysicalsciencesforoverfifteenhundredyears。Thecauseofthisarrestwastwofold：First，therewascreatedanatmosphereinwhichthegermsofphysicalsciencecouldhardlygrow——anatmosphereinwhichallseekinginNaturefortruthastruthwasregardedasfutile。ThegeneralbeliefderivedfromtheNewTestamentScriptureswas，thattheendoftheworldwasathand；
　　thatthelastjudgmentwasapproaching；thatallexistingphysicalnaturewassoontobedestroyed：hence，thegreatestthinkersintheChurchgenerallypouredcontemptuponallinvestigatorsintoascienceofNature，andinsistedthateverythingexceptthesavingofsoulswasfolly。
　　ThisbeliefappearsfrequentlythroughtheentireperiodoftheMiddleAges；butduringthefirstthousandyearsitisclearlydominant。FromLactantiusandEusebius，inthethirdcentury，pouringcontempt，aswehaveseen，overstudiesinastronomy，toPeterDamian，thenotedchancellorofPopeGregoryVII，intheeleventhcentury，declaringallworldlysciencestobe“absurdities“and“fooleries。”itbecomesaveryimportantelementintheatmosphereofthought。[268]
　　[268]FortheviewofPeterDamianandothersthroughtheMiddleAgesastothefutilityofscientificinvestigation，seecitationsinEicken，GeschichteundSystemdermittelalterlichenWeltanschauung，chap。vi。
　　Then，too，therewasestablishedastandardtowhichallsciencewhichdidstruggleupthroughthisatmospheremustbemadetoconform——astandardwhichfavouredmagicratherthanscience，foritwasastandardofrigiddogmatismobtainedfromliteralreadingsintheJewishandChristianScriptures。Themostcarefulinductionsfromascertainedfactswereregardedaswretchedlyfalliblewhencomparedwithanyviewofnaturewhatevergivenorevenhintedatinanypoem，chronicle，code，apologue，myth，legend，allegory，letter，ordiscourseofanysortwhichhadhappenedtobepreservedintheliteraturewhichhadcometobeheldassacred。
　　Fortwelvecenturies，then，thephysicalscienceswerethusdiscouragedorpervertedbythedominantorthodoxy。Whoeverstudiednaturestudiediteitheropenlytofindillustrationsofthesacredtext，usefulinthe“savingofsouls。”orsecretlytogaintheaidofoccultpowers，usefulinsecuringpersonaladvantage。GreatmenlikeBede，IsidoreofSeville，andRabanusMaurus，acceptedthescripturalstandardofscienceanduseditasameansofChristianedification。TheviewsofBedeandIsidoreonkindredsubjectshavebeenshowninformerchapters；
　　andtypicaloftheviewtakenbyRabanusisthefactthatinhisgreatworkontheUniversethereareonlytwochapterswhichseemdirectlyorindirectlytorecogniseeventhebeginningsofarealphilosophyofnature。Amultitudeofless-knownmenfoundwarrantinScriptureformagicappliedtolessworthypurposes。[269]
　　[269]Astypicalexamples，seeutterancesofEusibiusandLactantiusregardingastronomersgiveninthechapteronAstronomy。ForasummaryofRabanusMaurus’sdoctrineofphysics，seeHeller，GeschichtederPhysik，vol。i，pp。172etseq。ForBedeandIsidore，seetheearlierchaptersofthiswork。ForanexcellentstatementregardingtheapplicationofscripturalstandardstoscientificresearchintheMiddleAges，seeKretschemr，DiephysischeErdkundeimchristlichenMittelalter，pp。5etseq。ForthedistinctionsinmagicrecognisedinthemediaevalChurch，seethelongcatalogueofvarioussortsgivenintheAbbeMigne’sEncyclopedieTheologique，thirdseries，articleMagic。
　　ButafterthethousandyearshadpassedtowhichvariousthinkersintheChurch，uponsupposedscripturalwarrant，hadlengthenedoutthetermoftheearth’sexistence，“theendofallthings“
　　seemedfurtheroffthanever；andinthetwelfthandthirteenthcenturies，owingtocauseswhichneednotbedweltuponhere，cameagreatrevivalofthought，sothattheforcesoftheologyandofscienceseemedarrayedforacontest。Ononesidecamearevivalofreligiousfervour，andtothisdaytheworksofthecathedralbuildersmarkitsdepthandstrength；ontheothersidecameanewspiritofinquiryincarnateinalineofpowerfulthinkers。
　　FirstamongthesewasAlbertofBollstadt，betterknownasAlberttheGreat，themostrenownedscholarofhistime。FetteredthoughhewasbythemethodssanctionedintheChurch，darkaswasallabouthim，hehadconceivedbettermethodsandaims；hiseyepiercedthemistsofscholasticism。hesawthelight，andsoughttodrawtheworldtowardit。Hestandsamongthegreatpioneersofphysicalandnaturalscience；heaidedingivingfoundationstobotanyandchemistry；heroseabovehistime，andstruckaheavyblowatthosewhoopposedthepossibilityofhumanlifeonoppositesidesoftheearth；henotedtheinfluenceofmountains，seas，andforestsuponracesandproducts，sothatHumboldtjustlyfindsinhisworksthegermsofphysicalgeographyasacomprehensivescience。
　　Buttheoldsystemofdeducingscientifictruthfromscripturaltextswasrenewedinthedevelopmentofscholastictheology，andecclesiasticalpower，actingthroughthousandsofsubtlechannels，wasmadetoaidthisdevelopment。Theoldideaofthefutilityofphysicalscienceandofthevastsuperiorityoftheologywasrevived。ThoughAlbert’smaineffortwastoChristianizescience，hewasdealtwithbytheauthoritiesoftheDominicanorder，subjectedtosuspicionandindignity，andonlyescapedpersecutionforsorcerybyyieldingtotheecclesiasticalspiritofthetime，andworkingfinallyintheologicalchannelsby，scholasticmethods。
　　Itwasavastlosstotheearth；andcertainly，ofallorganizationsthathavereasontolamentthepressureofecclesiasticismwhichturnedAlberttheGreatfromnaturalphilosophytotheology，foremostofallinregretshouldbetheChristianChurch，andespeciallytheRomanbranchofit。HadtherebeenevolvedintheChurchduringthethirteenthcenturyafaithstrongenoughtoacceptthetruthsinnaturalsciencewhichAlbertandhiscompeerscouldhavegiven，andtohaveencouragedtheirgrowth，thisfaithandthisencouragementwouldtothisdayhaveformedthegreatestargumentforprovingtheChurchdirectlyunderDivineguidance；theywouldhavebeenamongthebrightestjewelsinhercrown。ThelosstotheChurchbythiswantoffaithandcouragehasprovedinthelongrunevengreaterthanthelosstoscience。[270]
　　[270]ForaverycarefuldiscussionofAlbert’sstrengthininvestigationandweaknessinyieldingtoscholasticauthority，seeKopp，AnsichtenuberdieAufgabederChemievonGeberbisStahl，Braunschweig，1875，pp。64etseq。Foraveryextendedandenthusiasticbiographicalsketch，seePouchet。ForcomparisonofhisworkwiththatofThomasAquinas，seeMilman，HistoryofLatinChristianity，vol。vi，p。461。”Iletataussitres-habiledanslesartsmecaniques，cequelefitsoupconnerd’etresorcier“Sprengel，HistoiredelaMedecine，vol。ii，p。
　　389。ForAlbert’sbiographytreatedstrictlyinaccordancewithecclesiasticalmethods，seeAlberttheGreat，byJoachimSighart，translatedbytheRev。T。A。Dickson，oftheOrderofPreachers，publishedunderthesanctionoftheDominicancensorandoftheCardinalArchbishopofWestminster，London，1876。HowanEnglishmanlikeCardinalManningcouldtolerateamongEnglishmensuchglossingoverofhistoricaltruthisoneofthewondersofcontemporaryhistory。Forchoicespecimens，seechaptersii，andiv。Foroneofthebestandmostrecentsummaries，seeHeller，GeschichtederPhysik，Stuttgart，1882，vol。i，pp。179etseq。